Japanese foreign policy

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Countries that have embassies from Japan
Countries that have embassies in Japan

The foreign policy of Japan has changed dramatically after the Second World War.

International alliances and treaties

Japan joined the United Nations in 1956, and in 1975 Japan became a founding member of today's G8 .

Following the experience of the atomic bombs being dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki , the country has been very active in opposition to the military use of atomic energy , a position that was enshrined in the three non-nuclear principles in the 1970s .

According to the constitution , Japan stayed out of all international armed conflicts for a long time and instead promoted a multilateral trade policy based on free trade and pursued checkbook diplomacy similar to Germany . Japan has the second largest development aid budget in the world after the US . In January 2004, however, the cabinet decided (on the basis of an Iraq reconstruction law passed by parliament in 2003 ) for the first time since 1945 to send Japanese soldiers to a foreign country outside of a UN mission, namely to Iraq . While Prime Minister Jun'ichirō Koizumi sees this as proof of the close friendly relations with the USA , many Japanese see this as a breach of the constitution.

International treaties

From a purely statistical point of view, Japan had signed more than 1,600 multi- or bilateral treaties by the year 2000, which is very little compared to other industrialized countries. When it comes to recognizing international treaties, Japan's political considerations and interdependencies between the signatory states often play a role.

Japan and the UN

Since Japan is not a major military power, work in international organizations such as the UN is an important tool in Japanese foreign policy. However, Japan has not always been an active and respected member since joining the United Nations, but for a long time saw itself only as a quiet bystander and only developed its current position over time.

Japan has long been accused of being an “economic giant and political dwarf”, particularly because of its strong focus on monetary support from the UN and its poor operational support. Only after hesitant cooperation in the UN after 1980 did the country break out of this image.

Today Japan is one of the most important members of the UN, financially and politically. A special feature is that Japan has already been elected as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council nine times ; more often than almost any other country (only Brazil was also elected nine times).

Historical overview

Japan had belonged to the League of Nations since 1920 and was one of the founding members. After the First World War , Japan was one of the victorious powers and felt recognized internationally, especially in Asia. In addition to France, Great Britain and Italy, Japan was a permanent member of the League of Nations . It also sent judges to the International Court of Justice and became a council member of the International Labor Organization ( ILO) . After Japanese aggression against China, the puppet state of Manchukuo established there was not recognized by the League of Nations and, after an investigation by the Lytton Mission, condemned in a resolution on February 24, 1933 as an illegal act (42 votes in favor, one against by Japan, one abstention of Thailand). Japan then withdrew its delegation and left the League of Nations on March 27, 1933.

After the Second World War , Japan (analogous to Germany) was considered an enemy state and therefore could not join the UN.

The way to UN membership

Japan signed the San Francisco Peace Treaty in April 1952, and on that occasion declared its will to join the UN. In June of the same year, the membership application was finally submitted by Japan, but the Soviet Union vetoed membership, fearing that Japan would be under the influence of the United States. In 1955, Japan repeated the request, which was again rejected by the Soviet Union, although all other members of the Security Council agreed. The reason given by the Soviet Union was that Japan had actively supported Hitler in World War II and was also involved in acts of war with China and the states of Southeast Asia . Doubts about the country's pacifism would therefore be appropriate. The background to the Soviet veto, however, was probably also the Cold War , which is why many membership applications failed at the time.

According to a resolution of the General Assembly of the United Nations, however, Japan was declared a peace-loving state as early as 1952, which is able and willing to carry out the obligations of the UN Charter and is therefore suitable as a member. Finally, the Soviet Union agreed to membership of Japan on October 19, 1956, so that the country became the 80th member of the UN on December 18, 1956.

From Japan's point of view, the main reason for joining was the desire for security in an international environment. Japan particularly hoped that the UN would focus on the disarmament of weapons of mass destruction , since it had previously been the victim of two atomic bombs.

The country also saw itself within the UN as a bridge between east and west. In general, however, the view of the UN from a Japanese perspective was very idealized, as Japan had high expectations of the UN. After accession, Japanese foreign policy focused on three pillars:

  1. Centrality of the UN
  2. Cooperation with the economically strong west
  3. Emphasis on Japanese identity as an Asian nation

Even before joining, Japan was a member of international organizations:

The passive phase of Japan

After joining the United Nations, Japan initially played a more passive role, characterized by restraint and close ties to the USA. In addition, the country was very busy with its own economic development, so that political issues were approached only hesitantly.

However, Japan's high expectations of the UN's ability to act in security matters were disappointed, so that Japan leaned more and more towards the USA in terms of security policy. In doing so, it became a reliable partner of the Western bloc within the UN. However, Japan often abstained from voting in order not to alienate potential trading partners.

However, Japan was strongly represented when it came to lobbying for resolutions of the General Assembly in favor of South Korea against communist North Korea. Japan often acted alongside the United States against communism . However, it failed in the attempt to get Taiwan membership together with Australia and the USA, although the seat had gone to the People's Republic of China. The close proximity to the USA is also evident from the high level of conformity in voting behavior in the General Assembly: up to the beginning of the 1970s, Japan's voting behavior was 80% identical to that of the USA.

The above three pillars continued to apply to Japanese foreign policy, but the centrality of the UN in favor of cooperation with the West lost more and more weight during the 1950s and early 1960s. Under certain circumstances, the centrality of the UN was only a cover for the actually missing profile of Japanese foreign policy. The more formulated and specific the foreign policy became, the more superfluous the emphasis on UN centrality became. However, this is controversial.

During this phase, too, Japan became a member of other UN specialized agencies:

During the 1958–1959 and 1966–1967 terms of office, Japan was elected a non-permanent member of the Security Council.

From 1960 to 1965 and 1968 to 1970, Japan also became a member of the United Nations Economic and Social Council .

In addition, Japan placed Tanaka Kōtarō as a judge at the International Court of Justice in The Hague between 1961 and 1970 .

The country's financial contribution has grown from 2% to 4% since membership began.

The special 1970s

The early 1970s were marked by the entry wave of the states of Africa and Asia that had recently gained independence . The position of the USA within the UN was weakened as a result, which is why Japan's orientation towards the West had to be re-coordinated. Japan retained a western orientation, but also moved closer to the position of the developing countries (for example with regard to problems in the Middle East ).

The 1973 oil shock made it clear to Japan that the country is dependent on raw materials. As a result, Japan began to actively establish bilateral relations with raw material producing countries and supported the supplying developing countries. Oil producers in the Middle East were also financially supported.

In addition, there was Japan's commitment to a peaceful solution to the Middle East conflict, for example by supporting the UN resolution inviting the Palestinian Authority to the UN General Assembly or the resolution recognizing the Palestinians' right to self-determination. Japan also spoke out against the apartheid regime in South Africa.

In general, Japan tried during the 1970s to establish relations with all of its important states through the UN and did not ignore the demands of developing countries for social justice.

If one looks at the voting behavior of Japan in the UN General Assembly, it is noticeable that Japan distanced itself somewhat from the USA. With the return of Okinawa in 1972, Japan gained a bit of independence from the USA.

In the 1970s, Japan joined other international organizations:

During the 1971–1972 and 1975–1976 terms of office, Japan was elected a non-permanent member of the Security Council. In 1978 it was defeated in the attempted re-election in Bangladesh.

For the UNRWA (UNRWA) Japan made substantial financial contributions and was finally to 1981 the largest contributor. The Palestinian Authority also received financial support. The financial contribution made Japan the third largest contributor to the UN in 1974.

In 1975 the United Nations University was opened in Tokyo.

Since 1976, Oda Shigeru has been a judge at the International Court of Justice .

Japan was also one of the initiators of the G7 summit talks in 1975.

The financial contributions made Japan the third largest contributor to the UN in 1974. The contribution increased to 9%.

Start of active participation

Since the mid-1980s, Japan has increased its activities within the UN significantly, which ultimately led Japan to want a permanent seat on the Security Council. The Reagan era had begun in the USA in the 1980s and the UNO pursued a policy of non-cooperation, which is why Japan continued to look for its own direction. By the end of the 1980s, the consensus in US-Japanese voting behavior in the UN General Assembly had sunk to 25%.

The aim of Japanese foreign policy was now the development of a free, prosperous and democratic society in so-called "international harmony". Japan therefore increasingly advocated peacekeeping and disarmament and often voted against the USA. For example in 1984 during the disarmament conference in Stockholm for a nuclear test stop or against an arms race in space, when the USA developed appropriate weapons (see Strategic Defense Initiative ).

Japan continued to be very involved in the Cambodia conflict and, together with other states, introduced a number of resolutions to resolve the conflict. In 1980 it took part in the International Cambodia Conference and in June 1990 invited the four conflicting parties to talks in Tokyo in order to sign a ceasefire drawn up with Thailand. Through the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees , the World Food Organization and the UN Children's Fund , Japan was also the main donor of refugee aid for Indochina refugees.

In 1987/1988, Japan contributed to the solution of the Iraq-Iran war through its work in the Security Council .

Since the Reagan administration was no longer able to assert its interests in the UN, it cut back its financial contributions, which added weight to the continued rise in Japan’s contributions. The country was now the second largest donor to the UN anyway. In its role of greater responsibility, Japan also played a key role in the 1985 reform of the UN.

Also significant during the 1980s were:

Japan has been the second largest contributor to the UN since 1986. The contribution to the UN budget is now over 11%.

After the end of the Cold War

After the end of the Cold War it was Japan's declared goal to lead an independent foreign policy and to take a more active and important role within the UN. The decisive factor for this was the Gulf War of 1990/91. Japan only participated indirectly in the war, contributing $ 13 billion in financial aid, which is why it was faced with allegations of checkbook diplomacy . As a result, Japan created the so-called PKO law, which made it possible for the Japanese self-defense forces to be deployed on UN peacekeeping missions.

In the course of the newly assumed international responsibility, the department responsible for the UN within the Japanese Foreign Ministry was restructured and a center for the recruitment and training of personnel for work in international organizations was created.

Other changes in the post Cold War era include:

The contribution to the UN budget rose from 11% (1990) to 19.984% (1999). Japan is also one of the largest donor countries in other UN humanitarian operations. Japan's focus here is particularly on supporting UN famine relief for Africa.

UN organs in Japan

Since Japan is not one of the founding members of the UN, it was not taken into account when the seats of the UN subsidiary bodies were allocated. It was therefore a great gain in prestige when the UN University was established in Tokyo in 1975. However, in order to maintain coordination with the Japanese government, many UN organs have opened an office or branch in Japan. The clear presence of the branches also reflects the financial importance of Japan.

Subsidiary organs of the UN based in Japan:

UN branches

"International Peace Cooperation Law"

The Peacekeeping Law passed in 1992 (full name: 国際 連 合 平和 維持 活動 等 に 対 す る 協力 に 関 す る 法律, kokusairengō heiwa iji katsudō tō ni tai suru kyōryoku ni kan suru hōritsu) allows Japan to deploy armed forces to conflicting forces despite obstacles in the constitution.

prehistory

As early as the 1950s and 1960s, the UN had requested the deployment of armed forces in Japan several times: in 1958 in Lebanon and in 1960 in the Congo. Both missions were refused because Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution does not permit the deployment of armed forces.

After Takeshita Noboru became Japanese Prime Minister in 1987 , he wanted Japan to play a more responsible role internationally, which is why he expanded Japan's scope of action with the “International Cooperation Initiative” in 1988. The Japanese Foreign Ministry then sent an employee to Afghanistan and Pakistan to the UN Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan ( UNGOMAP ) and another employee to the border between Iran and Iraq for the UNIIMOG mission. The first major posting of personnel took place in 1989 with the deployment of 31 employees in Namibia ( UNTAG ). Japan also participated in the ONUVEN and ONUVEH missions in Nicaragua and Haiti. However, soldiers were not sent to any of the missions. The posting was restricted to civilians.

Although Japan had given $ 13 billion to the coalition forces of the Gulf War 1990–1991, the country was sharply criticized for having done too little and acted too late. When a one-page thank-you note from Kuwait was published in the New York Times and the Washington Post after the war ended , Japan was not on the thank-you list. Due to the international criticism of its "checkbook diplomacy", Japan saw itself under pressure to change the existing legal situation and allow the deployment of armed forces.

content

However, concerns about Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution stood in the way of the passage of the Peacekeeping Act. As early as 1980, the government had declared that Japanese armed forces would not be able to participate in UN missions if they included the use of weapons. After internal political debates about the law since 1990, a version was passed in June 1992, which, however, was severely restricted compared to the original drafts. The deployed armed forces should therefore only be able to be used in rear-area support and logistics. Furthermore, the parliament has to give its consent if the soldiers are to be sent into armed conflicts with small arms. The opposition parties also called for the possibility of an immediate withdrawal if the soldiers were exposed to dangerous situations.

A total of five conditions for deployment under the Peacekeeping Act must be met in order for deployment to be in accordance with Article 9 of the Constitution:

  1. The conflicting parties must agree to a ceasefire and comply with it.
  2. The conflicting parties must separately agree to the deployment themselves and the deployment of Japanese forces.
  3. The peace operation must be strictly impartial and neutral.
  4. Japan can cancel the mission if the first three conditions are no longer met after the start of the mission.
  5. Guns may only be used to defend Japanese personnel in the immediate vicinity. Japanese soldiers cannot be ordered to use weapons.

In the field, however, these conditions have led to dangerous situations, so that the effectiveness of Japanese peacekeeping operations has been called into question.

Possible missions under the Peacekeeping Act:

  • Election observation
  • Bureaucratic assistance and instruction
  • Police administration
  • Medical supplies
  • Transport tasks
  • Construction and construction tasks
  • Rescue missions
  • Repatriation of war refugees

Operations such as:

  • Monitoring a ceasefire
  • Monitoring of demilitarized zones
  • Gun controls
  • Interfering in border conflicts
  • Help with the exchange of prisoners of war

Operations under the Peacekeeping Act

Furthermore, Japanese forces were sent to the following countries to observe elections: Angola, El Salvador, South Africa, Palestine, Romania and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Limits of the Peacekeeping Act

As a result of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 , the armed forces under Prime Minister Koizumi were supposed to take an active role in the military operation in Afghanistan ( Enduring Freedom ). However, the government found it difficult to deploy under the existing laws as there was no UN mandate. The Japanese-American security treaty also only referred to conflicts in “areas close to Japan”. So a new law had to be passed.

Also, the armed forces could not be sent into the Iraq war at first. It was only when the US army announced Saddam Hussein's regime change after a month of war that Japan sent its troops (400 soldiers) to the coalition of the willing .

So both operations were not carried out under the Peacekeeping Act. The Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Act was created for them. At the same time, the laws of the Japanese Coast Guard were changed, which now has the ability to use weapons against suspicious ships that have invaded Japanese territorial waters.

Relationship with the USA

After the Second World War , Japan was on the losing side, but was quickly integrated into its own alliance system by the USA as an outpost in East Asia against China and Russia. To this day, Japan has close ties to the former enemy. The US has added Japan to its list of key allies outside of NATO . This category privileges Japan even over NATO members in US foreign policy .

Since Japan became the second largest industrial nation in the 1970s, there have also been trade conflicts with the USA.

Asian neighbors

Japan has territorial disputes with almost all countries in the vicinity, which strain relations with these countries. Relations with many Asian states, especially North Korea , South Korea and the People's Republic of China , are still tense because of the imperialist past in Japan, which they have not dealt with adequately. However, the close economic ties and the global interest in peace in the region make armed conflicts unlikely. Instead, political crises flare up again and again. The reason for this is provided by Japanese textbooks, in which Japan's war crimes are downplayed, and regular visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine , where war criminals and Japanese soldiers of Korean descent are worshiped. On the other hand, the countries of Southeast Asia see Japan as the opposite pole to the strengthening People's Republic and try to evade the influence of the People's Republic through close, especially economic ties to Japan. These countries are also trying to integrate Japan into the ASEAN alliance.

North Korea

As a former colonial power, Japan is still the main enemy in North Korea. In the 1970s, the North Korean government kidnapped Japanese citizens in order to train them as spies. In addition, North Korea has fired medium-range missiles over Japan several times. As a result, Japan was hardest hit when the Kim Jong Il government announced in February 2005 that North Korea had nuclear warheads. Japan is part of the Six-Party-Talks, with which North Korea is to be dissuaded from its nuclear ambitions.

South Korea

The small island group Takeshima ( kor . : Dokdo) is administered by South Korea and claimed by Japan. The island itself is only home to a garrison of South Korean police officers, but there are rich fishing grounds within its 200-mile zone. In addition to the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People's Republic of China, Japan has ownership claims to the Senkaku Islands ( Chinese : Diaoyu). Natural gas is suspected to be in the vicinity of the islands .

Republic of China

Japan has good relations with the Republic of China, even if there are no official diplomatic relations, so as not to conflict with the People's Republic of China's one -China policy . Japan exploited the island as a sugar supplier during the colonial period on Taiwan , tried to "Japaneseize" the island and set up internment camps for opponents, but at the same time promoted modernization. At the beginning of the 1970s, when the guaranteeing power USA turned more towards mainland China and the PR China took Taiwan's place in the UN, a close relationship with the former colonial power became a guarantee of survival for the otherwise internationally isolated Taiwan. In 2005, Taiwan was included in the defense alliance between the US and Japan; a novelty, since Japan had previously remained neutral on this issue.

Europe

The relationship between Japan and the countries of the European Union is primarily characterized by intensive economic contacts. All of the major Japanese conglomerates of keiretsu have branches in Europe, especially in London , Brussels and Düsseldorf . Japanese companies, especially in the auto industry, also operate factories in European countries, especially the UK , to circumvent EU import regulations.

Soviet Union / Russia

The southern Kuril Islands north of Japan have belonged to the Soviet Union since 1945 and to the successor state Russia from 1990 , but are claimed by Japan. This conflict is an ongoing problem in Japanese-Russian relations, and there is still no peace treaty . Japan would benefit from good relations with Russia in order to reduce its dependence on Arab oil . In 2004 Russia decided instead of an oil pipeline to China, despite the lack of a peace treaty with Japan, for an alternative route to Nakhodka on the Sea of ​​Japan, from where oil is to be exported mainly to Japan and South Korea . It was not until 2007 that Russia and the People's Republic agreed to branch off to China. The construction time for the pipeline is almost a decade; Russia repeatedly plays off the two pipeline routes against each other in order to obtain the greatest possible concessions from both interested parties. In return for the construction of the Nakhodka pipeline and for oil and natural gas production on Sakhalin, Japan has pledged financial aid and development projects for the Far East of Russia.

Relations with Germany

Japan made during the Second World War, an alliance with Germany and belonged to the so-called axis ( Axis ).

Relations with Portugal

Portugal was the first country in Europe to have contact with Japan (landing on September 23, 1543 in Tanegashima ). The country then influenced the further development of Japan through the introduction of firearms, the integration of the country in global trade and through diverse cultural exchanges.

Today, Portuguese is considered the most widely used Western language in Japan. The country has had observer status in the Community of Portuguese-speaking Countries since 2014 .

Relations with Turkey

Relations between Japan and the Ottoman Empire , later Turkey, only developed slowly after the opening of Japan in 1868 and are currently primarily of economic importance. Japan has a consulate in Istanbul and an embassy in Ankara , and Turkey has an embassy in Tokyo. There are currently around 10,000 Turks living in Japan.

middle East

The Arab countries are important economic partners for Japan, which does not have its own oil reserves and obtains its oil imports almost exclusively from the countries of the Middle East .

Africa

From a strategic point of view, Africa is becoming increasingly important for Japan: As with relations with the Middle East, securing resources plays an important role. The African share of Japanese foreign trade is still relatively small, but it is growing continuously.

Over the past few years, Japan has expanded its development aid commitment in Africa, and in 2006 financial aid accounted for 34.2% of the Japanese Official Development Assistance - the largest item by region. The expansion of the relationship is limited by the strong commitment of the People's Republic of China .

See also

about history

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Member States. UN, accessed June 23, 2017 .
  2. ↑ What is the G8? ( Memento from July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Website of the Federal Government, accessed on June 23, 2017
  3. ↑ Chronology ( Memento of October 4, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) UNOG website, PDF page 3, accessed on June 23, 2017
  4. ↑ a b c d Gaimushō (Japanese Foreign Ministry, 1957-2002), Gaikō seisho (The Diplomatic Blue Book), Volumes 1-46, Tokyo: self-published
  5. ^ Japanese troops say Good Bye forever. January 14, 2013, accessed December 18, 2018 .
  6. ^ New York Times, April 21, 2004: Russia to Run 2,500-Mile Oil Pipeline In East Asia
  7. ↑ Russia to begin China oil pipeline in 2008 - minister ( Memento of May 30, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) AFX News Limited, accessed on June 23, 2017
  8. ↑ BBC News, March 21, 2006: Russia keeps China energy options open
  9. ^ New York Times, June 30, 2004: Gas and Oil Bring Japanese Money to Russia's Far East
  10. ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs: ODA White Paper 2007
  11. ↑ Burgschweiger: Japan's Engagement in Africa: Turning Point 2008? ( Memento from January 30, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 504 kB) GIGA Focus Global , No. 9 2008, Hamburg