Skydiving

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Parachutist with Russian flag
Newsreel from 1931. Demonstration of parachuting.
A parachutist right after the jump with a pull-up line
Skydiving (video)

Parachuting refers to the entirety of the actions from jumping off, falling or free fall to landing a person from an elevated position (usually from an aircraft) using a parachute . The parachute brakes the fall at the time of landing to an acceptable rate of descent. The English term skydiving is also used for skydiving as an air sport . In some cases, the parachute is only used for injury-free landing when skydiving.

The parachute can be deployed either immediately when jumping as an automatic parachute jump from low heights with round canopies or at high heights with parachute canopies as well as manually at a later point in time during the free fall jump. The minimum height for the opening process is 400 m. Usually the opening takes place at a height of 800 m to 700 m. Paragliders sink at 100% forward travel (which can be more than 60 km / h) with about 5 m / s (18 km / h), the impact on the ground (without the horizontal component) corresponds to a jump from 1.25 m height. Round canopy parachutes have a constant sink rate of 3.5 to 5 m / s, depending on the canopy size and jumper weight.

The parachute jump is also used to rescue aircraft crews in distress, sometimes using an ejector seat .

From a military point of view, the parachute jump is a type of movement of the paratrooper troops and the special forces of the army ( special forces command ) as well as those in other branches of the armed forces such as the naval combat swimmers - there either in an automatic jump or as a military freefall (MFF).

history

Drawing of the parachute invented by Garnerin , with which his wife Jeanne Labrosse jumped in 1799

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) drew a drawing of a pyramid- shaped parachute made of linen and wood in 1483 . A test of this pattern in 2000 showed that the parachute not only works, but also flies more gently than modern parachutes, but is problematic to handle when touching down without steering due to its weight of 90 kilograms .

A widespread modern legend has it that the from the time the Republic of Venice belonging Sibenik ( ital. Sebenico ; today's Croatia ) originating diplomat and polymath Fausto Veranzio ( štokav. Faust Vrančić ; 1551-1617) have been the first man to a parachute not only invented, but also successfully built it and finally tried it out personally in 1617 at the age of 65, shortly before his death. The work Mathematical Magick by John Wilkins , published in London in 1648, does not deal with parachutes, nor does Faust Vrančić mention it, nor any event from 1617. So far there is no evidence that Vrančić's parachute ever exists was actually tested.

The Frenchman Louis-Sébastien Lenormand jumped in 1783 in Montpellier with a self-constructed parachute from the tower of the local observatory and landed unscathed. This event is therefore considered to be the official beginning of modern skydiving and the history of the development of the parachute.

On October 3, 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard parachuted his dog in Frankfurt-Bornheim and a mutton from a gas balloon in Hamburg on August 23, 1786 .

The French André-Jacques Garnerin (1769–1823) jumped over Paris on October 22, 1797 from a hydrogen- filled balloon flying about 400 meters high .

The German aerial acrobat Käthe Paulus (1868–1935) is considered to be one of the first female parachutists . She was also the first German professional air skipper and inventor of the collapsible parachute.

Manually deployed parachutes were only common as rescue parachutes for pilots until the end of World War II ; civil parachute jumps were rare and mostly served purely for show purposes, so they were not undertaken for sporting reasons. In the established paratroopers associations was not trained for manual jump.

Freefall jumping as a sport only became more widespread in Germany after 1945.

General

Case with a tandem passenger (tape on top to brake parachute)
A parachutist with a tandem passenger approaching for landing

Jumps are basically possible from any aircraft and from solid ground as BASE jumps. For a safe jump, however, shoulder-wing planes are mostly used, since the risk of a collision with the aircraft by the jumper is lower here.

From the 1960s to the mid-1970s, Herbert Gillmann from Munich regularly demonstrated deep jumps . He jumped several hundred times with an automatic triangular parachute (Kohnke) from a height of 50 m from sport aircraft - both on flight days and to demonstrate to glider pilots that they can use their rescue parachutes even at low altitudes. He did the deep jumps without a reserve parachute because it would have been useless at such a low altitude. After such a demonstration, glider pilots were able to do a test jump in the Fallschirm-Sportspringer-Verein Bayern e. V., of which he was chairman, (renamed Fallschirm-Sportclub München eV since 1972), but from a height of 400 m.

A parachute jump is generally made from 1000 to 4500 m above ground. The climb in the airplane to this altitude takes about 5 to 20 minutes. In free fall, the classic freefall posture in prone position covers 300 meters in altitude within the first 10 seconds until body weight and air resistance work against each other in such a way that the further fall speed is around 180 km / h. Depending on the posture, higher speeds are also possible. In tandem jumps , a small braking and stabilizing parachute (drogue) is opened shortly after the jump, which does not allow the speed to rise above 200 km / h. When jumping from 4000 m, the opening height is reached in about 40 to 60 seconds.

The parachute is usually opened between 1500 and 700 m above ground. The deployment process of the parachute takes two to five seconds and about 200 meters in altitude, the parachute has a braking acceleration of up to about 20 m / s² while opening. The subsequent glider flight takes about three to five minutes with a sink rate of about 5 m / s. The wing parachute is controlled by a right and a left control line, which brakes the canopy on one side. By pulling both control lines at the same time, the profile of the paraglider canopy is changed, the resulting dynamic lift briefly reduces the rate of descent (down to zero - even climbing a few meters is possible) as well as forward travel. In this way a standing and gentle landing can be achieved.

In the event of a failure to open or a total failure of the parachute, the main canopy can be separated by a separating pad (with round canopies by separating locks) and the reserve canopy can be opened by operating a second opening device. The following additional safety precautions are possible and common: The Reserve Static Line (RSL) is a connection between the main canopy and the opening device for the reserve parachute, which automatically opens the reserve parachute when the main canopy is disconnected. An opening machine constantly measures the amount and rate of fall of the Springers and automatically opens the reserve when a defined sink rate is exceeded below a defined level.

BASE and balloon parachute jumps have in common that the jumper has no air flow due to the speed of the jump object - a hot air balloon only drifts slowly with the wind. Both require a minimum free fall distance to build up the speed of fall for the opening and a minimum opening height of 200 m above ground. The activation of the reserve parachute is usually not intended for BASE jump due to the possible height of the object, even in the event of an opening problem, since the main parachute must be disconnected for this.

Training and license

Training paths

Parachuting is only allowed in Germany with a valid license or during training. Prerequisites for the training are a medical certificate from the general practitioner, proof of a first aid course and a minimum age of 14 years (a declaration of consent from the legal guardian is required).

During the training, the student may only jump under the supervision of a certified instructor. This includes, among other things, an equipment check before boarding the aircraft. In Germany, conventional parachute training and the AFF method are approved as training methods. During the training, the student performs jumps with both methods, in which he has to solve tasks (jumping with jump assignment). This can be a special exit (leaving the aircraft), turns in free fall and a target landing. During the training it is compulsory to wear a hard shell helmet and an automatic opening device for the parachute.

To receive the license, a student in Germany must take a theoretical test ( multiple choice ) and two test jumps from 1200 m and at least 3000 m. By then, the student must have at least 23 jumps and be at least 16 years old. In Austria , at least 28 jumps must be proven so that he can take an examination jump and the written exam. In other countries there may therefore be further deviations depending on the aviation laws there.

Once a license has been acquired, it is valid indefinitely. Regular medical check-ups are not required. Evidence of at least twelve jumps in the last twelve months must be provided. If this number of jumps is not reached, the license can be reactivated at any time by checking jumps. This means that a skydiving license cannot expire in Germany.

As a dry exercise, body flying is carried out in a vertical wind tunnel (round tower with a powerful motor and horizontal propeller or powerful air blower).

Safety equipment

Display on the altimeter during the jump (with explanation)

Opening machine

The automatic opening device measures the height and speed of fall of the jumper and automatically opens the reserve parachute if a defined rate of descent is exceeded below a defined height (mostly 225 m above ground). Early opening machines were purely mechanical components, while electronic versions are predominantly used today. These devices are very reliable and are now part of the basic equipment of a parachute system. In some cases, they are also required for different groups of jumpers and on many jump sites.

Reserve parachute

RSL

The RSL (Reserve Static Line) , also known as the Stevens Lanyard , connects a main strap of the main parachute to the opening line of the reserve parachute container. When the main parachute is detached, the main parachute that flies away pulls the locking pin of the reserve container, causing the reserve parachute, which is under the pressure of a built-in spring, to pop out and open the reserve parachute. The RSL significantly shortens the time until the reserve parachute is fully functional.

Altimeter

An altimeter for skydivers with a 4000 m scale on the wrist for free fall

In parachuting, the jump and opening height is measured with an altimeter , on the back of the hand for free fall and relative, on the chest for target jumps . Altimeters usually have a scale up to 4000 m (one full revolution) or 12,000 feet, scales up to 6000 m are less common. The circle segment from 0 to 800 m is usually marked in red, from 800 to 1000 in yellow. Before starting, the altimeter is manually set to the height of the place. In the event of an outland landing or a jump over a foreign place, the altimeter is set to this. The altitude above sea level can be found on the flight cards. Barometric deviations are mostly neglected.

The safety equipment can include an acoustic height warning device ( dytter ), which triggers a continuous acoustic signal when a certain height is fallen through . But this is not an altimeter.

For the special discipline freefly version, the altimeter is also attached to the side of the chest strap with the scale facing up. This enables unrestricted use of the arms for steering, especially in freefall, without having to change the arm position by looking at an altimeter attached to the back of the hand. For competitions that require an exact height measurement, such as swooping, electronic altimeters are increasingly being used that allow one or more acoustic and visual alarm settings to be set.

In the case of water landings , the altimeter and the acoustic altitude warning are not required , as water penetrating them would damage them. The height is then estimated by counting, since a given speed can be assumed with a certain free fall position.

Hard hat

Parachutists who approach each other in freefall can have a high relative speed to each other. This can lead to serious head injuries, especially in group jumps. Hard-shell helmets are therefore mandatory for jumping students. Licensed jumpers are free to wear a helmet. The head protection is also used to protect the head on hard landings. Leather caps have a lower protective effect here than a hard shell helmet. In addition, the helmet provides protection in dangerous situations in the skipping aircraft, such as turbulence or an emergency landing, if the jumpers in the skipping machine are not wearing their seat belts.

In free-fall formations ("relative work") full-face helmets are often worn with a full visor. They reduce the wind noise in freefall, have a wide field of vision, are mostly fog-free and offer space for optical and acoustic height warnings.

Others

A kidney belt is used as other safety and protective equipment to protect the lower lumbar vertebrae and because of the high temperature difference. Knee protectors and ankle bandages serve to protect the knee and ankle joints, and a belt cutter and a snap hook are used as safety devices, in particular as a dropper . When jumping in the water, depending on the water temperature, a sufficiently large wetsuit is necessary, even in summer , which allows unrestricted breathing. A life jacket is compulsory in some landing zones approved for skydiving with bodies of water in their vicinity . The ground equipment can include a hand-held anemometer to determine the ground wind speed and a wind vane for the ground wind direction if there is no wind sock on the landing area.

Risks

Apart from possible problems with the drop plane and in free fall, most of the risks arise during the opening and landing. According to the statistics, skydiving is a very safe sport. Drop-off aircraft are fundamentally modified in such a way that they do not get caught in the harness when jumping. For this purpose, the cargo space is usually lined smoothly with aluminum sheet, straps and brackets and often the second control horn removed and a special swing door or a roller cover installed. Nevertheless, especially in the case of an aircraft that is not only used for setting down, the harness can get caught in protruding (door) brackets.

The German Skydiving Association registered more than 370,000 jumps in 2015. Three parachutists had a fatal accident, 102 serious accidents occurred and 365 jumpers had to operate the reserve parachute.

Incorrect openings

Incorrect openings can be eliminated under certain circumstances. Otherwise, emergency measures must be initiated (disconnecting the main parachute and opening the reserve parachute). The most common causes of incorrect opening are packing errors and incorrect behavior during the opening process, rarely material defects.

  • Complete blocking of the screen opening
After actuating the opening device, the outer packaging does not open. This can happen if the pilot chute / Handdeploy opening handle to Lee device (slipstream on the back), the auxiliary line has not moved or clean the retaining pin of the opening flap is inserted the wrong way. One or more blows with the elbow against the parachute container can possibly release the blockage.
  • Imposed hand deploy
Unstable take-off posture or jumping out of a helicopter forwards against the direction of flight (the jumper plunges steeply downwards) and immediate opening can cause the hand deployment line to wrap around the forearm due to the downwash and lead to an opening failure. The fault can be eliminated manually if the altitude is sufficient. Avoidance by jumping backwards against the direction of flight or turning when jumping into the direction of flight at a low landing height and immediate opening.
  • Baglock
The main parachute was pulled out by the hand deploy and the lines are stretched, but the parachute does not open due to the suspension line eyes in the last packing rubbers being too large, as it is still stuck in the inner packaging (POD - Parachute Opening Device). Under certain circumstances this can be remedied by jerking the shoulder straps. Since this incorrect opening does not lead to any relevant reduction in the speed of fall, the disturbance can only be eliminated if the height is sufficient and the emergency procedure with canopy separation and reserve parachute opening initiated. The causes are rubber packs that are too strong, a pod that is too small for a cap that is too large, mostly due to retrofitting or conversion. The use of a short packing tube prevents this with large caps.
  • Flag / torch (especially earlier for round caps)
The main parachute does not open, only partially, is torn or the suspension lines prevent the parachute canopy from deploying if it is incorrectly packed. It is necessary to detach the main canopy by opening the reserve parachute.
  • Horseshoes (especially earlier on round caps)
Before the opening system is actuated or during this, the main parachute hangs with the upper end with the auxiliary parachute on the jumper. The screen cannot unfold from the inner packaging. Before opening the reserve, you should try to open the screen afterwards. The cause is usually an unstable take-off position, and earlier damaged or insufficiently packed outer packaging.
  • Leash cover for round caps
One or more lines lay over the parachute during the opening process and block its symmetrical unfolding and, in the case of paragliders, its steering and braking ability. While in some cases cutting through the affected line (s) can help, in most cases it is advisable to cut off the umbrella and open the reserve. Cause: unstable take-off posture (when jumping from a machine) or packing errors.
  • Linen tear (especially earlier)
If one or more lines tear, the symmetry and flight ability of the wing are impaired. With a maximum of two broken lines, the main parachute can usually still be landed safely. The cause is material fatigue or a hard opening.
  • Biplane
In addition to the main parachute, the reserve parachute has also opened (e.g. through an automatic reserve activation when the parachute is too deep). If both canopies are in front of each other, this incorrect opening can be safely flown and landed by carefully steering with the front canopy. If the two umbrellas are next to each other ("side by side") or if an umbrella folds under the jumper ("down plane", which leads to a vertical drop with rapid rotation and without the possibility of braking), the main umbrella must be cut off.
  • Line twist
The suspension lines are twisted when the wing is open. The cause can be a packing error, an unstable opening position or rotation during opening. If the height is sufficient, this can be turned out by rotating the jumper against the screwing direction. In the case of smaller paragliders and thus higher wing loading, twisting the suspension line can lead to rapid rotation of the main canopy and severe sinking. The strong forces generated during rotation can make it impossible to unscrew the cap and thus necessitate the emergency procedure.
  • Fixed slider
The slider gets stuck in the upper line area, which means that the umbrella cannot fully unfold. The slider can usually be released by pulling on the rear carrying lines or pumping with the control lines.
  • Main cap tear
One or more chambers of the paraglider ruptured, resulting in incomplete load-bearing properties and rapid one-sided rotation. Immediate canopy separation and pulling of the reserve parachute. The cause is mostly crumbly fabric at kinks due to long storage in older caps.

Landing disruptions

  • Two jumpers driving into each other with both canopy stalled
The cause is a lack of looking around in the airspace (jump students) and a lack of radio guidance by parachute instructors.
  • Obstacle landing
Adverse weather conditions (e.g. gusts of wind) or control errors can lead to a collision with obstacles (e.g. trees, house roofs, masts, etc.) during the landing process.
  • Braking failure
If the glider is initially braked too high during the landing approach, it will tip slightly forwards when the brake is released and pick up speed again (pendulum effect). This can lead to an increase in the rate of descent, which can no longer be corrected if the distance to the ground is too small. In the event of an underestimated flare during landing braking, the brakes must no longer be released until they touch the ground (so-called braking or flaring). Adjust accordingly for a harder landing ( landing , impact with the right or left side of the body).
  • Twists close to the ground
Turning close to the ground (e.g. when swooping) can lead to incorrect assessments of the height, which means that the downward spiral of the turn can no longer be ended in time before contact with the ground.
  • Downwash / Lee
Downdrafts or gusts close to the ground can influence the landing approach to an extent that cannot be corrected.
The eddies that occur in the slipstream (leeward) of obstacles such as buildings, high forest or in mountains with mountain flanks can lead to undesirably high rates of descent during landing: "It hurts in the lee". Remedy: Avoid, or landing
  • With-wind landing
"If you look into the mouth of the windsock, then something is wrong", cause: Wind set the wrong way around during the briefing, thus wrong landing direction, disregarded windsock on approach. Remedy: Landing
Air hole through an extremely strong, thermal gust of wind that causes the canopy to collapse and leads to extremely strong sinking - rare in Germany, these occur more frequently during the day, especially in deserts where the ground heats up significantly, and at night the air temperature on the ground is much colder with strong heat dissipation and updrafts - as well as gusts in strong thunderstorms as downburst - wind shear / wind shear

Jump sequence

  1. Check and put on the harness (including equipment)
  2. Board the aircraft in reverse order (wingsuits, tandem, AFF, solo higher opening, freeflyer, RW - when approaching against the wind)
  3. Ascent to jump height and last check
  4. Door opening and exit (at least five seconds apart)
  5. When the opening height is reached (1000 to 1200 m with HALO ): stable position, compensate movement and hand deploy
  6. Cap check after three seconds
    1. Cap symmetry - does the peak look uniform?
    2. Are all chambers filled with air?
    3. Lines free and slider down?
    4. No damages?
  7. From 300 m, the landing is initiated against the wind in front of the landing point - depending on the wind strength with usually 1/4 to 1/2 brake
  8. Landing takes place against the wind. From ten meters above ground with half brakes, from three to five meters with full brakes.

Disciplines (sport)

Formation jump (four-man formation)
Freeflyer in the headdown position
Target jumping (sequence) World Games 2005, Duisburg

Skydiving as a sport is divided into different disciplines. The following competition disciplines were listed in 2020:

  • FS - formation jumping: formation jumping is the most widespread discipline in skydiving. It is about showing different formations quickly and precisely in freefall (on the stomach).
  • VFS - Vertical Formation Skydiving : as the name suggests: this discipline is practiced in a similar way to FS - only standing on your head or on your feet (and thus at a much higher freefall speed). Overall, it is a mixture of freefly (AE) and formation jumping (FS).
  • CF - cap formation jumping: The competition takes place on the parachute: figures are flown together on the open parachute.
  • AE - Artistry (Freefly / Freestyle) : Freefly is flown in all positions (head-up, head-down, etc.) In the competition there are two performers and a camera flyer, in freestyle a performer and a camera flyer and, if necessary, a "dance" or acrobatic choreography.
  • CP - Cap Flying : Canopy Piloting is the most accessible discipline in skydiving for spectators. The actors fly through a parachute course on the ground, in which high speeds are flown on the parachute just before landing, just above the ground (mostly over a moat). It is crucial to convert the rise of the glider, which develops due to the increased lift when braking, into horizontal forward travel for as long as possible. This discipline involves a high level of risk, as it is flown at ground level with maximum forward speed and, in order to achieve this effect, a very high initial speed is built up beforehand, for example by turning (up to) 180 ° at a height of around 200 m.
  • WS - Wingsuit flies : Wingsuit fliers wear a special suit with fabric surfaces between the legs as well as the arms and the upper body, which in free fall fill with air and thus become real wings. That means: (in front of the parachute opening) flying with a wing suit made of fabric, which connects the arms and legs with wings - similar to a flying squirrel .
  • SP - Speed ​​Skydiving : The aim here is to achieve the highest possible free fall speed on a 1000 meter long, fixed measuring section - from 2700m to 1700m above ground. A “braking program” is then flown for several seconds before the canopy is opened so that the canopy is not damaged during the opening process.
  • PS - Paraski : Paraski is the combination of target jumping and giant slalom while skiing.
  • S / A - Target and style jumping : These are the "classics" among the parachute disciplines: In target jumping, a target point of only 2 cm in diameter is approached with a particularly finely controllable parachute, while style jumping a fixed combination of figures is flown for a time at high freefall speed.

"Classic" disciplines

  • Target jumping - This discipline clearly shows the military origin - as well as the corresponding further development: the jumper tries to hit a specified target point precisely when landing - the deviation from the zero point is measured in centimeters with an electronic target. The center of the target used to have a diameter of 10 cm (the "zero") - today it is 2 cm!
    • Para-ski - a winter sports combination of target jumping in alpine terrain and giant slalom, which has its origin in mountain rescue.
    • Target jumping in the mountains - when approaching, the jumper must know and observe the wind conditions in the mountains, i.e. leeward wind and other wind influences, as they are known from gliding .
    • Water jumps for demonstration purposes mostly at public events such as the Hamburg harbor birthday, the Ederstausee reservoir festival and the like. a. with target landing on a buoy.
  • Style jumping - also figure jumping . The jumper completes pre-determined left and right turns (horizontal) and somersaults forwards and backwards (vertical) in the cleanest possible execution and alignment. (From this discipline, the broader range of freestyle jumping developed - today classified under "artistic disciplines" together with Freeefly.)
  • Freefall formation / RW (Relative Work)  - The jumper falls on his stomach and forms with other jumpers in free fall figures that can be two to several hundred jumpers tall. The most common variations in competitions today (2014) are four and eight formations, which have to complete as many predetermined figures as possible in a given time.
Relative jumping began in the USA with Jerry L. Bird (born 1943) who developed the Ten-Men-Speedstar with teams like: Wings of Orange, Jerry Bird Allstars. The 10-Men-Speedstar was jumped at the World Cup in Fort-Bragg NC / USA in 1973 and at the World Cup in South Africa in 1974 and was the main competition at the first relative World Cup in 1975 in Warendorf / Germany. At this World Cup in Warendorf, the German national team WALTERS VÖGEL set a German speed record that still exists today (2014).

Disciplines without sports regulations and official competitions

  • Hit 'n' Rock - A discipline that combines traditional target jumping with an acrobatic-comic element. The aim is to land as close to a target as possible, remove your parachute equipment, and then sit in a rocking chair 40 feet away from the target. The time is measured from the first time you touch the ground until you sit down. Hit 'n' Rock is a popular discipline at POPS ( Parachutists Over Phorty Society ) meetings .
  • Skysurfing - Developed around the beginning of the 1990s, parachute jumps were made with a "surfboard" attached to the feet. After about ten years the decline of this discipline began, it is now only a marginal phenomenon.
  • Proximity flying - wingsuit flying is also operated in connection with BASE jumping .

Apart from the disciplines “target jumping”, “swooping” and “canopy formation”, the focus of skydiving is on free fall, not on the ride on the open umbrella.

Variants and other jumping methods (sports and military)

  • BASE jumping or BASE jumping  - BASE stands for, B uildings, A ntennas, S pans and E arth 'and is a term for jumps of solid surfaces such as bridges, high-rise buildings, antenna masts or rocks. Due to the extreme risk, BASE jumps are only allowed permanently in a few places in the world, and there are also individual permits for special events.
  • Stratospheric jump - the jump takes place outside the troposphere ,which, depending on the latitude, reaches an altitude of about 8 to 18 kilometers. Since this altitude can only be reached to a limited extent by airplane, a helium balloon is used instead. Originally, these leaps of research and development in serving aviation and space travel , now more mass media purposes.
  • HALO high altitude low opening  - A transfer procedure originating from the military, especially with high-performance round canopy parachutes , which was used in front of the HAHO, during which onejumpedfrom great heights (over 4000 m) with an oxygen mask . After the free fall, the parachute is opened at a low altitude (well below 1000 m) above the landing area. The purpose of the HALO was not to endanger the skipping machine and to keep it out of the fire area of ​​the air defense and to make it more difficult for parachutists to clear up the jump from a distance. This procedure was replaced by the HAHO.
  • HAHO high altitude high opening  - A transfer procedure originating from the military, in whichjumpingfrom a great height (up to 10,000 m) is carried out with an oxygen mask . This jumping procedure is also known as a special form of fun jump in civil parachuting, but requires special permits for the controlled airspace and is usually only carried out from an altitude of 4000 m without oxygen. The parachute is opened after a short free fall, today also in the HAAO for High Altitude - Automatic Opening for automatic opening with a pull-up line at great heights, in order to then cover the greatest possible distance with wind to a specified landing area in gliding operation. This complements the HAHO, as it requires a lower level of training and is sufficient for the execution of the order.
  • Mountain flying - Mountain flying on a wing parachute started back in the 1970s. You start without an auxiliary umbrella or slider on a steep mountain slope. The umbrella is laid out on the slope beforehand and pulled up from behind. Among other things, paragliding andspeed flying developed from this with different types of gliders .
  • Bodyflying or "Indoor Skydiving" - Originally for training purposes for freefall, flow flying has now developed into a sport in its own right. In the vertical wind tunnel all body positions can be flown and trained. In addition, new disciplines emerged: solo freestyle and dynamic. The 1st German Indoor Skydiving Championship took place in 2018 - the third (2020) had to be canceled at short notice due to the corona pandemic.
  • Outside landing is target jumping for show purposes in a landing area that is not permanently approved, such as city festivals, festive events such as the Duhner Wadden Race, etc. The danger of outside landings is due to terrain obstacles and wind conditions not recognized during a previous inspection of the landing area. For example, the whip masts of traffic lights when landing on roads are a particular hazard on the approach. Mechanical deflection of the wind by streets can also lead to a wind landing on a paved road. Inside stadiums, if you fly over the grandstand into the interior of the stadium, the wind breaks as this does not flow into a stadium.

Records

Jump height, speed and duration

  • Highest jump: Alan Eustace , 41,419 m (135,890 feet), October 24, 2014, Roswell ( USA )
  • Longest free fall (duration): Joseph Kittinger , 4:36 minutes, August 16, 1960, New Mexico (USA)
  • Longest free fall (distance): Felix Baumgartner , 36,529 m, October 14, 2012, Roswell (USA)
  • Top speed: Felix Baumgartner, 1343 km / h ( Mach 1.24), October 14, 2012, Roswell (USA). This makes him the first person who - thanks to very thin air at great heights - was able to break the sound barrier in free fall .

Formations

  • Largest free fall formation, international: 400 jumpers, jumped in Udon Thani , Thailand on February 8, 2006.
  • Largest free fall formation only women, international: 181 jumpers, jumped in Perris , USA on October 27, 2009.
  • Largest free fall formation only German participants: 214 jumpers, jumped in Eloy , USA on October 24, 2014.
  • Largest free fall formation only women, Germany: 84 jumpers, jumped in Eisenach on September 16, 2011.
  • Largest formation on open parachute, international: 100 jumpers, flown in Lake Wales , Florida , USA on November 21, 2007.

Jump number

  • Total: Don Kellner , over 42,000 jumps
  • Women: Cheryl Stearns, over 18,000 jumps
  • Within 24 hours, Men: Jay Stokes, 640 jumps, September 8, 2006
  • Within 24 hours, women: Cheryl Stearns, 352 jumps, Aug. 8–9. November 1995

Age

  • Oldest skydiver: The Australian Frank Moody jumped a tandem jump from 3000 meters in 2004 at the age of 101.

Psychological considerations

The attraction of skydiving arises from an ambivalent experience: on the one hand, falling is fundamentally something that triggers fear, on the other hand it is consciously sought by skydivers and experienced as pleasurable and rewarding. The difference lies in the way they fall: Anyone who falls unintentionally, out of clumsiness or negligence experiences this as a negative event. But those who are able to actively master, control and shape falling will associate this with positive feelings. The parachutist strives for the controlled fall, not the fall. This tense experience is particularly intense in extreme forms of sport such as base jumping , waterfall jumping (jumping in free fall over falling water) or cave jumping (jumping in free fall into a cave open at the top), but also in the feeling of jumping students .

The skydiver and psychologist G. Semler sees the appeal of parachuting in overcoming fear and in the fear-pleasure experience that accompanies the successful completion of the jump. The venture researcher SA Warwitz speaks of the "cultivation of trauma". In his empirical research on the entire spectrum of parachuting, he comes up with nine different explanatory models. He names the main motives:

  • experiencing high feelings such as happiness, pride and self-confidence when mastering free fall,
  • the experience of freedom and sovereignty over body and space,
  • the desire to design movement in free space,
  • the realization of meaning and self-discovery in coping with a difficult self-imposed task, also in association with like-minded people.

Although skydiving involves vertical movement, i.e. falling, athletes also experience it as flying because of the uninhibited movement possibilities in the airspace .

Warwitz explains the extreme pursuit of record as in the fourfold world record attempt by Felix Baumgartner from a network of motifs in which above all the desire for uniqueness of the person, standing out from the crowd, the pursuit of flower life at the highest level and awareness, an extraordinary one To be able to realize an idea that develops extremely strong driving forces. He does not see a longing for death behind this, but on the contrary a longing for life that is experienced as particularly intense in the vicinity of death. The awareness of writing history enables the mental performance to get through a five-year highly demanding preparation period with phases of frustration.

Myths and Fallacies

Misconceptions about skydiving are particularly spread through feature films and media reports that try to portray the sport in a more dramatic or “crazy” way than it really is. In doing so, physical conditions are often disregarded. Here is a correction of the most common mistakes:

  • A parachutist is not pulled back up by opening the parachute . Film recordings that create such an impression are created by the fact that the filmed jumper is strongly braked through the screen opening, while the cameraman continues to fall at a constant speed. (If the cameraman opens his parachute first, it looks the other way around, as if the fall of the filmed jumper is suddenly accelerated.)
  • Acoustic communication in free fall is only possible under special circumstances. At a free fall speed of around 200 km / h, the wind noise is usually so loud that everything else is drowned out. In order to be able to communicate, either one of the jumpers would have to shout into the other's ear at close range, or both would have to use closed helmets with radio communication.
  • Only a few can immediately assume a stable free fall posture during the first parachute jumps of their life without having to rely on outside help (for example, instructors who jump with them). But even for such exceptional athletes, freefall formations, freeflying etc. are only possible after appropriate training.
  • With a normal jump height of 4000 m above ground, the free fall takes a little more than 60 seconds. Film scenes in which the freefall duration is several minutes are cut from recordings of several jumps. Under real conditions, a free fall of several minutes would only be possible from such a high jump height that the jumpers would need extensive protection against the cold and their own oxygen supply.
  • It is possible to jump after a person who has fallen from an airplane within a few seconds and to catch up with them in free fall (if there is sufficient altitude or time). The forces and loads subsequently occurring during the opening of the umbrella would, however, be too great to be held with pure muscle strength. If no mechanical connection to the parachute harness can be made in free fall, this person would be torn loose when the parachute was opened.
  • The most common causes of fatal injuries are accidents after opening the parachute, such as collisions, twisting the paraglider too close to the ground and steering or braking errors during landing.

Germany

numbers

Germany 1995 to 2009 2008 2009 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Annual
minimum		 Annual
maximum
Parachute jumps 226,000 311.245 289,000 304,700 311.245 374.620 385.625 393.200 379,595
Tandem jumps 16,000 41,980 31,500 38,250 41,980 71,700 72,565 65,600 65.008
Reserve activations 245 310 260 298 287 365 354 354 322
reportable accidents 47 112 77 85 74 102 96 83 99 105
serious accidents 2 5 4th 2 5 0 3 94 83
deadly accidents 2 10 10 4th 4th 3 2 2 4th 4th
Jump licenses 14.051 14,580 19,079 19,811 20,498 21,223
new jump licenses 460 462 828 827 685 725 609
valid teacher licenses 849 838 994 1033 1073 1104 1091
AFF teacher licenses 219 225 360 378 385 402 410
Tandem licenses 531 544 664 697 697 716 715

Between 1995 and 2009, between 226,000 and 311,000 parachute jumps were performed in Germany each year. Between 16,000 and 31,500 tandem jumps are carried out annually. The reserve umbrella was activated in 245 to 310 cases each year. During skydiving, there were between 47 and 112 reportable accidents each year, of which between two and ten were fatal each year. In 2008 there were 849 valid skydiving instructor licenses, 531 tandem jump licenses and 219 AFF teaching licenses in Germany. Skydiving licenses were issued in Germany by the end of 2009, a total of 14,580, of which 9056 are unlimited. 460 licenses were acquired in 2008, and 462 licenses in 2009.

In its short reports, the German Parachute Sports Association reported ten fatal and four serious accidents for 2008, four fatal and two serious accidents in 2009, and four fatal and five serious accidents in 2010.

Jump places in Germany

All jump sites in Germany are shown on a map of Germany at the German Skydiving Association.

Legal

According to the Aviation Act, parachutes are aircraft that do not require a traffic permit. Parachutes are air sports equipment. An aviation license is required to practice parachuting. The requirements for parachute jumpers are based on the Ordinance on Aviation Personnel (LuftPersV). The licenses are issued by the German Parachuting Association, which is commissioned by the Federal Minister of Transport to do this . The minimum age to start training to obtain a parachutist license is 14 years, and the minimum age for licensing is 16 years. A license for parachutists has been granted for an unlimited period since 2004.

For jumps within the controlled airspace, an air traffic control clearance from the responsible air traffic control office must be obtained from the driver of the vehicle ( Aviation Regulations Section 16a Paragraphs 1 and 2, each sentence 1, point 1). When dropping parachutists down, the pilot registers the individual slot at the tower. The dropping approval is given with the speaking group Dropping Approved . The pilot reports the dropping of the last parachutist with Last Jumper Out ("last jumper dropped"). From the time the permit is issued until three minutes after the last jumper has left the aircraft, controlled air traffic must maintain safety clearances from the jump zone; uncontrolled air traffic receives navigation warnings (NOTAM).

For a parachute jump outside an approved airfield, in addition to the air traffic control clearance, a foreign landing permit from the commissioned association is required. Unauthorized landings are criminal offenses.

The parachutist has to carry proof of owner liability (liability sum 1.5 million euros), a valid license as a parachutist, a certificate of airworthiness, a reserve packing certificate and his jump book. All jumps are to be entered in the jump log with the date, jump location, jump height, jump type and identification of the aircraft being dropped off. In parachuting, right before left applies, on a confrontation course both skydivers move to the right, the lower skydiver has priority over the upper skydiver on approach.

If a person was seriously injured during a fall jump, serious property damage to the aircraft or third-party damage of more than 500 euros, the owner must report this to the German Parachuting Association. In 2018, this was the case for only 0.028% of the jumps completed.

For skydiving students, the wind speed must not exceed 8 m / s.

Accident statistics USA

  • The United States Parachute Association reports an average of 29 fatal accidents annually for 1983 to 1993, 30 for 1994, 27 for 1995, 31 in 1998, 47, 25 in 1999, 32 in 2000, 35 in 2001. In 2010 there were 21 fatal accidents (USPA, at around 3 million jumps).

Dropping planes

Small planes are mostly used as high-wing aircraft for transport, as they allow a safe jump out of the door. Be used

Especially in the early days of sporty skydiving in Germany, the Dornier Do 27 was often used because it has good slow flight characteristics, which is an advantage when dropping jumpers down.

Larger machines are also used on commercial jump sites with a high number of jumps, such as

Due to the high costs, helicopters or one of the few airworthy aircraft such as the Douglas DC-3 , the Junkers Ju 52 / 3m or a hot air balloon are rarely available. Because of the lack of payload, ultralight aircraft are rarely used. These aircraft are considered to be special lift-off aircraft, which are coveted because of their special character.

Military transport aircraft are only rarely available as drop-off aircraft - mostly at major events

The Lockheed C-141 StarLifter and the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is one of the few jet - propelled transport aircraft from which parachutists can be dropped.

See also

literature

  • Uwe Beckmann: Parachuting in words and pictures. 9th edition, Toeche-Mittler, Darmstadt 1990, ISBN 3-87820-305-5 .
  • W. Buss and K. Pietzsch: The parachute development in Germany 1934–1945. DFVLR , Braunschweig 1982.
  • WD Brown: Parachutes. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd., London 1951.
  • Walter Gericke: Parachuting. A teaching and manual. Tilia, Wiesbaden 1962, DNB 451491483 .
  • Klaus Heller: Parachuting for beginners and advanced. 7th edition, Nymphenburger, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-485-01133-4 .
  • Jennifer Neureiter: The fascination of skydiving - physical aspects of skydiving. Departmental thesis from Physics, February 2011, online

Web links

Wiktionary: Skydiving  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Commons : Skydiving  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Associations and authorities

General information

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Adrian Nicholas Proves Da Vinci Chute Works. Category: Safety . In: Dropzone.com Skydiving. dropzone.com, July 9, 2000, accessed November 5, 2014 (last change: December 26, 2006).
  2. ↑ Jim Bates: The World of Parachutes, Parachuting, and Parachutists. Section ( Department ): Parachutes . (No longer available online.) In: Aero.com. The Future of Aviation Information . aero.com, archived from the original on November 17, 2015 ; accessed on May 26, 2019 (English).
  3. ^ John Simkin: History of Aviation . In: Spartacus Educational. Spartacus Educational Publishers Ltd., September 2009, accessed on November 5, 2014 (English, last update: 08/2014): “ André Jacques Garnerin makes parachute jump of 8,000 feet (2,438 m); 1802. "
  4. ^ Training manual for parachuting from the DFV
  5. ↑ Training in Austria , Skydive Tirol parachuting club
  6. ↑ DFV: DFV INFORMATION and SECURITY CONFERENCE 2016. DFV, accessed on September 3, 2017 .
  7. ↑ Klaus Heller: Parachuting for beginners and advanced. Nymphenburger in the FA Herbig Verlagsbuchhandlung GmbH; Edition: 7th, chang. Ed., 2008
  8. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Id0m3Pz481g Friday Freakout: Parachute Rips In Half On Demo Jump, Lands In Stadium
  9. ^ German Parachuting Association
  10. ↑ https://www.dfv.aero/Unser+Sport/Kader++Dislinien
  11. ↑ https://dm2017.dfv.aero/Dislinien/SA+Zielspringen
  12. ↑ the S-loop-shaped approach can be used, the disadvantage of deviating from the target line parachutist - target point, and the stair-fall procedure in the approach like a glider, with reduction of height by braking
  13. ^ Classix: "Dry course" in the swimming pool (1970) - Bundeswehr - with special risk from the parachute when landing in the water (Youtube)
  14. ↑ Parachuting - sporting disciplines ( Memento from February 4, 2005 in the Internet Archive ), DAeC Landesverband Nordrhein Westfalen e. V.
  15. ↑ http://www.pops-deutschland.de
  16. ↑ Wingsuit flying offers the following disciplines, ... , Bad Birds Schweighofen
  17. ↑ https://freifallxpress.de/2018/03/05/1-deutsche-indoor-skydiving-meisterschaft/
  18. ↑ https://indoor2020.dfv.aero/Start
  19. ↑ Parachutist's Record Fall: Over 25 Miles in 15 Minutes , Alan Eustace Jumps From Stratosphere, Breaking Felix Baumgartner's World Record, The New York Times, OCT. 24, 2014 (English).
  20. ^ US Centennial of Flight Commission - Joseph Kittinger ( Memento of March 16, 2010 in the Internet Archive ).
  21. ↑ a b Red Bull Stratos: Felix Baumgartner jumps into the history books , redbull.de, October 14, 2012.
  22. ↑ Baumgartner breaks the sound barrier in free fall. In: Die Welt , October 15, 2012, accessed on May 29, 2013.
  23. ↑ WE DID IT !!! - World Team Thailand '06 ( Memento from January 5, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  24. ↑ Woman's World Record Final Release (English) .
  25. ^ Report of the German Parachuting Association
  26. ↑ DFV: Parachutists break German record (PDF; 132 kB)
  27. ↑ Records International , canopy-formation.de
  28. ^ Vita , website of Don Kellner
  29. ↑ Cheryl Stearns with 30 world records in skydiving ( memento of October 6, 2008 in the Internet Archive ).
  30. ↑ Jay Stokes Record ( Memento October 25, 2008 in the Internet Archive ).
  31. ↑ 101-year-old Australian jumps off with a parachute. In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung , June 17, 2004, accessed on March 21, 2018.
  32. ↑ Hellmuth Vensky: Eternal longing for free fall . In: Die Zeit , March 1, 2012, accessed on March 21, 2018.
  33. ↑ G. Semler: The pleasure of fear. Munich 1994.
  34. ^ SA Warwitz: Falling - the cultivation of a trauma. In: Ders .: Search for meaning in risk. Life in growing rings. 2., ext. Edition, Verlag Schneider, Baltmannsweiler 2016, ISBN 978-3-8340-1620-1 . Pp. 77-87
  35. ^ SA Warwitz: Explanatory Models for Striving for Risk. In: Ders .: Search for meaning in risk. Life in growing rings. 2., ext. Edition, Verlag Schneider, Baltmannsweiler 2016, ISBN 978-3-8340-1620-1 , pp. 98-311
  36. ↑ What drives the devil ( Memento from April 25, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) - Hellishly courageous - Interview Deutschlandfunk October 2012.
  37. ↑ German Skydiving Association, Statistics 2008 ( Memento from April 19, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 158 kB).
  38. ↑ German Skydiving Association, Statistics 2009  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 139 kB).@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.metatag.de  
  39. ↑ Deutscher Fallschirmsportverband, Statistics 2003  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 40 kB).@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.metatag.de  
  40. ↑ INFORMATION and SAFETY CONFERENCE 2017 Figures / Statistics / Accident Situation. 2017, accessed May 26, 2019 .
  41. ↑ INFORMATION and SAFETY CONFERENCE 2018 Figures / Statistics / Accident situation. 2018, accessed May 26, 2019 .
  42. ^ German Parachute Sports Association, accident reports .
  43. ↑ DFV - German Skydiving Association eV - Places & clubs. Retrieved October 21, 2014 .
  44. ↑ a b c d Deutscher Fallschirmsportverband, Luftrecht ( Memento from December 27, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 2 MB).
  45. ↑ Requirements for issuing an air traffic control clearance for parachute jumps ... in the controlled airspace from January 25, 2007 (NfL I - 59/07).
  46. ↑ INSiTA 2019 / Numbers-Statistics-Accident-Situation. In: German Parachute Association DFV. Retrieved February 3, 2020 .
  47. ↑ Summaries of the accident reports