Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe

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Helmut Schmidt , Erich Honecker , Gerald Ford and Bruno Kreisky sign the CSCE final document.
The Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) of 1975. Exhibited in the House of History

The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( CSCE ) was a series of cross-bloc conferences of the European states at the time of the East-West conflict . The first conference took place in Helsinki from July 3, 1973 , mainly on the initiative of the Warsaw Contracting States . Participants were 35 countries: the USA , Canada , the Soviet Union and all European countries with the exception of Albania and Andorra , which only later joined the CSCE. In 1995 the CSCE became the successorOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe ( OSCE ) institutionalized.

prehistory

The first suggestions for a “European Security Conference” were made back in the 1950s. On July 5, 1966, at the meeting of the Political Advisory Committee (PBA) of the Warsaw Pact in Bucharest, in the "Declaration on the Consolidation of Peace and Security in Europe", the proposal to convene a "Conference on European Security Issues" . Above all, the conference should contribute to the dissolution of the existing alliances and displace the USA - as a non-European state - from Europe. A conference of the communist and workers' parties of Europe met in Karlovy Vary from April 24th to 26th, 1967 and supported the position of creating a system of collective security in the “Karlovy Vary Declaration” on peace and security in Europe. The invasion of the Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw Pact states in August 1968 worsened the situation again. On March 17, 1969, the "Budapest Appeal" of the Political Advisory Committee of the Warsaw Pact to convene a "Pan-European Conference" followed. On April 11, 1969, the NATO ministers in Washington agreed to discuss topics for negotiations with the Eastern European states and all governments with political responsibility in Europe would have to take part. On May 9, 1969, the Finnish government issued a memorandum offering to hold the conference and preparatory meetings in Helsinki. On March 1, 1971, there was a first meeting of the "CSCE Subcommittee" of the Political Committee within the framework of European Political Cooperation (EPC) of the states of the European Communities in Paris. On December 10, 1971, the NATO ministers in Brussels declared themselves ready for multilateral CSCE negotiations when the four -power agreement on Berlin was concluded .

In the course of the global policy of détente and after the Eastern Treaties and the Basic Treaty came into force in the early 1970s, interest in a far-reaching understanding grew in both East and West.

Preparations and first CSCE conference in Helsinki

The negotiations on the CSCE Final Act were divided into two phases. On November 22, 1972, the first preparatory conference met in Helsinki. At ambassador level, the participating states negotiated the structure of the final document and the functioning of the actual conference. During these preliminary negotiations, both the Eastern Bloc and the West succeeded in defining the topics that were important to them, especially the immutability of borders, or human rights and freedom of movement, as topics for the main negotiations. The preparatory conferences were divided into four rounds:

Preparatory conferences
November 28, 1972 to December 15, 1972
January 15, 1973 to February 9, 1973
February 28, 1973 to April 6, 1973
April 25, 1973 to June 8, 1973

Finally, as a second phase, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) was opened on July 3, 1973 in Helsinki. The seven states of the Warsaw Treaty, 13 neutral countries and the 15 NATO states took part in the conference. Albania was not represented. The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic participated in the CSCE on an equal footing. For the SED government, this was an important step towards international recognition. The GDR was primarily concerned with recognizing the status quo in Europe and not interfering in its internal affairs. However, even after the final act was signed, human rights were not respected. That is why the CDU / CSU opposition spoke out against the CSCE in the Bundestag. For them, the Helsinki decisions only masked reality.

The participation of the USA and Canada took place at the express request of the states of the European Community (EC). Negotiations on the actual text of the final act began with a conference of the foreign ministers of the participating states from July 3rd to 7th. The CSCE commission phase in Geneva began on September 18, 1973. The main negotiations focused on the question of the relationship between the principle of state sovereignty and the right of individuals to freedom of movement and access to information. From the point of view of the Federal Republic of Germany, keeping open the possibility of peaceful border changes with a view to a desired reunification with the GDR was one of the central items of negotiation. After sometimes very tough negotiations, all states agreed in May 1975 on compromise formulas on all disputed areas, which paved the way for the final act to be signed.

Helsinki Final Act

After two years of negotiations from September 18, 1973 to July 21, 1975 in Geneva , the CSCE Final Act was signed in Helsinki on August 1, 1975. In this declaration of intent, the undersigned states committed themselves to the inviolability of borders, to the peaceful settlement of disputes, to non-interference in the internal affairs of other states and to the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. In addition, cooperation in the fields of business, science and the environment was agreed. The implementation of the CSCE Final Act in the individual states should be examined in follow-up conferences.

Erich Honecker and Helmut Schmidt at the CSCE conference on July 30, 1975
  • Helsinki Final Act and Paris Charter signed
  • Helsinki Final Act signed
  • no signature
  • Partner states
  • The Helsinki Final Act is not a treaty under international law , but a self-binding statement by the states. In it, agreements were made on human rights , cooperation in business , science , technology and the environment , security issues and questions relating to cooperation in humanitarian matters. The aim was to help East and West in Europe to coexist in an orderly manner.

    The document is divided into four sections:

    • Section 1 deals with “Security Issues in Europe”, broken down into a declaration of ten guiding principles of relations between participating States and their explanation, as well as a document on confidence-building measures in the military field. The ten principles were:
    1. Sovereign equality, respect for rights inherent in sovereignty
    2. Refrain from threatening or using force
    3. Inviolability of borders
    4. Territorial Integrity of States
    5. Peaceful settlement of disputes
    6. Non-interference in internal affairs
    7. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of thought , conscience , religion and belief
    8. Equal rights and right of self-determination of peoples
    9. Cooperation between states
    10. Fulfillment of international law obligations in good faith
    • Section 2 deals with cooperation in the fields of business, science, technology and the environment
    • Section 3 deals with security and cooperation issues in the Mediterranean; refer to the second stage in the Conference views and suggestions of not participating in the conference were the Mediterranean - bordering Algeria , Egypt , Israel , Morocco , Syria and Tunisia were heard.
    • Finally, Section 4 deals with principles of cooperation in humanitarian and cultural areas.

    In addition, the Final Act contains a preamble and a final section entitled “Consequences of the Conference”, which contains the declaration of will of the participating States to apply the conference decisions and the agreement to continue the conference process in follow-up conferences.

    Section 1 of the Confidence-Building Measures document contained specific security agreements. This included announcing maneuvers of 25,000 or more soldiers at least 21 days in advance and inviting observers to these maneuvers. Specific disarmament agreements were not the subject of the CSCE negotiations . These were discussed in parallel at the MBFR negotiations in Vienna and ended in 1989 after 16 years with no results.

    Consequences of the conference

    Conference plenary
    Wall newspaper in a Dresden school after the conference

    The conference was characterized by an exchange deal: for the Eastern Bloc it brought recognition of the limits of the post-war order and a stronger economic exchange with the West. In return, the East made concessions on human rights.

    Immediately after the conference, in the eyes of many observers, the Eastern Bloc was the real winner of the conference, as the borders of the Eastern European states (especially Poland and the GDR ) were recognized in an international treaty for the first time, and the principle of "non-interference" in internal affairs was enshrined and also the basis for (from RGW -space desired) economic relations were created.

    Only later did it become apparent that Chapter VII of the Final Act (“ Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief ”), which the Comecon states had probably not taken seriously at first, was a larger one Possessed weight. He initiated the establishment of numerous “Helsinki Groups” in the Soviet Union, including the Moscow Helsinki Group , the Ukrainian Helsinki Group , the Lithuanian Helsinki Group, the Latvian Helsinki Group, the Estonian Helsinki Group and the Georgian Helsinki group. Chapter VII became the basis for the work of many Eastern European dissidents and human rights organizations . These include, for example, the civil rights movement in the GDR , Charter 77 in the ČSSR , Solidarność in Poland and Human Rights Watch , which referred to the Helsinki Act. They contributed to the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, so that the CSCE contributed significantly to the end of the East-West conflict.

    Balance of maneuver observations and invitations to observers according to the provisions of the
    CSCE Final Act from 1975 to the end of 1984:
    Maneuvers over 25,000 soldiers Maneuvers among 25,000 soldiers
    Announcements Invitations Announcements Invitations
    NATO countries 28 25th 36 11th
    Warsaw Pact states 20th 6th 5 1
    Neutral and Unbound States 7th 5 12th 4th
    total 55 36 53 16

    As part of the CSCE process, on August 22, 1975, NATO reported for the first time the military maneuver “Great Castling”, in which 68,000 soldiers took part. From 1979 to 1985, the Warsaw Pact no longer issued invitations to observers to maneuvers.

    CSCE follow-up conferences

    Belgrade 1977–1979

    The preparatory meetings for the CSCE follow-up meeting began from June 15 to August 5, 1977, including talks from June 20 to July 28, 1977 for the “Scientific Forum” of the CSCE in Bonn . The first follow-up meeting of the CSCE from October 4, 1977 to March 9, 1979 in Belgrade , however, was practically inconclusive. The Soviet Union continued to call for détente in East-West relations, but did not restrict its interventionist policies in other areas. A CSCE expert meeting on peaceful dispute settlement took place from October 31 to December 1, 1977 in Montreux . Another CSCE expert meeting on economic, scientific and cultural cooperation in the Mediterranean was held from February 13th to March 26th 1979 in Valletta .

    Nine months after the conclusion of the first CSCE follow-up conference in 1979, there was a setback in the CSCE process due to the NATO double decision and the Soviet invasion of neighboring Afghanistan .

    Madrid 1980-1983

    The "Scientific Forum" of the CSCE met in Hamburg from February 18 to March 23, 1980 . The preparatory meetings for the CSCE follow-up meeting on November 11, 1980 began in Madrid from 9 September to 10 November 1980 . The Western participating States of the CSCE brought the events in Afghanistan to the agenda. The declaration of a state of war in Poland on December 13, 1981 and the treatment of political dissidents in the Soviet Union who referred to the Helsinki Final Act became a topic during the conference period, so that on March 12, 1982 the CSCE negotiations were broken off and only continued on November 9, 1982. The most important final result at the final conference on September 9, 1983 in Madrid was finally in Basket I an agreement on a mandate for a "Conference on Security and Confidence-Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (KVAE)" with negotiations beginning in January 1984 in Stockholm . The failure of the INF negotiations (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces) in November 1983 also put a heavy burden on the CSCE process. From March 21 to April 30, 1984, another CSCE expert meeting on peaceful dispute settlement took place in Athens . A CSCE meeting on economic, scientific and cultural cooperation in the Mediterranean was held from October 16 to 26, 1984 in Venice .

    KVAE: Stockholm 1984-1986

    The preparatory meeting for the Conference on Security and Confidence Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (KVAE) began on October 25, 1983 in Helsinki and the conference began on January 17, 1984 in Stockholm , as a new forum for the security dialogue in Europe and integral part of the process of the CSCE participating States. In accordance with the mandate of the 2nd CSCE follow-up meeting in Madrid on September 6, 1985, “Confidence and Security-Building Measures (CSBM)” were agreed in the first phase, which were militarily significant, politically binding and appropriately verifiable and as an area of ​​application for all of Europe from the Atlantic included to the Urals. The meetings of the KVAE should be concluded by the 3rd CSCE follow-up meeting in Vienna.

    On September 19, 1986, the KVAE came to an end with a final document in which the confidence-building measures from the Helsinki Final Act were further expanded. The announcement of smaller maneuvers and the invitation of maneuver observers on the other side became compulsory. In order to check compliance with the agreements, inspections on land and from the air could now be used just 36 hours after the announcement. A rejection by the country concerned was not possible.

    In 1985 the INF negotiations were also resumed and in December 1987 resulted in a major agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union for the worldwide elimination of all American and Soviet land-based medium-range nuclear missiles. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1989 continued to lead to détente.

    Vienna 1986–1989 and the Paris Charter 1990

    CSCE Economic Conference in the Hotel Maritim 1990 in Bonn
    Heads of State and Government at the Paris Summit in 1990

    From November 21 to December 4, 1984, there was a CSCE preparatory meeting for a cultural forum in Budapest in autumn 1985 to discuss the cultural aspects of the CSCE process. This deviated from the traditional framework of the CSCE meetings: not only government representatives from the individual countries, but artists and other personalities from cultural life took part. They in particular had a decisive influence on the topics and the course of the discussion. From April 23 to June 17, 1984 there was a CSCE expert meeting on human rights and fundamental freedoms in Ottawa with regard to basket III and from April 2 to May 26, 1986 an expert meeting on human contacts in Bern . The CSCE Information Forum met from April 26 to May 10, 1989 in London . The preparatory meetings for the 3rd CSCE Follow-Up Conference began in Vienna from September 23 to October 6, 1986 . The follow-up conference began in November 1986 and ended on January 19, 1989. From May to June 23, 1989, there was a meeting of experts on the human dimension of the CSCE in Paris . From September 23 to October 19, 1989, the CSCE Conference of Experts on Cooperation in the Mediterranean Region met again in Palma .

    The CSCE Conference on Economic Cooperation met in Bonn from March 19 to April 11, 1990 . A meeting of experts on the human dimension of the CSCE followed in Copenhagen from June 5 to 28, 1990 . With the Paris Charter at the November 19, 1990 summit, the East-West conflict ended on the normative level. The CSCE has thus also lost its previous function. At the CSCE summit in Paris , the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE Treaty) was signed by 22 heads of government of the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries. By November 1995 this led to a reduction of more than 50,000 attackable conventional weapon systems in the categories of main battle tanks, armored infantry fighting vehicles, artillery systems, attack helicopters and combat aircraft in Europe. At the beginning of the 1990s, the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) thus played a central role in the restructuring of pan-European security, which corresponded to a need of the new democracies in East Central Europe, but also of Germany and the Soviet Union (later Russia).

    From November 22, 1990, the following participation of the states in the financial costs of the CSCE applied, which a "Committee of Senior Officials" monitored and examined the cost-effectiveness of the institutions, activities and personnel of the CSCE:

    • 9.10% each: Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, the Soviet Union and the USA
    • ever 5.50%: Canada
    • 3.60% each: Belgium, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden and Spain
    • 2.10% each: Denmark, Finland, Norway, Austria, Switzerland, the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (ČSFR) and Hungary
    • 0.83% each: Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania, Turkey
    • 0.62% each: Bulgaria, Ireland, Luxembourg and Portugal
    • 0.20% each: Holy See, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino and Cyprus.

    Moscow Mechanism 1991

    Since 1991 it has been possible, at the request of at least ten participating states, to appoint independent experts to monitor the implementation of obligations in the area of ​​human rights, with the country concerned being able to second its own experts. The mechanism was activated a total of seven times between 1991 and 2018. The mechanism was activated in 2010 because of fundamental rights restrictions in Belarus . In 2018, human rights violations in Chechnya were investigated at the request of 16 countries .

    Helsinki 1992

    Location of the CSCE: The Finlandia Hall

    From January 15 to February 5, 1991 there was another meeting on peaceful dispute settlement in Valletta . From May 28th to June 7th 1991 there was a symposium in Krakow on cultural heritage. On November 14th and 15th, 1991, there was a meeting of experts on democratic institutions in Oslo . The preparatory meetings followed on March 10, 1992, and the fourth CSCE follow-up meeting began on March 24, 1992 in Helsinki . The participating heads of state and government signed the so-called Helsinki Document on July 10, 1992. It contains the declaration that the CSCE sees itself as a regional agreement under Chapter VIII of the Charter of the United Nations . It is the basis for cooperation between the United Nations and the CSCE. The most important results of the summit include the instruments for early warning, conflict prevention through the newly established "Conflict Prevention Center (CPC)" in Vienna and crisis management including the possibility of peacekeeping measures. In addition, the arms control negotiations that had hitherto been conducted in separate areas were merged and the “CSCE Forum for Security Co-operation (FSK)” in Vienna with a new mandate for arms control in Europe was set up on September 22, 1992.

    Budapest 1994 and renamed the OSCE

    From November 30th to December 1st 1993 the fourth meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the CSCE participating States took place in Rome . A conference on stability in Europe followed in Paris on May 26, 1994, and the CSCE Parliamentary Assembly met in Vienna on July 8, 1994.

    On November 28, 1994, after five years of negotiations, the CSCE states adopted the Vienna Document 1994 on Confidence- and Security-Building Measures. The document contains an extensive catalog of measures for the annual exchange of detailed information on armed forces, for risk reduction, mutual contacts in the military field, the announcement and observation of military activities, verification and communication as well as annual meetings to assess the implementation.

    At the CSCE summit meeting in Budapest on December 5 and 6, 1994 , it was decided to transform the CSCE into an organization that will continue as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) with effect from January 1, 1995 .

    CSCE participating states 1971/1973 to 1994

    The CSCE participating States and the date of accession
    Country accession Helsinki Final Act signed Paris Charter signed
    AlbaniaAlbania Albania June 19, 1991 September 16, 1991 17th September 1991
    ArmeniaArmenia Armenia January 30, 1992 July 8, 1992 April 17, 1992
    AzerbaijanAzerbaijan Azerbaijan January 30, 1992 July 8, 1992 December 20, 1993
    BelgiumBelgium Belgium June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina April 30, 1992 July 8, 1992  
    Bulgaria 1971People's Republic of Bulgaria Bulgaria June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    DenmarkDenmark Denmark June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    GermanyGermany Germany June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    EstoniaEstonia Estonia September 10, 1991 October 14, 1992 December 6, 1991
    FinlandFinland Finland June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    FranceFrance France June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    Georgia 1990Georgia Georgia March 24, 1992 July 8, 1992 January 21, 1994
    GreeceGreece Greece June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    Holy See
    Holy See
    June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    IrelandIreland Ireland June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    IcelandIceland Iceland June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    ItalyItaly Italy June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    CanadaCanada Canada June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    KazakhstanKazakhstan Kazakhstan January 30, 1992 July 8, 1992 September 23, 1992
    KyrgyzstanKyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan January 30, 1992 July 8, 1992 June 3, 1994
    CroatiaCroatia Croatia March 24, 1992 July 8, 1992  
    LatviaLatvia Latvia September 10, 1991 October 14, 1991 December 6, 1991
    LiechtensteinLiechtenstein Liechtenstein June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    LithuaniaLithuania Lithuania September 10, 1991 October 14, 1991 December 6, 1991
    LuxembourgLuxembourg Luxembourg June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    MaltaMalta Malta June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    Moldova RepublicRepublic of Moldova Moldova January 30, 1992 February 26, 1992 January 29, 1993
    MonacoMonaco Monaco June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    NetherlandsNetherlands Netherlands June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    NorwayNorway Norway June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    AustriaAustria Austria June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    PolandPoland Poland June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    PortugalPortugal Portugal June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    Romania 1965Romania Romania June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    RussiaRussia Russia
    from January 30, 1992 as successor state to the Soviet UnionSoviet Union 1955Soviet Union 
    June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    San MarinoSan Marino San Marino June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    SwedenSweden Sweden June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    SwitzerlandSwitzerland Switzerland June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    SerbiaSerbia Serbia as the legal successor to YugoslaviaYugoslavia Socialist Federal RepublicYugoslavia  June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    SlovakiaSlovakia Slovakia January 1, 1993    
    SloveniaSlovenia Slovenia March 24, 1992 July 8, 1992 March 8, 1993
    SpainSpain Spain June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    TajikistanTajikistan Tajikistan January 30, 1992 February 26, 1992  
    Czech RepublicCzech Republic Czech Republic January 1, 1993    
    TurkeyTurkey Turkey June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    Turkmenistan 1992Turkmenistan Turkmenistan January 30, 1992 July 8, 1992  
    UkraineUkraine Ukraine January 30, 1992 February 26, 1992 June 16, 1992
    HungaryHungary Hungary June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    UzbekistanUzbekistan Uzbekistan January 30, 1992 February 26, 1992 October 27, 1993
    United KingdomUnited Kingdom United Kingdom June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    United StatesUnited States United States June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    BelarusBelarus Belarus January 30, 1992 February 26, 1992 April 8, 1993
    Cyprus RepublicRepublic of cyprus Cyprus June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    The former CSCE participating States and the date of accession
    Country accession Helsinki Final Act signed Paris Charter signed
    Germany Democratic Republic 1949GDR German Democratic Republic June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975
    Yugoslavia Socialist Federal RepublicYugoslavia Yugoslavia June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990
    CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia Czechoslovakia June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990, as the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (ČSFR)
    Soviet Union 1955Soviet Union Soviet Union June 25, 1973 August 1, 1975 November 21, 1990

    CSCE as a model for dealing with other conflicts

    The CSCE is considered to be a successful system for easing and resolving interstate conflicts. In 2002, the former Federal Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel proposed the establishment of a "KSZ Middle East" with the participation of regional powers for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict . Such an initiative must come from the European Union . In 2014, against the background of the war in Syria and growing tensions in the Persian Gulf , especially between Saudi Arabia and Iran , the then acting Federal Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier called for the CSCE to be used as an example. The Helsinki formula was "real security with one another instead of deceptive security from one another, and that on the basis of slowly growing mutual trust". In a 2015 concept paper by the Bertelsmann Stiftung , the political consultants Christian-Peter Hanelt and Christian Koch drew up the basics of a "KSZ-Golf" that could function as a "safety net" if, for example, the nuclear negotiations with Iran should fail.

    See also

    literature

    • Yuliya von Saal: CSCE Process and Perestroika in the Soviet Union. Democratization, upheaval and dissolution 1985-1991 . Oldenbourg, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-486-70510-2 .
    • Matthias Peter, Hermann Wentker (ed.): The CSCE in the East-West Conflict: International Politics and Social Transformation 1975–1990. Oldenbourg, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-486-71693-1 .
    • Oliver Bange , Gottfried Niedhart (Eds.): Helsinki 1975 and the Transformation of Europe. New York 2008, ISBN 978-1-84545-491-3 .
    • Kurt P. Tudyka: The OSCE - Concerned for Europe's Security. Cooperation instead of confrontation. Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-939519-03-4 .
    • Kurt P. Tudyka: The OSCE Handbook. 2nd Edition. Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-2891-6 .
    • Peter Schlotter : The CSCE in the East-West Conflict: Effect of an International Institution. (Studies by the Hess Foundation for Peace and Conflict Research). 1998, ISBN 3-593-36122-1 .
    • Wilfried von Bredow : The CSCE process. Darmstadt 1992, ISBN 3-534-10993-7 .
    • Hans-Peter Schwarz : Interim balance sheet of the CSCE. Stuttgart 1977, ISBN 3-512-00490-3 .
    • Wilfried Loth : Helsinki, August 1, 1975. Relaxation and disarmament. Munich 1998, ISBN 3-423-30614-9 .
    • Norbert Ropers, Peter Schlotter: The CSCE. Bonn 1992, ISBN 3-927626-18-X .
    • Foreign Office (Ed.): The CSCE Cultural Forum in Budapest. Documentation. (Series: Reports and Documentations). Bonn 1986, DNB 210307927 .
    • CSCE Helsinki 1975: Opportunities Used and Opportunities Missed . Contributions to a scientific conference in honor of Prof. Dr. Stefan Doernberg. (= Pankower Lectures 21), Helle Panke, Berlin 2000.

    Web links

    Commons : Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

    Individual evidence

    1. Philipp Rock: Power, Markets and Morals - On the role of human rights in the foreign policy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the sixties and seventies. Peter Lang, Frankfurt a. M. 2010, ISBN 978-3-631-59705-7 , pp. 221-238.
    2. Reinhard Veser : Unexpected late effects: "Helsinki" contributed significantly to the collapse of the communist regime , in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, August 1, 2015, p. 8.
    3. On the role of the OSCE in Central Asia , bpb, January 19, 2006
    4. OSCE Annual Report 2011
    5. OSCE activates Moscow Mechanism for LGBTIQ * for the first time , Blu.fm, November 3, 2018
    6. Map and list of OSCE participating states at: osze-powis.npage.de (accessed on: May 31, 2012).
    7. ^ A CSCE for the Middle East | International politics. Retrieved April 19, 2020 .
    8. Steinmeier in the Tagesspiegel: A CSCE for the Middle East. Retrieved April 19, 2020 .
    9. ^ Christian-Peter Hanelt, Christian Koch: More peace and security in the Middle East through a KSZ-Golf. In: Spotlight Europe 2015 / 02.Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2015, accessed on April 19, 2020 .
    10. Three baskets for the brawlers Iran and Saudi Arabia. June 25, 2015, accessed April 19, 2020 .