Jewish community of Worms

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The "Old Synagogue" from the garden side
Heiliger Sand , the historic Jewish cemetery of Worms

The Jewish community of Worms ( Kehillo kedoscho wermeise , the "Holy Community of Worms") was one of the oldest recorded Jewish communities in German-speaking countries. Until the destruction by the National Socialists, the Jewish community in Worms existed continuously from the Middle Ages with only relatively short interruptions . Due to this long tradition, it always held a prominent position in the culture of remembrance of Ashkenazi Judaism.

history

Emergence

In the late antiquity there were Jewish communities on the Rhine. Their continuity into the High Middle Ages cannot be proven. In the self-portrayal of the congregation, however, legendary founding stories were circulating that date the existence of the congregation back to the time of the first destruction of the Jerusalem Temple .

From the 9th century, Jewish long-distance traders from Italy and France immigrated to the area that would later become Germany. The area should be developed according to the aspiration of the kings . Long-distance traders immigrating from more advanced and urbanized areas were part of this innovation push. However, when this resulted in local communities in the cities along the Rhine is not certain due to the poor sources. This lack of historical facts was already felt as a gap in the late Middle Ages and the early modern period and was filled by a number of founding legends.

The two oldest written evidence that Jews lived in Worms are dated to the years 960 and 980. The oldest evidence that there was a Jewish community is the building inscription for the synagogue in Worms from 1034. It is also the oldest surviving building inscription of a synagogue north of the Alps. The oldest tombstone in the Jewish cemetery in Worms (“ Holy Sand ”) dates from 1058/59.

Emperor Heinrich IV granted the Jews of Worms privileges and protection. First, on January 18, 1074, an exemption from taxes (confirmed in 1112 by Henry V ). In the first half of the 1090s, he granted the Jews and the rest of the citizens of Worms another extensive privilege. The document guarantees a comprehensive regulation of the legal relationships of the Jewish community vis-à-vis the Christian majority, an exclusion of the bishop from sovereign rights vis-à-vis the Jews and high inhibitions against conversion . The original of the certificate has not been preserved, but there are a number of later confirmations. In one of Emperor Friedrich I's dated April 6, 1157, it is said that the original to be confirmed was “tempore Salmanni eorundem Judeorum episcopi”. This is the oldest surviving mention of the Jewish Bishop of Worms, an office that was the top function of the political Jewish community until the end of the Old Kingdom .

Heyday

External circumstances

In the ShUM network

Since the 12th century, the Worms community, together with those in Mainz and Speyer, formed the SchUM association , an acronym from the first letters of the three cities. These congregations adopted a German rite very early on in the liturgy , which differed from the traditionally Italian rite. All of this was written down early on in prayer books and Minhag . Music also played an excellent role.

Also since the 12th century the movement of the Hasidej Ashkenas ("the pious of Ashkenaz") emerged in Worms , whose religious practice was characterized by strict ideas of purity, impurity and penitential practices. The Kalomyden family, originally from Mainz, played a central role here.

It owes a long tradition to its relative size, the long continuity and the fact that until 1938 the opponents of the Worms community only succeeded in driving them out of the city for a short time. This also resulted in a number of customs that differed from those of other congregations. In the women's synagogue - as long as it was structurally separated from the men's synagogue by a wall - there were prayers who led the service.

The Worms community was one of the largest in the German Empire . In the imperial tax register of 1241 , after the community of Strasbourg , it paid the second highest amount that a Jewish community paid. In the course of the 14th century, the income from this tax was increasingly assigned to different debtors of the German kings.

Protection conditions

In 1236 the document from 1090, the Worms privilege , was extended to Jews throughout the empire. In the customs privilege of 1074 there is the interesting phrase "judei et coeteri Wormatienses" (Jews and other worms). This shows two things: On the one hand, Jews and Christians are addressed by the later emperor on the same level, i.e. not treated as legally inferior. Second, the Christians are only referred to as “other Worms”, which suggests that the customs privilege was primarily of interest to Jewish traders, that is, long-distance trade was in their hands.

The legal status of the Jewish community deteriorated noticeably. Contrary to the document of 1090, the bishop succeeded in gaining considerable rights, including against the Jews, as the city lord of Worms. Various kings tried to impose additional taxes on her or to deny her legal protection against debtors. The city of Worms tried to different degrees to support the Jewish community in repelling such attacks. Conversely, there were also political constellations in which the king protected the Jewish community from attacks by the city of Worms. In doing so, the Worms community - alongside that in Frankfurt am Main, was one of the few larger communities - to successfully oppose the city's attempts to drive them out. In addition, the family of the eunuchs of Worms and - until the end of the Old Kingdom - their successors, the von Dalberg branch of the Jews in Worms.

Inner organization

The Jewish community administered a council of 12 members ("Parnassim"), which co-opted . The council is said to have originated in the 11th century. He elected a community leader from his ranks, "the jew bishop of Wormß". The (Christian) bishop had to confirm elections. The Judenrat existed until the imperial city of Worms passed to France as a result of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. In fact, in the city of Worms there were two self-administrations side by side, with the Christian population already numerically predominating. In 1312 an agreement was reached between the Jewish community on the one hand and the bishop and cathedral chapter on the other, which laid down the constitution of the Jewish community with the twelve-member Judenrat at its head. Legal disputes among Jews were carried out before the Jewish council. Only Jewish law was applicable here. In legal disputes between members of both groups, however, the city court of the Christian majority was responsible.

Jews could acquire citizenship, which meant full tax and military service, but not the right to stand for election . For example, in 1201 the Jews took part in defending the city when it was besieged. The rules according to which citizenship took place were very similar for Jews and Christians. In fact, the Jewish council was the only one who decided whether to accept a Jewish citizen. Just like Christians, Jews could only hold offices within their own group. Until the formation of the ghetto in Judengasse in the middle of the 14th century, Jews were able to purchase and live in the entire city area.

Late Middle Ages and Modern Times

External circumstances

In the course of the 14th century, the income from the tax that the Jewish community paid the German king was increasingly ceded to various debtors of the kings. A low point in this development is the sale of the rights on January 4, 1348 by King Charles IV to the city of Worms. The later emperor left all Jews living there to the city of Worms "with their body and property and with all the benefits and rights" that had previously been granted to him.

However, the city did not fulfill its duty of protection: one year later, in 1349, around 400 Jews were murdered in the plague pogrom . Under pressure from third parties who were economically damaged as a result, in particular Count Palatine Ruprecht I , the city had to allow Jews back into its walls from 1353. The creation of the ghetto dates back to this time and shortly afterwards its structural demarcation from the rest of the city by gates. The triangular relationship between emperor, bishop and the city of Worms and the associated competitive situation between the three powers on the one hand and the Jewish community on the other meant that the Jewish community - next to that in Frankfurt am Main - as one of the few larger communities in the southern German cities never did was permanently ousted from the city. On December 17, 1558 , Emperor Ferdinand I granted the city of Worms permission to expel the Jews. But this was thwarted by the bishop. Conversely, there were also political constellations in which the king protected the Jewish community from attacks by the city of Worms. In various situations, the city of Worms tried to protect the Jewish community in repelling external attacks.

Inner organization

Jew from Worms and both with the yellow ring Jewish woman from Worms around 1600.
Jew from Worms and
both with the yellow ring
Jewish woman from Worms around 1600.

By 1348 at the latest, the Jews only had the status of rear passengers in the city of Worms. From the late Middle Ages, Jews were theoretically only allowed to stay in Worms for a limited period (“Gedinge”): They had to buy the right again every four years. But when the city tried to expel the Jews in 1487, Emperor Friedrich III stepped . and forbade that.

In 1521 Emperor Karl V appointed Worms Rabbi Samuel ben Elieser Seezum as the highest rabbi in the German Empire with his seat in Worms, the same happened under Emperor Ferdinand I on June 26, 1559 with Rabbi Jakob zu Worms .

During the Thirty Years War , the city was forced to maintain large billeted military, which ruined it economically. That is why she tried to squeeze out the Jewish community, which also suffered terribly from the war. In 1641, the emperor confirmed a new municipal Jewish ordinance, which for the first time required all Jews to wear a yellow fabric ring sewn onto their clothing. After the Thirty Years War, the city's attacks on the Jewish community decreased in intensity, they were now less life-threatening and were directed primarily against Jewish property. That only ended when France took control of the left bank of the Rhine in 1792.

Persecutions

While in the High Middle Ages Jews were able to acquire and live in the entire city area, after the plague pogrom the ghettoization set in : From then until the French period in 1792, Jews lived exclusively in Judengasse and Hinteren Judengasse . The legal status of the Jewish community deteriorated, as did the legal status of the individual. Various kings tried to impose additional taxes on the Jewish community or to deny Jewish creditors legal protection against debtors. Jews were restricted in their professions in order to prevent competition from Christian craftsmen.

Advertising box from “ Der Stürmer ” in August 1935 in Worms
The destroyed synagogue and its extensions (in the foreground) after 1945

But since the High Middle Ages, the Worms community has suffered from much more massive threats, pogroms :

  • 1096 the crusade pogrom, the oldest known pogrom in Worms. On May 18, 1096, the crusaders killed all Jews who had not already fled in their homes if they were not baptized. On May 25, a mob and the crusaders stormed the bishop's court , where many Jews had fled to him as patrons. The bishop was not present, however. The mob continued to kill there, with some Jews killing their children and committing suicide - also known as Kiddush HaChaim. There are said to have been about 800 deaths.
  • In 1146, in the run-up to the Second Crusade, there were again acts of violence against Jews along the Rhine. The central figure was Radulf the Cistercian . The Jewish community fled Worms.
  • At the beginning of 1188, the Jewish community fled the city again due to an impending pogrom.
  • November 15, 1196, the wife and children of the Worms rabbi Eleazar ben Juda ben Kalonymos were murdered by crusaders.
  • In 1278 the Holy Sands are said to have been threatened with destruction, which the Jewish community could only avert by paying 400 pounds of Heller.
  • 1349 plague pogrom
  • April 10, 1615, Easter Monday , expulsion of the Jewish community from Worms, destruction of the synagogue, damage to the “Holy Sand”. The Jewish residents could not return until January 1616 under the protection of the Palatinate military.
  • The destruction of Worms by the French on May 31, 1689 was not a pogrom like the previous one. The community had to leave the city, its buildings were again badly damaged and it was not until 1699 before they could return to the city. In a collection book for reconstruction in 1698, the donating Jewish community in Grünstadt was mentioned for the first time in a document.
  • The synagogue was badly damaged in the November pogrom in 1938. Many original parts have been preserved in the rubble. The Levy Synagogue was further damaged in the air raids on Worms during World War II.
  • In the Shoah the church was wiped out. More than 400 Worms were deported and murdered. The deportation of those who had not previously been able to escape took place in several "actions" on March 20, 1942, from April 24th to 27th. On September 30, 1942, on September 30, 1942, 1944 against "Jewish" partners from " mixed marriages " and on March 24, 1945, Rosa Bertram and Erich Salomon from Worms were murdered in a shooting by the Gestapo . In addition, many were murdered who at first had been able to flee abroad, but were then caught up by the German occupiers and were thus exposed to the murderous grip of National Socialist racial policy.

The stories collected by Juspa Schammes reflect the experience of the Worms community up to the 17th century.

emancipation

The New Synagogue

In times when the persecution was not formative, the community took over numerous cultural influences from its environment. The ShUM congregations, for example, adapted their marriage law, including by renouncing polygamy or the importance attached to martyrs .

In the 17th century, children from the Jewish community attended the city school in isolated cases. However, the religious differences were still so divisive that in 1789 the commemorative event for the 100th anniversary of the city's destruction by the French military was carried out strictly separately, each in a separate event by the Roman Catholics , Lutherans , Reformed and Jews.

With the dissolution of the structures of the Holy Roman Empire , the Judenrat was replaced by a community council. He campaigned for complete emancipation, which could be achieved in 1847/48, more than 40 years after this had already happened under French sovereignty, but years earlier than in many other German states. From the 1830s onwards, Jews increasingly took their place of residence and business outside the ghetto. Around 1800 about 500 and around 1850 about 1000 Jews lived in the city, which was largely the result of immigration from the countryside.

With Ferdinand Eberstadt , the Hessian government appointed a Jew as mayor in Germany for the first time in 1849 . He served until 1852.

In the 1840s, the community split into an orthodox and a more liberal direction over issues of modernization and adjustments to the rapidly changing culture outside the community. Structurally, this found its expression, among other things, in the fact that the dividing wall between the women's and men's synagogue was removed and an organ was installed. The Orthodox part of the community then separated and built its own synagogue in 1871 exactly opposite the medieval synagogue ( New Synagogue / Levy Synagogue) .

Social circumstances

The Judengasse was still loosely built around 1500. Numerous vacant lots and littered gardens shaped the picture. At the end of the 17th century, on the other hand, shortly before the city was destroyed in the Palatinate War of Succession in 1689, Judengasse was densely built with no vacant lots in the streets. This dense development was not achieved again in 1760. There are numerous vacant lots and gardens, especially in the area of ​​Hinteren Judengasse.

Population development
year Residents Judengasse Resident of Worms source
1600 600
1610 650 to just under 800
1722 600
1744 750 5000

Facilities

The institution that made the Worms community known far beyond its regional area was the yeshiva there in the High Middle Ages . Numerous theologians who were trained there took on leading positions in churches in northern Europe.

The community had all the facilities that were necessary for community life: synagogue, mikveh , community hall ("House of the Sun") and a community hall (on the site of today's Rashi House ). The ghetto had formed around this core at the end of the Middle Ages. It consisted of the streets Judengasse and Hintere Judengasse and was secured by gates where these streets led into the surrounding city. The obligation for Jews to live in the ghetto was only lifted in the period after 1792, when Worms was part of France .

In 1924 a Jewish museum was opened on the first floor of the front building of the women's synagogue. The driving force was Isidor Kiefer , who set it up and looked after it. Most of the museum's objects were lost in the November pogrom of 1938.

present

Jewish mourning hall at the Hochheimer Höhe cemetery

After the Shoah, there was no longer a Jewish community in Worms. The city archivist Friedrich Maria Illert succeeded - for various reasons - in saving part of the community's cultural assets from destruction. These included the community archive, medieval manuscripts and early prints as well as components of the medieval synagogue and its extensions. The Jewish part of the Hochheimer Höhe cemetery with its own mourning hall (1911) was also preserved. The two synagogues were badly damaged. After the Second World War , the ruins of the New Synagogue were torn down in 1947, and the old synagogue was reconstructed from 1958 to 1961 on the foundations of the historic building using salvaged architectural parts.

The legal successor of the lost Jewish community of Worms was the only Jewish community of Mainz that existed in Rhineland-Palatinate at that time due to a state law . Initially, however, the city of Worms and the Jewish Trust Corporation for Germany - Branche Francais also asserted claims to the preservation or preservation of the archive or the Worms Machzor . This led to a comparison, the result of which was that part (the community archive and the Worms Machzor) was transferred to Israel , while another part became the property of the Mainz Jewish community, but is kept as a deposit in the Worms city archive . The synagogue, mikveh, Rashi-Yeshiva and synagogue garden, like the "Heiliger Sand" cemetery, are owned by the Mainz Jewish community.

The Jewish community of Mainz, Worms and Rheinhessen is a corporation under public law . It is a unified church and sees itself as an Orthodox church. It acts on the basis of a statute that has been approved by the general assembly. All parishioners can take part in the general assembly. Every two years she elects the voluntary board by secret ballot. He determines the guidelines of the community policy, conducts the daily business and represents the community externally.

Personalities

Yeshiva

Teacher

student

Samson Wertheimer

rabbi

Wormser

See also

literature

in alphabetical order by authors / editors

  • Friedrich Battenberg: The imperial knighthood of Dalberg and the Jews . In: Kurt Andermann (Hrsg.): Ritteradel in the Old Kingdom. Die Kämmerer von Worms called von Dalberg = work of the Hessian Historical Commission NF Bd. 31. Hessische Historical Commission, Darmstadt 2009. ISBN 978-3-88443-054-5 , pp. 155-184.
  • Otto Böcher : The old synagogue in Worms . (= The Wormsgau . Supplement 18). Worms 1960 (= dissertation at the University of Mainz).
    • First reprint in: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961, pp. 11–154.
    • Second reprint in: Fifty years of rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms. Expanded reprint of 1961 research with sources . Worms-Verlag, Worms 2011. ISBN 978-3-936118-60-5 .
  • Max Dienemann: The history of the individual community as a mirror of the overall history . ND in: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961.
  • Ismar Elbogen u. a. (Ed): Germania Judaica 1: From the oldest times to 1238 . Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Tübingen 1963.
  • Max Freudenthal: The peculiarity of the Worms community in its historical return . In: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961, pp. 155-166.
  • Georg Illert: The Jewish antiquities in Worms in the years 1938–1961 . In: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961, pp. 229-240.
  • Isidor Kiefer : The Museum of the Israelite Community of Worms . In: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961, pp. 213-217. Reprinted in: Ashkenaz. Journal for the history and culture of the Jews 12 = Anette Weber (Ed.): Special issue. Medinat Worms . Böhlau, Vienna 2002. ISSN  1016-4987 , pp. 33-44.
  • Guido Kisch: The legal status of the Worms Jews in the Middle Ages . In: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961, pp. 173-181.
  • Adolf Kober: The German emperors and the Worms Jews . In: Ernst Róth: Festschrift for the rededication of the Old Synagogue in Worms . Ner Tamid Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1961, pp. 182-198.
  • A [dolf] Neubauer and M [oritz] Stern: Hebrew reports on the persecution of the Jews during the Crusades = sources on the history of the Jews in Germany 2. Berlin 1892.
  • Fritz Reuter : Warmasia - the Jewish Worms. From the beginning to Isidor Kiefer's Jewish Museum (1924) . In: Gerold Bönnen (ed. On behalf of the city of Worms): History of the city of Worms . Theiss, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-8062-1679-7 , pp. 664-690.
  • Fritz Reuter: Warmasia. 1000 years of Jews in Worms . 3. Edition. Worms 2009.
  • Ursula Reuter: Jerusalem on the Rhine . In: Contributions to Rhenish Jewish History 3 (2013), pp. 5–32.
  • Samson Rothschild : From the past and present of the Israelite community of Worms . 2nd edition Wirth, Mainz 1901; 3rd edition Kauffmann, Frankfurt 1905 [1] ; 5th edition 1913; 6th edition 1926; 7th edition 1929.
  • Samson Rothschild: Officials of the Worms Jewish community (mid-18th century to the present) . Kauffmann, Frankfurt 1920 ( digitized version ).
  • Samson Rothschild: The synagogue in Worms with its antiquities . Worms 1914.
  • Samson Rothschild: The taxes and the debt burden of the Worms Jews. Parish 1563–1854 . Worms 1924.
  • Annelore Schlösser, Karl Schlösser: Nobody was spared. The persecution of the Jews 1933–1945 in Worms (= Der Wormsgau supplement 31). Worms City Archives, Worms 1987/1989. ISSN  0342-426X

Web links

Commons : Jüdische Gemeinde Worms  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ Confirmed on April 6, 1157 by Friedrich I. This confirmation document also contains the oldest surviving mention of the Jews as royal " chamber servants " (Kober: Die deutscher Kaiser , p. 183).
  2. ↑ The partition was removed in 1842.
  3. ↑ The fact that a document from 1392 speaks of a “Jewish court” has inappropriately led to speculations about a corresponding judicial organ, for which, however, no other evidence has been handed down. Battenberg: The imperial knighthood rule , p. 167, assumes that what is meant here is the well-known protection of Jews that the chamberlain of Worms held.
  4. ↑ This title was created in analogy to the secular power of the Christian bishop, who also exercised the powers of the king locally in the High Middle Ages (Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , p. 181).
  5. ↑ There are at least two contemporary reports on this:
    * Report by Solomon bar Simeon . In: Neubauer and Stern, pp. 2, 84f, and
    * Report by Eliezer bar Nathan . In: Neubauer and Stern, pp. 37f, 155.
    There is also a third report, narrative far more embellished, with some facts, especially data, differing and due to clues in the present version probably in the second half of the 14th century at the earliest emerged (see: H. Bresslau: On the criticism of the crusade reports . In: Neubauer and Stern, p. XIV):     Report of an anonymus . In: Neubauer and Stern, pp. 49–51, 172–176.
  6. ↑ The news comes from the Zorn'schen Chronik , a work from the beginning of the 18th century.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Kiefer: Das Museum , p. 217.
  2. ↑ Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 8.
  3. ↑ Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 8f.
  4. ↑ Juspa Schammes: Little Jerusalem . In: Fritz Reuter and Ulrike Schäfer: Miracle stories from Warmeisa. Juspa Schammes, his Ma'asseh nissim and the Jewish Worms in the 17th century . Warmaisa, Worms 2007. ISBN 3-00-017077-4 , p. 2.
  5. ↑ Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 9f.
  6. ↑ Böcher: The old synagogue , p. 24.
  7. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 17f.
  8. ↑ Böcher: The old synagogue , p. 23; Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 20; Reuter: Warmasia - the Jewish Worms , p. 664.
  9. ↑ Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 23.
  10. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 57.
  11. ^ Kober: Die deutscher Kaiser , p. 183, there also a German-language reproduction of the content of the document.
  12. ↑ Elbogen, pp. 457f, note 45.
  13. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 667.
  14. ↑ Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 13.
  15. ↑ Freudenthal, p. 157.
  16. ↑ Freudenthal, pp. 160f.
  17. ↑ Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 27.
  18. ^ Kiefer: Das Museum , p. 214.
  19. ^ Kiefer: Das Museum , p. 216.
  20. ↑ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 184.
  21. ↑ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 184.
  22. ^ Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , p. 176; Kober: The German Emperors , p. 184.
  23. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 22.
  24. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 57.
  25. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 185.
  26. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 187.
  27. ^ Battenberg: The Imperial Knighthood Rule , p. 167.
  28. ^ Kisch: The legal position , p. 177.
  29. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 666.
  30. ^ Kisch: The legal position , p. 177.
  31. ^ Kisch: The legal position , p. 182.
  32. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 667.
  33. ↑ Freudenthal, p. 156.
  34. ↑ Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , pp. 179, 182.
  35. ↑ Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , p. 180.
  36. ↑ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 184.
  37. ^ Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , p. 177ff.
  38. ↑ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 184.
  39. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 59f.
  40. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 670.
  41. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 666.
  42. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 672.
  43. ^ Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , p. 176; Kober: The German Emperors , p. 187.
  44. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 188.
  45. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 187.
  46. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 185.
  47. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 65.
  48. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 188.
  49. ^ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 190f.
  50. ↑ Kober: The German Emperors , p. 192ff.
  51. ^ Kisch: Die Rechtsstellung , p. 177ff.
  52. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 674.
  53. ^ Report of Eliezer bar Nathan . In: Neubauer and Stern, pp. 37f, 156.
  54. ↑ Elbogen, p. 441.
  55. ↑ Report of Elasar bar Judah . In: Neubauer and Stern, pp. 77, 216.
  56. ↑ Elbogen, p. 461, note 74.
  57. ^ Elbogen, p. 441f, Dienemann: Die Geschichte der Einzelgemeinde , p. 168; Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 52.
  58. ↑ Otto Böcher : The old Jewish cemetery in Worms (= Rheinische Kunststätten . Volume 148). 7th edition, Neusser Verlag und Druckerei, Neuss 1992, ISBN 3-88094-711-2 .
  59. ↑ Juspa Schammes reports about it in legendary form : Die Zaubergans . In: Fritz Reuter and Ulrike Schäfer: Miracle stories from Warmaisa. Juspa Schammes, his Ma'asseh nissim and the Jewish Worms in the 17th century . Warmaisa, Worms 2007. ISBN 3-00-017077-4 , pp. 26-29.
  60. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 678.
  61. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 685.
  62. ^ Synagogue Grünstadt near Alemannia Judaica
  63. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody was spared , p. 40ff.
  64. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody Was Spared, pp. 113–132; see. also: ibid., p. 11.
  65. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody was spared , p. 72f.
  66. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody Was Spared, p. 74f.
  67. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody Was Spared, p. 77f.
  68. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody Was Spared, p. 78f.
  69. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody Was Spared , p. 80.
  70. ↑ Schlösser: Nobody was spared , p. 83ff.
  71. ↑ Juspa Schammes: The two strangers . In: Fritz Reuter and Ulrike Schäfer: Miracle stories from Warmaisa. Juspa Schammes, his Ma'asseh nissim and the Jewish Worms in the 17th century . Warmaisa, Worms 2007. ISBN 3-00-017077-4 , pp. 5f; The mayor's son , ibid., P. 8f; Eleazar ben Jehuda, called Rokeach , p. 9f; Dolza's murder , p. 11.
  72. ↑ Freudenthal, p. 157; Reuter: Jerusalem , p. 16.
  73. ↑ Freudenthal, p. 157.
  74. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 686f.
  75. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 688.
  76. ↑ Illert: The Jewish antiquities , p. 229.
  77. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 92.
  78. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 95.
  79. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 132.
  80. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 674.
  81. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 92.
  82. ↑ Reuter: Warmasia - das Jewish Worms , p. 675.
  83. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 139.
  84. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 139.
  85. ↑ See also:
    • Isidor Kiefer: The museum , see bibliography.
    • Katharina Rauschenberger: "The good old days still breathe here". The local museum of the Israelite community of Worms . In: Ashkenaz. Journal for the history and culture of the Jews 12 = Anette Weber (Ed.): Special issue. Medinat Worms . Böhlau, Vienna 2002. ISSN  1016-4987 , pp. 45-51.
    • Fritz Reuter : From the awakening of historical interest in Jewish Worms to the Isidor Kiefer museum . In: Ashkenaz. Journal for the history and culture of the Jews 12 = Anette Weber (Ed.): Special issue. Medinat Worms . Böhlau, Vienna 2002. ISSN  1016-4987 , pp. 13-32.
    • Anette Weber: The hoard of myths - the museum of the Israelite community in the Old Synagogue in Worms 1924–1938 . In: Ashkenaz. Journal for the history and culture of the Jews 12 = Anette Weber (Ed.): Special issue. Medinat Worms . Böhlau, Vienna 2002. ISSN  1016-4987 , pp. 53-66.
    • Anette Weber: Catalog of cult objects from the museum of the Israelite community in Worms based on the information and photos by Isidor Kiefer . In: Ashkenaz. Journal for the history and culture of the Jews 12 = Anette Weber (Ed.): Special issue. Medinat Worms . Böhlau, Vienna 2002. ISSN  1016-4987 , pp. 67-89.
  86. ^ Kiefer: The Museum ; Reuter: Warmasia - the Jewish Worms , p. 690.
  87. ↑ Illert: The Jewish antiquities , p. 229.
  88. ^ Website on the Jewish mourning hall at the Hochheimer Höhe cemetery
  89. ↑ Homepage of the Jewish Community Mainz Kdö.R.
  90. ↑ Illert: The Jewish antiquities , p. 231ff.
  91. ^ Homepage of the Jewish community in Mainz .
  92. ^ Reuter: Warmaisa. 1000 years , p. 52.
  93. ↑ Freudenthal, p. 156.
  94. ^ Website on the memories of Max Loeb in the German Digital Library .