Roxelane

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Roxelane ( la Rossa ) as they were imagined in Venice , on a woodcut published by Mathio Pagani in 1550

Hürrem (from Persian خرم Chorram , DMG ḫurram , 'the joyful', called Roxelane , also Roxolana , Rossolana , Rossane , la Rossa , la Rosa or Ruziac ; assumed maiden name Anastasia or Aleksandra Lisowska ; * between 1500 and 1506 in the then Polish part of Ruthenia ; died  April 17, 1558 in Istanbul ) as Haseki Sultan was the favorite consort of the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I. In the Christian West she was referred to as the "Empress" (Sultana) of the Ottoman Empire .

Life

origin

Monument to Roxelane in Rohatyn from 1999

Roxelane's origins and her way to Istanbul cannot be substantiated with primary sources. In the 17th century, however, there are fairly precise details, the derivation of which is referred to in the literature as the "Polish tradition" and which probably go back to the Polish poet and essayist Samuel Twardowski (* before 1600; † 1661). Then Roxelane was born as the daughter of a Ruthenian priest in Rohatyn (also Rogatyn, Rogatin ), then Polish and now Ukrainian , and was called Aleksandra Lisowska. During a raid by the Crimean Tatars , she was kidnapped and sold as a slave to Istanbul, where she ended up in the harem of the Old Seraglio . Because of her presumed origin from the legendary land of the Scythians , who were also called Roxolans , outside of the Ottoman Empire she was nicknamed Roxelane, which was also a common name in Polish for a Ruthenian girl. This name appears for the first time in Latinized as Roxolana in Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq's Legationis Turcicae epistolae quattuor , in which Busbecq's experiences and insights from 1554/55 during a diplomatic trip to the Ottoman Empire were processed.

From slave to main wife of the sultan

Letter from Roxelane to the Polish King Sigismund II August, in which she congratulates him on his accession to the throne.

What is certain is that Roxelane became a Muslim and with the name Hürrem Sultan became the wife of Sultan Suleyman I. That may have been 1520 or a little later - perhaps after the birth of their first son Mehmed. A source reports on lavish wedding celebrations on the hippodrome in the summer of 1534, a few months after the death of the higher-ranking Valide Sultan , Ayşe Hafsa Sultan . Roxelane was the first slave concubine in Ottoman history to be released by a sultan and then married by him. This gave her the highest rank among wives and replaced Mahidevran (also called Gülbahar or similar), the mother of the firstborn sultan's son Mustafa , as Haseki Sultan (main wife of the sultan). The uniqueness of this marriage has been mentioned in many reports from foreign envoys. An incomplete, personal-looking correspondence between Roxelane and the Sultan from 1538 onwards, but characterized by the usual literary forms, suggests that Süleyman was passionately devoted to his attractive and intelligent wife. Roxelane's letters also contain political recommendations to Süleyman as well as existentially important information for him about the events in the capital, such as the behavior of his sons, who could be dangerous for him during his absence. Roxelane thus became Süleyman's advisor and - as her correspondence from 1548/49 with the Polish King Sigismund II. August and from 1555 with Sultanim, the sister of Shah Tahmasps I , proves - occasionally even his diplomatic representative.

Dynastic interests

The fact that Roxelane, contrary to the previous conventions, was not deported to the provinces with her firstborn, but was allowed to remain in the seraglio and give birth to several sons, shows that Suleyman I gave her unique preference. Although the harem has so far been mainly the regulatory institution of the dynastic reproductive policy, but Roxelane embarked on the path to power and status as well as to participation in political life not only because of her mother role, but also because of her wife role.

The interior of Roxelane's tomb ( Türbe ) at the Suleymaniye Mosque . Next to Ṣandūḳa Roxelanes (left) is that of her grandson Şehzade Mehmed, a son of Selim II, and that of her niece Hanım Sultan.

Roxelane used the familiarity with the Sultan, which went beyond the usual, to assert her personal interests and those of her sons. She was probably the driving force behind the intrigues that led to the execution of the Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pascha , who was very familiar with Suleyman , in 1536 . Ibrahim had favored Mustafa, Mahidevran's son, as a possible successor to Suleyman. In 1541 Roxelane moved from the old seraglio , which had been devastated by a fire, to the Topkapi seraglio and stayed there, which meant that she was close to the center of power and Suleyman was under her constant control. The office of Grand Vizier took over in 1544 Rüstem Pascha , who supported Roxelane's position in imperial politics as the husband of Roxelanes and Süleyman's daughter Mihrimah . The execution of Mustafa in Ereğli near Konya and his son Mehmed in Bursa in 1553 as well as of the Grand Vizier Kara Ahmed Pascha , who had replaced Rustem Pascha in the meantime, in 1555 are also charged with Roxelane. In any case, as Haseki Hürrem Sultan, she was one of the most politically influential family members of the Ottoman dynasty. By eliminating Mustafa, who was respected by the Janissaries, all potential successors were Suleyman's sons of Hürrem. While Suleyman I was still ruling, she fell ill and died on April 17, 1558 in Istanbul.

It was not until 1566 that Selim II , a son of Roxelane, who was also called Selim the Drunkard (Mest) , was Suleyman's successor.

Roxelane and Süleyman's children

Mirimah (called " Cameria "), daughter of Roxelane and Süleyman, around 1560 (after Tizian  ?). The orientalizing portrait is u. a. interesting because of the fashion and headdress, which are shown similar to Roxelane's portraits.

Roxelane and Süleyman's correspondence shows that the well-being of their children played an important role for them. The children received a solid education that enabled them to do business in the state. In preparation for a possible succession to the sultan, the sons were entrusted as young adults with Sanjaks in the province. They also took part in Suleyman's campaigns.

  • Mehmed, * 1521, † 1543. He became Sandschakbey of Saruhan in Manisa in 1542 and was considered the heir to the throne. Because of him, Roxelane was honored as Valide in the sense of a potential Valide Sultan in a foundation deed during the lifetime of Mahidevran's son Mustafa von Süleyman . After Mehmed's death, Süleyman dedicated the Şehzade Mehmed Mosque ("Prince 's Mosque "), which was being planned, to him.
  • Mihrimah, * 1522, † 1578. She was married to the grand vizier Rustem Pascha and after Roxelane's death confidante and advisor to Süleyman. She followed in Roxelane's footsteps as the founder of Külliyen and with the repair and expansion of the Zubaida water supply systems in Mecca.
  • Abdullah, * 1523, † 1526.
  • Selim, * 1524, † 1574. He was 1543 Sandschakbey in Manisa, 1558 in Konya and 1559 in Kütahya , 1566 successor of Suleyman I as Selim II.
  • Bayezid, * 1526, † 1562. He was 1546 Sandschakbey in Konya and Kütahya and in 1549 and 1553 regent on behalf of Süleymans, 1558 Sandschakbey in Amasya. The dispute between Bayezid and his older brother Selim grew into a civil war in the spring of 1559. Bayezid was defeated and fled with his four sons to the court of Shah Tahmasp I. In 1561 they were extradited and Bayezid and his sons were immediately executed in Qazvin .
  • Cihangir, * 1530, † 1553. The hunchback-born was particularly loved by Süleyman. Presumably, his care by Roxelane was one of the reasons why she did not follow the other sons in their sanjaks, but could stay in Istanbul. He was Sandschakbey in Aleppo and died shortly after witnessing the execution of his half-brother Mustafa. A mental illness caused by the execution and pleurisy are considered possible causes of death. In 1559, Süleyman had the Cihangir mosque built in his honor , which burned down several times and today has neo-baroque features.

Religious foundations

The Haseki Hürrem Sultan Bath in Istanbul
Haseki Hürrem Sultan Vakfiyesi, 1st text page of the deed of foundation of the Takiyyat Haseki Hürrem Sultan
complex in Jerusalem from AH 964 / AD 1556–7

Roxelane, known in the Ottoman vernacular of her time as ' witch , sorceress' (جادی/ cādı ) and was described by European reporters as an intriguer, was seen in an anonymous chronicle written for Rüstem Pascha as a generous benefactor in an unusually positive light. Shortly after her death, she was also - parallel to Suleyman, the "Solomon of [this] age" - adoringly called "Zubaida of the age" .

This positive impression is confirmed by the various pious foundations ( vakıf ) Roxelanes, especially in Istanbul and near Edirne as well as in Jerusalem , Mecca and Medina .

To be emphasized are:

These foundations lagged behind those of Suleyman I and the later Hasekis and sultan's mothers in terms of their architectural standards. However, they demonstrated a religious and imperial self-confidence, which was reinforced in the deed of foundation for the Takiyyat-Haseki-Hürrem-Sultan complex by the fact that Suleyman referred to his Haseki Hürrem as malikat el-malikāt (Queen of the Queens).

Most of Roxelane's foundations were centered around an imaret , a large-scale soup kitchen in which hundreds of guests could be fed for free, usually twice a day. This facility took on functions that had previously been carried out by Sufi settlements, especially along the pilgrimage routes - even in Seljuk times. This gave rise to the fact that in 1555 a messenger from the Sultan who was staying in the Jerusalem Foundation referred to this facility in his written report to Istanbul as ribat , i.e. a dervish convent. Anyway Roxelanes foundations contributed a rather popular social and charitable character and complemented perfectly the more ostentatious imperial oriented and religious to the, in some fatwas Ebussuuds detained requirements of the Ulema -oriented large foundations Suleiman, such as the Istanbul Suleymaniye complex with its Friday Mosque and the Sunni scholarship emphasizing madrasas .

A foundation deed (Vakfiye) signed by a judge ( Qādī ) and witnesses not only listed the affected buildings, but also ensured their permanent maintenance. Such securitized maintenance could also relate to existing foundations of one's own or those of other founders. Roxelane's foundation deeds from 1540 and 1551 record donations for the maintenance of long-standing dervish convents in the Istanbul districts of Aksaray, Ayvansaray and Balat as well as in Denizli, Karapınar and Uşak. They prove Roxelane's personal Sufi religiosity and her turn to popular piety.

Significance for Ottoman history

Newer historiography has freed itself from the traditional, one-sided negative image of Roxelane. Above all, knowledge of the function and significance of the imperial harem is a basis for the reassessment of its role in Ottoman history.

Roxelane established the political functions of the leading women of the imperial household. The way there led through several epoch-making decisions:

  • Roxelane was the first female slave concubine to be released and married by a sultan. With that she rose in the hierarchy of the sultan's wives and after the death of the sultan's mother she assumed the leading role among the women of the court.
  • After she had moved from the Old Seraglio, the traditional place of the female members of the court, to the Topkapi Seraglio and was able to raise her children there as a potential sultan's mother, she was as close to the Sultan as before, at best the wives of the early Ottoman rulers and became a competent advisor to the Sultan.
  • It broke with the tradition of giving birth to only one sultan's son and with the practice of following the possible heir to the throne when he took office as a bey of a sanjak in the province.
  • In agreement with the Sultan, she ensured that her daughter Mihrimah was placed in a position that would enable him to take over her functions after Roxelane's death. This included Mihrimah's marriage to the later Grand Vizier Riistem Pascha.
  • She was the first woman in the household of a sultan who made her importance visible by building a Friday mosque and Külliye in old Istanbul.

The inclusion of the leading women of the harem in political decisions - for a long time discredited in historiography as " female rule " - turned out to be a guarantee for the continued existence of the state constitution of the Ottoman Empire, which was based solely on the consanguinity of the sultans. Strong women were able to largely compensate for the shortcomings of weak, incapable and sick sultans who remained under the protection of the Topkapi Seraglio and who had to inherit their inheritance as children, and to defend their claim to power and the continued existence of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, the grand viziers to whom power had been delegated grew stronger. A bureaucratically anchored policy replaced the arbitrary acts of the sultans.

Roxelane paved the way for these developments.

Roxelane's image in the west

Portraits

La Sultana Rossa , oil portrait after Titian (around 1550), depicted with blond, curly hair, as it was modern in Venice
Portrait of Roxelane (RUZİÆ SOLDANE) by Melchior Lorichs, 1581, edition of 1646.
A print from Frankfurt a. M. from 1596 oil painting from the 18th century

All portraits of Roxelane, including those from her lifetime, must be considered fictional . The inner areas of the Old Seraglio and the Topkapi Serail in which Roxelane lived were strictly screened. No western portraitist had access there at the time.

If Roxelane left this area, for example to travel, she was - hidden in a curtained litter or carriage - surrounded by a large number of dignitaries and servants and was protected by Kapıkulu soldiers so that direct contact was impossible for an outsider.

Western draftsmen and painters put together their picture of Roxelane from oral and written reports, mostly by Western diplomats, reporters and travel writers. More than that Roxelane was small and not particularly beautiful and had a friendly expression, these sources do not say about her appearance. Anecdotally described events , on the other hand, take up a lot of space . It is uncertain, for example, whether Melchior Lorichs , who was the companion of the Habsburg ambassador Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq , was able to move about freely in Istanbul between 1554 and 1559 under supervision, ever saw Roxelane. His portraits of Roxelane, Süleyman and some dignitaries were widely distributed as prints and influenced European painters and draftsmen such as Rembrandt van Rijn .

In Venetian reports, Roxelane was called La Rossa or donna di nation Rossa , among other things , which originally referred to her Russian or Ruthenian origins. As Russia rossa (Rotrussland, Bragadino nation Rossa ) was called Red Ruthenia, the presumed country of origin Roxelanes. La Rossa would then be equated with Die Rote in the sense of Die Rotrussische . The shortening to Rossa gave cause to describe Roxelane as red-haired . However, this contradicts a lyrical poem Süleyman for Roxelane, in which he praises her black hair. The Ottoman painters of the Nakkaşhane , the court studio, were not allowed to stage this, however, and had to forego depicting the female members of the sultan's family.

Historiography

Phyllis, riding on Aristotle , Basel tapestry around 1480

The Ottoman chroniclers and historians were silent about the origin and appearance of Roxelane. It was not customary to document the lives of a sultan's concubines and wives. In foundation deeds, however, Roxelane was described in the role of the benevolent Haseki and endowed with ideal-typical character traits. However, these documents did not reach the public and their content was hidden from Western observers.

So there was a lot of room for imagination and speculation. Roxelane was (not only) placed in a tradition in the West that began with the spouses and lovers of ancient rulers and philosophers who were viewed as scheming and dominant, as in the anecdote about Aristotle and Phyllis . Often her name Roxelane was confused with Roxane , the name of the lover and wife of Alexander the Great .

Only in the 20th century was it possible to achieve an understanding of the Ottoman harem that was not characterized by erotic sensations and clichés , thus paving the way for a historical and critical appreciation of Roxelane.

Literature and music

Personage and beginning of Act 1 by Gabriel Bounins La Soltane . Roxelane is called Rose here .
Joseph Haydn: bars 107–110 from the 2nd movement La Roxelane of the Symphony No. 63. Stylized heterophony alla turca .

The events surrounding Roxelane, Süleyman I and their sons stimulated the imagination of writers , librettists and (opera) composers for centuries .

Some examples:

The first such French play was Gabriel Bounin's La Soltane from 1561. A number of Elizabethan English plays were also devoted to the subject. In the 17th century u. a. Tragicomedy of Dalibray ( Le Soliman , Paris 1637) and Jean Desmares ( Roxelane , Paris 1643) and a vierbändiger Roman Ibrahim ou l'illustrious Bassa of Madeleine de Scudéry (Paris 1641), which as a template for an eponymous play her brother George served.

Prospero Bonarelli's tragedy Solimano from 1620, in which Roxelane is named as Solimano's wife Regina , inspired various operas in which Roxelane does not appear personally at all (e.g. in Johann Adolph Hasse's Solimano from 1753), but pulls her strings in the background .

Roxelane has a leading role as Roxolana in the first English opera The Siege of Rhodes ("The Siege of Rhodes"; 1656/1661) by William Davenant with music by Henry Lawes and Matthew Locke .

Literary works were also dedicated to Roxelane in Germany: Daniel Casper von Lohenstein based his play Ibrahim Bassa, written in 1653, on the German translation of Ibrahim ou l'illustre bassa . 1727 appeared in Leipzig in the Moralische Wochenschrift edited by David Faßmann the hundred and eleven ENTREVË, Between CÆSONIA, the fifth and last wife of the Roman Kaͤyser CALIGULÆ, and the ROXELANA, who became a Sclavin, a wife of the Tuͤrckischen Kaͤyser SOLIMANNI II. …] Within the conversation In the realm of those dead . In 1748 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing dealt with Roxelane's intrigue that led to the death of Süleyman's son Mustapha in his attempt at a tragedy : Giangir or the scorned throne . The same material is based on Christian Felix Weißes tragedy Mustapha and Zeangir from 1768.

In the period of Turkish fashion in the 18th and early 19th centuries, Charles-Simon Favart's libretto for the Opéra-comique Soliman Second ou Les Trois Sultanes was particularly popular, which used the material from Soliman II in the Contes moraux by Jean-François Marmontel (1761) had borrowed. Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 63 from around 1781 contains a second movement with the heading La Roxelane , which gave the symphony its popular name. In 1811 Vincenzo Pucitta brought the subject to the stage in London with the star soprano Angelica Catalani in his opera Il trionfo di Rosselane, ossia, le tre sultane .

Until recently, numerous novels were written, including Johannes Tralow's Roxelane , Colin Falconer's The Sultana , Catherine Clements The Sultan's Smile and Pavlo Sahrebelnyj's Роксолана ("Roksolana", in Ukrainian)

literature

  • Zygmunt Abrahamowicz: Roksolana . In: Polski Slownik Biograficzny . Instytut Historii, Warsaw u. a. 1935-running, ISBN 978-83-86301-01-0 , vo. XXXI, 1988-1989, pp. 543-545 (Polish).
  • Leslie Peirce: Empress of the East: How a European Slave Girl Became Queen of the Ottoman Empire . Basic Books, New York 2017, ISBN 978-0-465-03251-8 (English).
  • Susan A. Skilliter: Kh urrem . In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam . New Edition. Brill Leiden, 1954-2009, Vol. 5, 1986, ISBN 90-04-07819-3 , pp. 66 f. (English).
  • Galina Yermolenko: Roxolana. The Greatest Empresse of the East . In: The Muslim World 95, 2, 2005, ISSN  0027-4909 , pp. 231-248 (English).
  • Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010. Online in excerpts at: "google.books". Accessed June 16, 2019.

Web links

Commons : Roxelane  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence and explanations

  1. ↑ a b c Note the similar headdress on the Venetian print and the 18th century oil painting.
  2. ↑ a b c d e In Roxelane's time, the term harem still generally referred to the sultan's inner living area and was only restricted to the area of ​​women and children in the Topkapi Seraglio towards the end of the 16th century.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Susan A. Skilliter: Khurrem . In: Encyclopaedia of Islam . Vol. 5, 1986.
  4. ↑ Galina I. Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History an Culture . Ashgate, Farnham / Burlington 2010. pp. 272 ​​f.
  5. ↑ a b Valide Sultan as the official title became only for Valide Nurbanu Sultan , the mother of Murad III. set up. See Gülru Necipoğlu: The Age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. London 2005, p. 280.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f Gülru Necipoğlu: Queens: Wives and Mothers of Sultans . In: The age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire . London 2005, pp. 268-271.
  7. ↑ The number of Suleyman's wives is not secured by primary sources. Evidence is only available for Hürrem and Mahidevran (Gülbahar), but not for the repeatedly cited Fürlane and Gülfem Hatun (Leslie P. Peirce refers to Gülfem in The Imperial Harem. Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire . New York et altera 1993, p 133, 201 and 302, as a "stewardess" in a senior position and Susan A. Skilliter leads her in Khurrem . In: Encyclopaedia of Islam . Vol. 5, 1986, next to Mahidevran as a favorite and accepted by Hürrem. After that, Gülfems were listed Suleyman sons Murad , * 919/1513, † 927/1521, and Mahmud , * 921/1515; † 927/1521).
  8. ↑ a b TKA Arşivi nos. E. 5038, 5662, 5859, 5926, 6036, 6056, 11480.
  9. ↑ a b Translations of excerpts from the Suleyman - Roxelane correspondence ( Memento of October 22, 2007 in the Internet Archive ).
  10. ↑ a b c d e f Elçin Kürşat : Harem women and rule in the Ottoman Empire in its heyday . In: politik unterricht aktuell , issue 1–2 / 2001, pp. 49–53.
  11. ↑ AGAD, Arch.Kor., Dz. turecki, teczka 110, nos 218-222.
  12. ^ Leslie P. Peirce: The Imperial Harem. Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire . New York et altera 1993, p. 221.
  13. ↑ u. a. on the engraving by Pagani (1550) and a picture from the 18th century.
  14. ↑ a b c d e Esin Atıl: Süleymanname . Washington 1986, pp. 245f.
  15. ↑ "Wālidat as-Sultān Amīr Muhammad" (the mother of Prince Mehmed), see Klaus Brisch (ed.): Treasures from the Topkapi Seraglio. The age of Suleyman the Magnificent . Berlin 1988, p. 84.
  16. ↑ Stéphane Yerasimos: Constantinople. Istanbul's historical heritage . Cologne 200, p. 254ff.
  17. ↑ a b The modern term Külliye (early 20th century) was not used in the 16th century; instead, such a complex was often referred to in documents as imaret or imaret with Friday mosque . See Gülru Necipoğlu: The Age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. London 2005, p. 71.
  18. ↑ Esin Atıl: Süleymanname. Washington 1986, p. 19.
  19. ↑ Zubaida bint Ja'far ibn al-Mansur  /زبيدة بنت جعفر بن المنصورwas the granddaughter of the Abbasid caliph al-Mansūr and cousin Hārūn ar-Raschīds , whom she married in 781. In Roxelane's time, Zubaida was famous for her donations to the ulema and the poor, as well as for her foundations of technical facilities that supplied pilgrims with water on the route from Baghdad to Mecca and Medina, named after her Darb Zubaida .
  20. ↑ Filiz Özer: The Complexes built by Sinan (PDF 6.59 MB). Retrieved June 17, 2019.
  21. ↑ Haseki Hürrem Hamami: Explanations and references on archnet.org . ( Memento from June 19, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  22. ↑ The socio-historically significant complex has completely disappeared. See Gülru Necipoğlu: The Age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. London 2005, pp. 278-280.
  23. ↑ a b c Download from Amy Singer: The Mülknames of Hürrem Sultan's Waqf in Jerusalem (PDF, 847 KB). Retrieved June 17, 2019.
  24. ↑ Only part of the complex has been preserved and renovated.
  25. ↑ The outstanding model for this was the imaret of Istanbul's Fatih-Mehmed-Külliye, where around 1500 people were fed daily around 1550. See Amy Singer: Surving up Charity: The Ottoman Public Kitchen. In: Journal of Interdisciplinary History. XXXV: 3 (Winter, 2005), pp. 486-489.
  26. ↑ Amy Singer: Constructing Ottoman Beneficence. At Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem . New York 2002, pp. 28f.
  27. ↑ Amy Singer: Constructing Ottoman Beneficence. At Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem . New York 2002, pp. 99f and P. 194, note 4.
  28. ↑ Ebussuud (1490–1574), from 1537 Kazasker in Rumelia and from 1545 Sheikhul Islam in Istanbul with great influence from Suleyman's I legislation.
  29. ^ Gülru Necipoğlu: The Age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. London 2005, p. 48f.
  30. ↑ Stéphane Yerasimos: Constantinople. Istanbul's historical heritage . Cologne 2007, p. 260ff.
  31. ↑ Gülru Necipoğlu-Kafadar: The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul: An Interpretation. In: Muqarnas III: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Oleg Grabar (ed.). Leiden 1985 (PDF; 6.5 MB). Retrieved June 17, 2019
  32. ↑ Amy Singer: Constructing Ottoman Beneficence. At Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem . New York 2002, p. 17ff.
  33. ↑ The convent of Toklu Dede in Aksaray was later dissolved because of the unorthodox behavior of the dervishes and the building was rededicated as a medrese. See Gülru Necipoğlu: Queens: Wives and Mothers of Sultans . In: The age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire . London 2005, pp. 268-271 and note 25.
  34. ↑ Klaus Brisch (Ed.): Treasures from the Topkapi Seraglio. The age of Suleyman the Magnificent . Berlin 1988, p. 38 u. 84.
  35. ^ Daniel Goffman: The Ottoman empire and early modern Europe . Cambridge 2004.
  36. ↑ Suraiya Faroqhi: The Ottoman Empire and the world around it . London et altera 2004.
  37. ^ Leslie P. Peirce: The Imperial Harem. Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire . New York et altera 1993.
  38. ↑ Amy Singer: Constructing Ottoman Beneficence. At Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem . New York 2002, pp. 88-93.
  39. ^ Daniel Goffman: The Ottoman empire and early modern Europe . Cambridge 2004, p. 64.
  40. ↑ In Lorich's register: The Turkish Sultans Solymanni consort Russia addressed . Register online.Retrieved June 19, 2019.
  41. ^ Roxelane, printed 1596 (British Museum) .
  42. ↑ For example, in 1646 by a Hamburg publisher under the title Dess artful, well-known and experienced Mr. Melchioris Lorichi, ... torn and cut figures on horseback, sampt beautiful Turkish buildings and all kinds of things to see in the Türckey .
  43. ↑ Selen Morkoç: CITY AND SELF IN THREE ACCOUNTS OF İSTANBUL: LORICHS 'PANORAMA (1559), LE CORBUSIER'S TRAVELOGUE (1911) AND PAMUK'S MEMOIR (2005), p. 85 (PDF; 1.7 MB).
  44. ↑ Hammer-Purgstall states in his History of the Ottoman Empire , Volume 3, in the explanation on p. 228 that Piero Bragadino in an embassy report from 1526 leaves no doubt that La Rossa does not mean the redheaded woman, but the Russian woman. In Bragadino's report, referring to Süleyman's sons, it says: "Tre altri figli a con questa altra donna di nation Rossa, giovine non bella ma grassiada".
  45. ↑ Susan Anne Skilliter: Ḵh̲urrem . In: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman; , Th. Bianquis; , CE Bosworth; , E. van Donzel; and WP Heinrichs. Brill, 2010. Brill Online. Retrieved May 17, 2019.
  46. ^ Georg Stadtmüller: Saeculum . Volume 4. Böhlau 1953, p. 410 ff.
  47. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 28. Excerpts online at: "google.books" (accessed on June 16, 2019)
  48. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 34 f. and pp. 219-237 (Chapter 11 on Desmares' Roxelane ), partly online at: "google.books"
  49. ^ Libretto by Prospero Bonarelli: Il Solimano . Stamperia di Pietro Cecconcelli, 1620 (with illustrations by Jacques Callot )
  50. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 19 and p. 197-218, partly online at: "google.books"
  51. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 35 f., partly online at: "google.books"
  52. ↑ Chapter 5 Roxolana in German Baroque and Enlightenment Dramas . In: Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, pp. 91-96, partly online at: "google.books". Retrieved June 18, 2019
  53. ↑ Digital version of the MDZ. Retrieved June 22, 2019.
  54. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 99 ff, and Chapter 12, p. 240 ff, partly online at: "google.books"
  55. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 99 f, partly online at: "google.books"
  56. ↑ See at tuerkenbeute.de ( Memento of the original from March 28, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.tuerkenbeute.de
  57. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 40, online at: "google.books"
  58. ↑ Galina Yermolenko (Ed.): Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture . Farnham et al. a., Ashgate 2010, p. 43 (footnote 73), online at: "google.books"
  59. ^ Johannes Tralow: Roxelane . Verlag der Nation, Berlin, 12th edition 1999 ISBN 3-373-00153-6
  60. ↑ Colin Falconer: The Sultana . Heyne, Munich 1995. ISBN 3-453-10814-0
  61. ↑ Catherine Clements: The Sultan's Smile . Diana paperbacks, Munich. ISBN 3-453-17139-X
  62. ↑ Павло Архипович Загребельний: Роксолана . Moscow 2018.
personal data
SURNAME Roxelane
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Anastasia Lisowska; Roxelana; Hürrem; Aleksandra Lisowska
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Favorite consort of the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I.
DATE OF BIRTH between 1500 and 1506
PLACE OF BIRTH Ruthenia
DATE OF DEATH April 17, 1558
Place of death Istanbul