Tibet (1912–1951)

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བོད་
Bod
Tibet
1912-1951
Flag of Tibet
Tibetan seal
flag Seal¹
Official language Tibetan
Capital Lhasa
Form of government theocracy
Government system Absolute Monarchy
Head of state Ex officio Dalai Lama , most recently Tenzin Gyatso
Head of government Prime Minister of Tibet
surface not determined
The area under government control in Lhasa was approximately 1.2 million km²
population unknown
Chinese censuses of 1911 and 1953 name approx. 1.3 million inhabitants
Population density approx. 1 inhabitant per km²
Gross national product
  • Total (nominal)
  • Total ( PPP )
  • BSP / pop. (Nominal)
  • BSP / pop. (KKP)
 1931-1936
  • approx. US $ 25 million²
  • approx. US $ 38 million²
  • about US $ 20
  • approx. US $ 30
currency Srang , Tangka ,
next to it Indian rupee
independence de facto in 1912, formal statement on 13 February 1913 (8th day of the first month of the Water Buffalo - year )
resolution May 23, 1951 (signing of the Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet )
March 28, 1959 (dissolution of the Tibetan government after the 1959 Tibetan Uprising )
National anthem bod rgyal khab chen po'i rgyal glu ³
Time zone UTC + 6 (former time zone division in China )
License Plate TIBET (de facto)
¹ There was no uniform Tibetan national emblem, the individual state institutions each used their own, more or less different seals. The variant of an rGya-dam seal shown here was used by the Dalai Lama for documents of lesser importance and can therefore be found frequently.
² Total GNP with an assumed 1.3 million inhabitants.
³ Presumably used from around 1949, but according to other information it was only used by the Tibetan government in exile.
Tibet state in its region.svg

Tibet was a de facto independent state in the highlands of Tibet from 1912 to 1951 . Tibet, under Chinese suzerainty for centuries , was able to completely renounce Chinese sovereignty during this time due to the internal conflicts in China without being recognized internationally as an independent state.

In the Treaty of Saint Petersburg of 1907 , the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire agreed to delimit their areas of interest in Central Asia , which confirmed the de facto Chinese suzerainty over Tibet. In 1910, the Chinese imperial government moved troops to Tibet to suppress rebellions and to reaffirm the Chinese claim to rule. As a result of the Xinhai Revolution and the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the Chinese troops were withdrawn from Tibet, whereupon the 13th Dalai Lama returned from exile in India and in 1913 formally declared Tibet's independence. The newly formed state signed a friendship treaty with Mongolia in 1913 , which had also declared independence from China in 1911. The Shimla Convention , negotiated by Great Britain, Tibet and China in 1914 but not ratified by China, confirmed the complete internal autonomy of Tibet without giving up the claim to Chinese suzerainty over Tibet. After an unsuccessful attempt to retake it in 1918, due to the turmoil of the revolution, civil wars and the Sino-Japanese war , China made no serious attempts in the following decades to restore its sovereignty over Tibet.

The Tibetan state preserved a social system reminiscent of the European Middle Ages , headed by the Dalai Lama as the highest secular and spiritual authority. Political, cultural, and social life was determined by the Buddhist religion, whose clergy, along with the Dalai Lama, represented the main political and social power factor. The country's economy was purely agricultural, the rural population was in a feudal relationship of dependence on the state, monasteries and large landowners . A modern infrastructure and foreign policy relations existed only to a minimal extent, although the 13th Dalai Lama Thubten Gyatsho , who ruled until his death in 1933, tried to modernize the country cautiously.

Only after the Second World War did the Chinese government resume efforts to bring Tibet under its control. In October 1950, the People's Liberation Army advanced towards Tibet. Appeals by the Tibetan government to the United Nations were unsuccessful.In May 1951, under massive pressure, a Tibetan delegation signed the Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet , which gave the Chinese government control over Tibetan foreign policy and permitted the stationing of troops in Tibet, but at the same time Tibet continued to guarantee internal autonomy. In the first few years, the Chinese leadership left the country's political system untouched, but in the second half of the decade began to increasingly build up its own Chinese administrative structures, expand the infrastructure accordingly, and tackle land reform programs. This development led to the 1959 Tibet uprising with tens of thousands of deaths on the Tibetan side. The 14th Dalai Lama then fled to India, whereupon China took over all government functions in the country and in 1965 fully integrated Tibet into the administrative structure of the People's Republic of China as the Tibet Autonomous Region .

The question of the status of the Tibetan state under international law, the legitimacy of the Tibetan declaration of independence and its incorporation into the People's Republic of China, as well as the position of the Tibetan government in exile are part of a controversy that continues to this day. The question of whether Tibet should be viewed as an independent state was already controversial among contemporaries and is still controversial today.

Area and population

Physical map of the Tibetan highlands
Three different views of the Tibetan territory. Dark red Tibet from a national Chinese point of view, light red the real sphere of influence of the government in Lhasa, hatched the national territory required by it in Simla in 1914.

The borders of Tibet were only partially defined, making it impossible to give an exact area. In the south the Himalayas and in the west the Karakoram offered a natural border against British India and its protectorates of Nepal , Bhutan and Sikkim , while in the east the Yangtze River delimited Tibet from the Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan . To the north of Tibet, the Chinese sub-countries Sinkiang and Qinghai joined. Precise information on the national territory is difficult because of the undefined borders to the actual China or Qinghai, and in some cases very different information was and is given. Common figures are between 1.1 million km² and 1.9 million km², with the first value representing an (upper) estimate for the area actually controlled by the government in Lhasa, while the figure of 1.9 million km² represents the former value is supplemented by areas in Qinghai, which, although traditionally counted as part of the Tibetan cultural area, were never under Tibetan rule at that time.

In Tibet, no censuses were carried out or other population statistics were compiled, so that precise information on the population is not possible. In contemporary sources, population figures between 1 million and 6 million are given (for areas that are not always congruent), but they were all based on estimates. Later estimates, on the other hand, tend to suggest figures of 0.7 million to 0.8 million inhabitants. The last Imperial Chinese census from 1909 to 1911 and the first census in the People's Republic of 1953 came to around 1.3 million inhabitants - a number that is also close to the result of the first census in Tibet, the 1734–1736 was carried out and, depending on the interpretation, resulted in 1 million or 1.3 million inhabitants. It coincides with the claim that the population of Tibet has not changed significantly over centuries.

politics

Thubten Gyatsho , the 13th Dalai Lama, head of state from 1895 to 1933

Political system

The political system of Tibet at that time can be described as a theocratic absolute monarchy , at the center of which stood the Dalai Lama as the highest secular and spiritual authority. Political decisions (with the exception of foreign policy , which was the sole competence of the Dalai Lama) were made together with the Prime Minister , a layperson, who in turn consulted with the Council of Ministers, consisting of four ministers (three laypeople and one clergyman). All ministers were solely dependent on the Dalai Lama. In the case of particularly important decisions, the Dalai Lama was able to convene a national assembly composed of high officials, clergy and nobility. Their decisions were first passed on to the Council of Ministers, then the Prime Minister and finally the Dalai Lama. In addition to the "large" National Assembly, which was only rarely called, there was a small assembly of around twenty people, consisting of representatives from the large monasteries and some landed nobility . The clergy represented a majority in both meetings.

The absolute power of the Dalai Lama was constrained by the numerically significant clergy, which comprised a fifth of the male population and almost completely dominated public life. The monks were not employed and made their living by begging or, if this was not enough, by force. Political decisions that were directed against the monk proletariat, which was mainly concentrated in the Lhasa area, could hardly be made.

The Potala Palace

Two political groups began to emerge in independent Tibet: The "conservative" monks' party , which found its supporters primarily in all levels of the clergy, was strictly xenophobic and opposed to political and social innovations, was the most important group in the state The opposite pole to the monks' party was the "progressive" reform party , whose followers were recruited from higher officials, the landed gentry and large landowners, and advocated social and technical reforms and rapprochement with British India. The 13th Dalai Lama was assigned to this group and tried to strengthen its influence by placing people close to it in higher positions.

administration

The country was divided into thirteen provinces , in which a governor exercised all executive and judicial powers. The provinces, in turn, were subdivided into around 50 districts, each headed by a clerical and a secular governor, who were supposed to control each other - a system that remained largely ineffective in practice. Subordinate to the district governor were the village chiefs, who were responsible for collecting taxes and passing them on to the higher levels.

The country's administrative system was poorly developed; there were only about 350 civil servants , all of whom were poorly paid. Corruption up to the highest levels was widespread, civil servant posts were not infrequently acquired by buying offices, and the power thus acquired was used for personal gain or the debts accumulated by buying offices had to be repaid, which contributed to a great burden on the population .

Foreign policy

The Nepalese envoy in Tibet with his colleagues (1938)

The Tibetan state undertook only minor foreign policy activities; such activities only took place with the states in its immediate vicinity. There were no diplomatic missions abroad; only permanent envoys from Nepal , Bhutan and British India were in Tibet, but they could not be regarded as diplomatic representatives.

The Chinese Ambane were withdrawn after 1912, so that China initially no longer had any representatives in Lhasa. This changed with the death of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1933 when a Chinese condolence mission traveled to Tibet, from which two representatives stayed with a radio and in 1934 set up a Chinese representation in Lhasa. In 1949, when relations with China deteriorated, the Tibetan government expelled the Chinese representatives. Even though the Chinese governments always insisted on their sovereignty over Tibet, pointed out the non-ratification of the Simla Convention and established government agencies for the administration of Tibet, China was unable to implement these claims due to its internal conflicts.

Instead of China, British India tried to expand its influence in Tibet. British ideas went so far as, similar to Bhutan and Nepal, with the granting of complete internal autonomy, tying Tibet to the British Empire in terms of foreign policy , setting up British schools in Tibet, modernizing the military according to Western models, organizing the prospecting of mineral resources and the highlands by roads and to connect a direct rail link to India. However, the implementation of such plans failed due to the half-hearted approach of the British-Indian government. It was not until 1936 that an Indian representation was set up in Lhasa (previously there were only trading agents in Gyantse, Yadong and Gartok).

In addition to Great Britain and China, the Soviet Union also tried to expand its influence in Tibet and push back the British. However, there was no direct relationship; Soviet agencies tried to achieve economic rapprochement primarily by exporting subsidized textiles. Traditionally, good relations with Mongolia continued to exist , which were mainly due to the same religions and thus the regular stay of Mongolian pilgrims and clergy in Tibet; both countries saw each other as natural allies in their striving for independence. Most recently, the Japanese Empire also tried to find an ally in Tibet in the rear of rival China, but also limited its activities to informal trade contacts. The German Reich sent the Tibet expedition of 1938/39 , but could only do covert diplomacy due to British pressure.

The two important political groups, the monks 'and the reform parties, took opposing positions in foreign policy: the conservative monks' party strived for a renewed rapprochement with China, while the progressive reform party aimed at consolidating state independence, opening the country to the outside world and rapprochement Targeted British India. The Dalai Lama's policy, with its contacts in India and the establishment of a military devoted to him, must therefore pose a threat to the power of the clergy.

After the Second World War, the Tibetan government tried to expand its foreign policy activities to avoid reintegration into the Chinese Republic. In 1947, Tibetan delegates attended the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi, Tibet's first participation in an international conference since 1914. In 1948 a Tibetan delegation toured the Republic of China , recently independent India , the United Kingdom and the United States as well France , Italy and Switzerland for a short time to make direct contacts.

military

Tibetan soldiers in Shigatse (1938)

After declaring independence, Tibet began to build its own armed forces in the second decade of the 20th century. At the time of independence, the Tibetan government had about 3,000 men under arms, divided into five regiments. The plan was to maintain an army of 30 regiments of 500 or 1000 men each in the long term, but this could not be achieved due to insufficient financial resources. Ultimately, only twelve regiments could be set up by 1950, their total strength is given as about 10,000 or 13,000 men.

The structure of the armed forces, their armament and uniforms were based on the British-Indian troops. Almost all of the equipment was imported from British India or, most recently, independent India; only a small number of simple weapons, ammunition and uniform badges were produced in the home country.

As part of the 17-point agreement, the Tibetan armed forces had to be disbanded or incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army.

economy

The Tibetan economy was one-sidedly agrarian, there were no industrial or large craft businesses. Own economic statistics have not been collected. The Chinese economist Ta-Chung Liu , who first tried to calculate a gross national product for the Republic of China in the 1940s , assumed that the Tibetan economic output per inhabitant (and that of the other neighboring countries) does not differ from that of China proper. The average gross national product per inhabitant in the period from 1931 to 1936 was accordingly around 20 US dollars per inhabitant using the market exchange rate, or around 30 US dollars taking into account purchasing power parities or 40 US dollars if different factors were also taken into account Economic structures, which made Tibet, like its neighbors China and India, one of the poorest regions in the world at that time.

Agriculture

Tibetan farmers working in the fields (1938)

The most important agricultural product was barley , regionally with oats , and in the lower altitudes, where the climatic conditions allowed, it was supplemented with wheat , mountain rice , maize and buckwheat , as well as with various types of peas and beans . Apricot and walnut trees were also found in some valleys .

The most important farm animal was the yak , which served as a draft animal , milk , meat and leather supplier ; sheep and goats were kept next to them , as well as mules , donkeys and ponies at lower altitudes . Camels were common as caravan animals in the north and east of the country.

The methods of agriculture were primitive, fertilization was hardly widespread because the manure was needed as fuel in the poorly forested highlands. Local irrigation was carried out, and water mills were spread along the rivers.

Farmland was owned by the state, by monasteries or large landowners, who demanded high taxes from the peasants in the form of money , natural produce or forced labor , with the large landowners themselves having to pay high taxes to the state. Nomad families were exempt from forced labor, but had to pay taxes in the form of butter or cheese .

Mining

Mining did not take place apart from isolated gold mining , nothing was known about possible occurrences of mineral resources.

Craft and industry

Crafts were concentrated in the country's few larger cities, with goldsmithing in Lhasa, carpet weaving in Shigatse and Gyantse, and wool processing in Shigatse.

The only modern industrial enterprise in the country was the Trabshi Lekhung mint, founded in 1914 near Lhasa. Initially only engaged in the production of weapons and equipment for the newly established Tibetan military, it was upgraded to the central mint and state printing house in 1932, but military equipment and textiles continued to be produced.

trade

Lhasa Market (1938)

Despite the small supply of goods, trade was widespread among all strata of the population. In domestic trade, food, leather goods and textiles as well as simple everyday items dominated. In line with the agrarian structure of the economy, Tibet's export products consisted almost exclusively of wool , raw hides and yak tails; only in the West were borax and table salt exported to India. About half of the country's imports consisted of tea , the national drink of the Tibetans, followed by cotton and silk , the remainder being made up of various simple utensils such as metal goods, soap , medicines , tobacco , mirrors , and old clothes .

Currency and finance

25 Tangka banknote, 1913

A separate Tibetan currency had existed since the 17th century, initially in the form of silver coins imported from Nepal, and from 1763 also in the form of its own coins; Its own paper money was also issued from 1912 onwards, but this could not replace the barter trade that was widespread in the countryside and was therefore in circulation primarily in the urban centers. Most Tibetan coins of the 20th century show a snow lion as the main motif and have only an imprecisely defined mass and variable fine weight. Paper money was initially made with wood printing blocks and counterfeiting was widespread. The strongly fluctuating exchange rates made money transactions even more difficult, which led to the Indian rupee being widely used as a second currency, especially along the main trade routes. Chinese money and foreign silver coins ( Mexican dollar , Russian ruble , German mark ) lost their importance after around 1930. Pressed tea was also occasionally used as a means of payment instead of money.

Modern banking did not exist; only briefly existed banks in Gyantse (1932-1935) and Shigatse (1933-1935), which in addition to the credit business were concerned with the settlement of foreign trade with British India.

Public finances

In addition to feudal taxes, the state obtained its income primarily from direct taxes ; indirect taxes and other charges were largely unknown. The few taxable persons, especially large landowners, had to shoulder a large tax burden, which could amount to almost half of their income, which in turn was taken from the peasant population as feudal taxes.

About half of the state revenue flowed into the upkeep of the monasteries, another quarter to the nobility, so that only about a quarter of the state revenue was available for all other purposes. The inadequate income of the state had seriously impaired the development of its own armed forces.

In the early 1920s, government revenues are said to have been around 2.6 million Reichsmarks .

Infrastructure

traffic

Path in Tibet (1938)

The Tibetan network of paths consisted of marked paths that led from Lhasa in a star shape in all directions: to the north, a path that was only passable in summer led to the Qinghai region , to the east a path to the Yunnan province . To the west a path led over Gyantse and Shigatse towards Shimla and Leh . Several roads led south, but the route via Sikkim to Darjeeling , which connected Tibet with India, was by far the most important and best developed.

Boats on the Brahmaputra

The main means of transport were mules, along with horses, ponies, donkeys and yaks, and camels were also used on some routes in the north. Only a few short stretches were passable for vehicles . Modern roads that would have been suitable for motor traffic were only available in tiny numbers. In the whole of the country there are said to have been only two motor vehicles that the 13th Dalai Lama had imported dismantled into yaks in order to use them as official vehicles .

On the Brahmaputra there was navigation with boats covered with skins.

energy

The first electrical systems were installed in 1927 when the Tibetan government imported such equipment from India and built a small hydroelectric power station on Lhasa He to supply Potala and Norbulingka, some houses of the Tibetan upper class and the Trabshi Lekhung factory with electric light. The power plant was later heavily neglected due to a lack of skilled workers and in the 1940s could only supply either Trabshi Lekhung or Lhasa with energy. It was not repaired until 1947 by the Austrian Peter Aufschnaiter .

Post, Telecommunications and Media

Lhasa was connected to the international postal system by two postal connections . One of them led to Beijing and was covered in twelve days, the other ended in Leh, India. The East Tibetan city of Qamdo was connected to the Chinese telegraph network via Chengdu , while Lhasa was connected to the Indian telegraph network via Gyantse and Yadong . In Lhasa there was a small telephone network that connected the Potala with the apartments of high officials.

The newly established Chinese and British representations in Lhasa in the 1930s were equipped with radio stations, but these were not available to the Tibetan government. It was not until 1948 that the Tibetan government started operating its own radio stations, which came from US sources.

Until a few years before the Chinese invasion, no modern media existed in Tibet. In 1948, the first Tibetan newspaper appeared in Lhasa with British support, and in the same year Radio Lhasa , the country's first radio station, began broadcasting against the resistance of conservative clergy. Transmission systems, technicians and the approximately 40 radio receivers at the beginning also came from British sources.

Web links

Commons : Tibet  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

literature

Contemporary literature

  • Charles Alfred Bell : Tibet then and now . Brockhaus, Leipzig 1925.
  • Fritz Bleiber: Tibet. In: Monthly booklets for foreign policy. Volume 8, 1941, pp. 722-739.
  • Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China, excluding Manchuria . Dissertation . Koenigsberg 1932.
  • Manfred Langhans-Ratzeburg: The current state life of Tibet. In: Yearbook of Public Law. Volume 24, 1926, ISSN  0075-2517 , pp. 504-516.
  • Amaury de Riencourt: Tibet in the course of Asia . Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1951.
  • Hugh Edward Richardson : Tibet. History and fate . Metzner, Frankfurt am Main 1964.
  • Lowell Thomas: Tibet in a thunderstorm. The last trip to Lhasa. Universitas, Berlin 1951.
  • Heinrich Harrer : Seven years in Tibet. My life at the court of the Dalai Lama. Ullstein, Berlin 1952.

Modern literature

  • A. Tom Grunfeld: The Making of Modern Tibet . ME Sharpe, Armonk 1996, ISBN 0-7656-3455-4 .
  • Somasiri Collure: The Tibet Policy of the People's Republic of China from 1951 to 1959 . Dissertation. Berlin 1977.
  • Melvyn C. Goldstein: A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951. The Demise of the Lamaist State . University of California Press, Berkeley 1989, ISBN 0-520-06140-3 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d Rong Ma: Population and Society in Contemporary Tibet . Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong 2011, ISBN 978-962-209-202-0 , pp. 26-24.
  2. ^ A b Ta-Chung Liu: China's National Income, 1931-36. An Exploratory Study . Brookings Institution, Washington, DC 1946, p. 16.
  3. ↑ Tsepon WD Shakabpa: Tibet. A Political History. Potala Publications, New York 1984, ISBN 0-9611474-0-7 , pp. 246f.
  4. ↑ Somasiri Collure: The Tibet Policy of the People's Republic of China from 1951 to 1959 . Dissertation . Berlin 1977, p. 200f.
  5. ^ A b Neil Anthony Parker, John Weeks: Registration Plates of the World. 4th edition. Europlate, Taunton 2004, ISBN 0-9502735-7-0 , p. 152.
  6. ^ Dieter Schuh , Wolfgang Bertsch : Tibetan seal . In: Tibet-Encyclopaedia. International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, 2010, accessed June 1, 2014.
  7. ↑ Tibet. on: nationalanthems.info (English)
  8. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 10-14.
  9. ^ Feudalism. In: John Powers, David Templeman (Ed.): Historical Dictionary of Tibet (= Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East. ). Scarecrow Press, Lanham 2012, ISBN 978-0-8108-6805-2 , pp. 239-240.
  10. ^ Charles Alfred Bell : Tibet then and now . Brockhaus, Leipzig 1925, p. 277.
  11. ↑ a b S. H. Steinberg (Ed.): The Statesman's Year-Book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1960. 97th edition. Macmillan & Co, London 1960, pp. 1425-1427.
  12. ^ John Paxton (Ed.): The Statesman's Year-Book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1971-1972. 97th edition. Macmillan & Co, London 1971, ISBN 0-333-11304-7 , p. 816.
  13. ↑ Barry Sautman: "All that glitters is not gold". Tibet as a pseudo-state. (= Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies. Volume 198). University of Maryland School of Law, 2009, ISBN 978-1-932330-28-1 . ( PDF file; 5.2 MB )
  14. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 1-2.
  15. ↑ Mortimer Epstein (Ed.): The Statesman's Year-Book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1945. 82nd edition. Macmillan & Co, London 1945, pp. 798-799.
  16. ^ A b Gothaisches Yearbook for Diplomacy, Administration and Economics 1943. 180th edition. Perthes, Gotha 1943, p. 243.
  17. ↑ a b Karl Wagner (Ed.): Jahrbuch der Welt 1954 . Paul List Verlag, Munich 1953, p. 981.
  18. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 22-25.
  19. ^ A b Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China, excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 26-28.
  20. ^ A b Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China, excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 25-26.
  21. ^ SH Steinberg (Ed.): The Statesman's Year-Book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1955. 92nd edition. Macmillan & Co, London 1955, pp. 1413-1415.
  22. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 29-32.
  23. ↑ a b S. H. Steinberg (Ed.): The Statesman's Year-Book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1949. 86th edition. Macmillan & Co, London 1949, pp. 1351-1353.
  24. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 34-35.
  25. ^ Peter Meier-Hüsing: Nazis in Tibet - The riddle about the SS expedition Ernst Schäfer. Theiss / WBG, Darmstadt 2017, ISBN 978-3-8062-3438-1 .
  26. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 30-32.
  27. ^ A b Wolfgang Bertsch: Modern Army . In: Tibet-Encyclopaedia. International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, 2010, accessed June 7, 2014.
  28. ↑ Somasiri Collure: The Tibet Policy of the People's Republic of China from 1951 to 1959 . Dissertation. Berlin 1977, p. 114.
  29. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, p. 15.
  30. ^ Ta-Chung Liu: China's National Income, 1931-36. An Exploratory Study . Brookings Institution, Washington, DC 1946, p. 70.
  31. ↑ It must be taken into account that there were no modern industries and services in Tibet at that time and that their contribution to the overall Chinese national product should not be included in the determination of Tibetan economic output. However, since the modern sector only made up less than a tenth of the Chinese economic output at the time, its contribution can be neglected in view of the poor quality of the Chinese statistics of the time.
  32. ^ Colin Clark: The Conditions of Economic Progress. Macmillan, London 1940, p. 39.
  33. ↑ a b c Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 15-16.
  34. ↑ a b c Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, p. 16.
  35. ↑ a b Wolfgang Bertsch: Trabshi Lekhung . In: Tibet-Encyclopaedia. International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, 2010, accessed June 7, 2014.
  36. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 17-18.
  37. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 21-22.
  38. ^ Charles Alfred Bell: Tibet then and now . Brockhaus, Leipzig 1925, pp. 275-276.
  39. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, p. 24.
  40. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, pp. 18-20.
  41. ↑ a b c Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, p. 20.
  42. ↑ Gotthold Lange: Political geography of the neighboring countries of China excluding Manchuria . Dissertation. Königsberg 1932, p. 18.
  43. ↑ Wolfgang Bertsch: Ringang Rigzin Dorje . In: Tibet-Encyclopaedia. International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, 2010, accessed June 7, 2014.
  44. ^ Heinrich Harrer : Seven Years in Tibet. My life at the court of the Dalai Lama. Ullstein, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-548-23095-4 , pp. 273f.
  45. ^ A. Tom Grunfeld: The Making of Modern Tibet . ME Sharpe, Armonk 1996, ISBN 0-7656-3455-4 , pp. 103f.
  46. ↑ a b With Buddha against Stalin. Windy news from Tibet . In: Der Spiegel . No. 35 , 1948, pp. 15 ( online - August 28, 1948 ).
  47. ^ Robert Ford: Captured in Tibet. Harrap, London 1957, pp. 22-24.