Toponymy of Tournai

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The toponymy of Tournai deals with the study of graphic development and the interpretation of the etymology or the toponomics of the place name " Tournai " .

Due to its persistence, a place name develops over time of the place it describes and adapts to the change in population , the language or its rule . Tournai is now a city in Belgium in the province of Hainaut and is over 2,000 years old. This toponym has therefore undergone many orthographic changes over the centuries and its origin has been the subject of various etymological studies that have been carried out more or less seriously.

As is the case with other toponyms in Belgium, the etymological origin is mostly about the choice between Celtic , Germanic or Latin origin. Since the still primitive Belgo-Roman center of the city was on a slight hill, in the currently preferred etymological theory, the Celtic word “tur” for German “height” is considered to be the origin of the place name. Furthermore, in the Scottish Gaelic language there is still the word “tùr” for German “ tower ” , a building that is usually higher than it is wide and is often used as a lookout .

While current toponymic research is largely of a scientific nature, it has also been supported by political discourse in the past . In the case of Tournai, for example, a mythical etymology relating to the city's legendary origins was first inscribed in the political-religious claim of the Tournai diocese in the 12th century (Latin Dioecesis Tornacensis, French Diocèse de Tournai), which was completely independent of that of the Beauvais diocese (Latin Dioecesis Bellovacensis, French Diocèse de Beauvais). The “national awakening of Belgium” at the beginning of the 19th century encouraged local intellectuals to question the origins of the city and its name.

As far as the official spelling of the place name Tournai is concerned, this occasionally deviates from the medieval spelling Tournay or the Latin variant Tornacum , especially when it comes to aging the name of the city of Tournai more or less artificially. This phenomenon can be found both in the world of clubs and in retail , such as B. at antique dealers, the beer brand Tournay Blonde, the medieval game of the same name Tournay (game) and - incidentally - also at car dealers again.

Historical development of spelling

The development of the spelling of the place name is a phenomenon that correlates with the demographic, political and social changes that the city of Tournai has undergone in its past.

Ancient and early Middle Ages: Turnaco, Turnacum, Tornacum, Turnacensium

Peutinger detailed map (copy by Conradi Milleri, 1887–1888)

The oldest written mention of Tournai can be found in the Tabula Peutingeriana , on which you can see the Rhine ( Rhenus in Latin ) and the Meuse ( Fluvius Patabus in Latin ) as well as some old towns such as Tournai ( Turnaco ) and Cassel ( Castellum Menapiorum ). The city is shown on the map as a post office under the name Turnaco ; and on Route Antonine's, dated around the year 280, the presence of Turnacum is mentioned.

Under Diocletian the administrative center of the Roman was Menapii (Civitas Menapiorum) of Cassel (Castellum Menapiorum) moved to Tournai. The name of the Civitas (German, "Bürgerschaft") was then Civitas Turnacensium . At the same time, the Notitia dignitatum (in partibus occidentis, German: in the part of the West ) mentioned the presence of a Turinian garrison (numerus Turnacensium), which was stationed in what is now Lympne near Dover in England . An outline of the Gauls in Latin with the title Notitia Galliarum from the end of the 4th century also refers to a procurator gynaecii of a (imperial factory for military equipment) in the Civitas tornacensis , which itself ranked second in Belgium.

A version with an “h” also existed with the medieval chronicler Gregory of Tours , who is now considered the “father of the history of France ”. With him both the names Thornaco and Thornacensis and Tornacum and Turnacensis were used.

Late Middle Ages: Tornai, Tornay

Frédéric Hennebert pointed out that the most widespread spelling, Tornai, found in the oldest Romanic documents in the archives of the city of Tournai from the 13th century is the most widespread. The oldest document in Romance language that was found by him is a deed from 1223 and begins as follows:

On the one hand, this is a glimpse into the future and glory of Tornai, […] .

Analysis of the rest of the Romance documents in the same repository showed that the Tornai spelling was widespread in the 13th century and was used almost invariably . However, he adds in a footnote that the spelling Tournai was also used, especially in a will from the year 1200, and that he could only find the use of a “y” in it.

Newer times: Tournay, Tournaÿ

According to a study by the Archives of Tournai, Frédéric Hennebert found that the “y” replaced the “i” from the end of the 13th century.

Contemporary time

The land of Tournai or Tournaisis

The Tournaisis , that is, the land of Tournai , was transformed into a more or less large area over the centuries and therefore knew different spellings. Its origin is Gallo-Roman and is related to the concept of the pagus (Latin, "corridor, Gau ", pl. Pagi ) or the land, which refers to a Gallo-Roman territorial unit that was lower than that of the civitas (German: semi-autonomous administrative unit of the middle level ) and then in the Middle Ages had a territorial subdivision (near today's canton ), which were often integrated into a district .

The term Pagus was used until the 10th century : Pagus Tornacensi , Pagus Turnacense , Pagus Tornacinse , Pagus Tornacensis and Pagus Tornacense .

Even if the spelling has become established today, the reality is that the designation the name covers is as fuzzy as its boundaries, since it can refer to both the entirety of Tournai, i.e. H. the municipality of Tournai, as well as the rather large area of ​​the Intercommunale de Développement du Tournaisis (IDETA) with its 24 municipalities: Antoing , Ath , Belœil , Bernissart , Brugelette , Brunehaut , Celles , Chièvres , Ellezelles , Enghien , Flobecq , Frasnes-lez -Anvaing , Hensies , Jurbise , Lens , Lessines , Leuze-en-Hainaut , Mont-de-l'Enclus , Pecq , Péruwelz , Rumes , Silly , Soignies and Tournai . In fact, as a tourist trump card, the affected municipalities, with the exception of Hensies, Jurbise, Lens and Soignies, were marked by large motorway signs with the words "Tournaisis" before the Tournaisis Inter-Municipal Company (IDETA) started to use the signs from June 2009 Updated the concept of “Picardie Wallonie” (German: “Westlicher Hennegau” ).

Etymological theories

In summary, it can be said that the latest etymological research relates to Celtic, Gallic or Gallo-Roman origins: the root turno- means height or hill and the suffix -acos would be the etymological element that explains the toponym Tournai . An earlier influence is, however, defended by some researchers such as the Belgian name researcher and paleographer Maurits Gysseling (1919–1997), who suggests a Germanic origin, or Jean Loicq (* 1933), who radically interprets the pre-Celtic origin * tur- as a name.

Celtic or Gallo-Roman origin

Turnoceltic means height

In a reference work on the Gallic vocabulary, Xavier Delamarre ascribes the toponym Tournai to the fact that it comes directly from the Gallic “turno-”, which means “height” . Jean Loicq identified the same Celtic origin as "tur-" , which means "natural height" , but was later converted to "turno-" by the Celts . He traced the origin of the term * tur- back to an unknown preceltic idiom that the Celts would have adopted and later added the suffix “-no” . The Gallo-Roman suffix "-âcum" would prove, however, that the toponym of the Latin place name "Turnâcum" does not apply to a prehistoric origin, since the place name was already mentioned at the time of its origin * tur-.

Tournai - Tower of the Loucherie

Daniel Blampain (* 1946), who developed Delamarre's theory further, explained that the Latin toponym “Turnacum” comes from the Celtic word “tur-” for “height” and that it also applies to the Loucherie district in the city of Tournai in which the oldest traces of human presence in the city have been found. The author also recalled the theory of Maurits Gysseling that Belgium today - with the exception of the Ardennes - was already partially Germanized before the arrival of the Romans , according to which prehistoric toponyms are said to have been influenced by Germanic influences.

Durnacus coins ( durnaciennes )

The origin of the Gallo-Roman coins that were minted under the name "DURNACUS" was, in the 19th century, a subject of controversy between those who they attributed to the city of Tournai and those who a town in the territory of the Eburones or Haedui attributed .

Gold stater of the Eburones with triskele on the front and Celtic horse on the back

A collector and specialist of his time, the Marquis Roger de Lagoy (1789–1860) ascribed these pieces to Tournai, just as he ascribed those with the caption “VIRODU” to Verdun and those with the caption “EBURO” to the Eburones. This type of classification corresponds to the almost unanimous consensus on this issue, but as soon as the Marquis de Lagoy had discovered the main sites, contrary analyzes would have appeared. In fact, these pieces were only found in very small quantities in northern Gaul, even though the classification had been made there. The most important discoveries, however, were made in southern Gaul, where they were found en masse.

Jean-Baptiste-Bonaventure Roquefort revisited this theory in his Etymological Dictionary of the French Language in 1829:

“Tournai, city of Flanders. From Latin Tornacum or Turnacum , formed from its Belgian name Dornick; which refers to the legend of Dornakos , which were found on some ancient silver coins in this city. "

- Jean-Baptiste-Bonaventure Roquefort : Dictionnaire Étymologique De La Langue Françoise

In his description of the Gallic coins in the collections of the Royal Library of Belgium from 1846, Adolphe Duchalais (1814–1854) defended the idea that these coins should be assigned to a place called Durnacus in the area of ​​the Celtic tribe of the Eburones. He points out that the appendices "dur" and "acum" are extremely common in Celtic terms and Tournai is by no means the only place in Gaul with the name "Tornacum" or "Durnacum" , since "durum" means "watercourse" and “Acum” translated means “apartment” .

“In Durnacus you can recognize the old name of Tournay, the capital of the Nervians ; then these coins would be signs of an alliance between this people and the Eburones ; However, the complete identity of the types leads Duchalais to assume that a place with this name may also have existed in the Eburonen region, and claims that the meaning of the word Durnac, dwelling on running water, makes a more frequent recurrence of this name possible. In fact, several locations in France still have similar names. "

- Association of Friends of Antiquity in the Rhineland (1848) : Yearbooks of the Association of Friends of Antiquity in the Rhineland

In an article on Gallo-Roman coins attributed to Tournai in the 11th year of the “Bulletins de la Société Historique et Littéraire de Tournai” , Count Georges Alexandre François de Nédonchel (1813–1903) defended the Tournai hypothesis of what he did "A new attack against the opinion we defend" from the 1863–1864 edition of the French numismatic magazine.

In particular, he argued that the city of Tournai is old and that its leaders could mint coins, pointing out that opponents of Tournai ancestry could not prove the existence of a place called Durnacum and that the places where these coins are said to have been made have no right to ask for it.

However, he recognized the validity of the main objection to the Tournai hypothesis, since these coins are much more common in central Gaul than in northern France or Belgium. However, he appealed because of the fact that discoveries of this kind in Belgium were often poorly preserved and heavily oxidized because of the high soil moisture and the support of many intellectuals who originally came from Tournai.

Today, these coins are undoubtedly attributed to the Rhone Valley (French: Vallée du Rhône ) and there is no doubt that the names on these coins are the names of the leaders who supported their edition (s).

Celtic "tur" means "tower" and "ick" means "water"

On the basis of Grégoire de Rostrennen's Celtic dictionary, Chotin renounced the Germanic in his etymology work of 1857 in favor of the Celtic etymology, even if the etymological explanation remained the same.

“Its etymology comes from the two Celtic words tur for tower and ick for water, which mean fortress on the water or on the Scald, Latin Scaldis , French l'Escaut , German Schelde . (See Rostrennen's Celtic Dictionnaire). "

- Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin :

Amé François Joseph Bozière (1814–1873) took up this etymological theory in his book Tournai Ancien et Moderne 1864.

“The name Tournai or Tournay, because both are spelled that way, derives from the Celtic roots tur for tower and ick or ac for water . (Chotin, Études étymologiques sur les noms des villes, villages et hameaux de la province de Hainaut , German: Etymological studies on the names of towns and villages in the province of Hainaut 1857 ). From Tur -ick or Tur -ac, which means tower or fortress on the water, the Latin names Turnacum or Tornacum were derived, from which Tornai in Romance language and finally Tournai (German: outdated Dornick or Doornick in Flemish language) arose. "

- Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin :

Roman origin

Turris Nervium, Turris Nerviorum and Turris Neronis

In his book Histoire de Tournai et du Tournésis (1840) Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin put forward two theories about the Latin etymological origin:

“Tournai was the capital of an independent state, which is now an indisputable fact. As for the etymology, ancient traditions testify that the city, ruined by the sacking of the Romans and the expulsion of its inhabitants since the conquest of Julius Caesar , was restored under the rule of Nero by a governor named Guntianus was set. He had a tower built there, the name of which the city took “Turris Neronis” . Other historians believe that an ancient tower gave it the name associated with the name of the people whose capital it was “Turris Nerviorum” . "

- Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin :

Although Khotin refuted quickly those theories that have shaped his opinion the French pronunciation of the name of its time, but "Turnacum" or "Tornacum" , the name by which the city from the mid- second century in the kingdom of Emperor Antoninus Pius known was not reproduced, he believed that a name like “Turris Neronis”, thanks to its use by the Romans such as B. at “Aurelianum” ( Orléans ), “Aquae Sextiae” ( Aix-en-Provence ), “Colonia Agrippinae” ( Cologne ), “Forum Julii” ( Fréjus ) or “Caesarodunum” ( Tours ) would have been preserved.

Germanic origin

Ancestors of the Thuringians

In his “Bijdragen voor vaderlandsche geschiedenis en oudheidkunde” (German: “Contributions to the history and archeology of the Netherlands” ), Nicolas Japikse (1872–1944) assumes that the name Tournai derives from the West Germanic Thuringian tribe (lat . Thuringi , Tueringi or Thoringi ) is.

“After weighing the evidence against Muller, it does not seem surprising to us that the Thuringians were dragged along as members of this league at the time of the invasion of Belgium by the Franks and gradually integrated there. (In “Turnhout” , “Tournay” or “Doornik” , “Dour” , there is possibly a reference to their name, although one cannot be sure, and the famous castle of the Franconian kings, Dispargum ( see this ) was located also in their territory.) "

- Nicolas Japikse :

C. Van der Elst speaks in an article with the title “Notice ethnographique” (German: “Ethnographic Message” ), in which he shows the Germanic origins of the Belgian people, also of the fact that the Thoringi (Thuringians) are the nation that Belgium, but explains the first division that took place among them and which in particular produced the Menapians (Latin Menapii ):

Roman Gaul and Germania on the right bank of the Rhine (Tenkerites and Usipeters) around the year 70 AD.

"South of the division of the Rhine we find the originally established Menapier. The Tenkterer (lat. Tencteri ) and the Usipetes (lat. Usipetes , Usipii ), d. H. those of Dechteren and Weesep drove them from their homes and drove them back across the Scheldt, where they had already settled. Caesar knew her there; they are still mentioned there in the first centuries of the Middle Ages, and Menin reminds us of their name, which, according to Alting , means partner, ally . Topographical names such as Gent and Doornik formed near rivers, as history shows in the case of Gendringen , Dornick , Ginderich and Doornik. - (See ALTING, Notitia, vox Menapii ). "

- C. Van der Elst :

German or Germanic etymology

Etymological theories favoring a German (i.e., Germanic) origin, Tournai would be descended from Dornyk or Doornyk , but its interpretation is not unanimous. Around 1797, Grigny Tornacum derived from the Germanic word "thorn" , which means "mountain" , "hill" , "land elevation" or "grave" , while Wächter mentioned in 1737 that the Germanic word "mountain" means a very old word and it would be found in all languages, both east and west.

Adrien Alexandre Marie Hoverlant de Beauwelaere declared in 1805 that Doornyk means “Here is the isthmus” in German and that the origin of the fact that the city developed only on one side of the Scheldt and that it was surrounded by a moat, which is likely was filled with water.

Chotin initially positioned himself for this theory in 1840, but from 1857 favored the variant of the Celtic etymology:

“... because Tournai owes its name to a bridge over the old Scheldt. In fact, 'Dur' or 'Tur' in German like the Greek word 'thùra' as well as the Dutch and Flemish word 'deur' means a 'door' , a 'passage' and in a broader sense a 'bridge' ; and 'ac' , 'aek' , 'yk' means water. For example, 'Tur-in-ac' and by syncope means 'Turnac' , which, according to studies, is pronounced like 'Deurnyk' and means 'porte-sur-eau' (German: 'Gate over the water' ). "

- Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin :

Anecdotal theories

  • Origin of the name due to the large number of towers:

In his “Histoire générale de Pays-Bas” (German: “General History of the Netherlands” ), Jean-Baptiste Chrystin suggested in 1743 that Tournai owes its name to the many towers that could be seen there at the time the city was in the ancient capital of the Belgian tribe the Nervier (Latin Nervii , French Nerviens ) was.

Adrien Alexandre Marie Hoverlant de Beauwelaere passed on this opinion and wrote in 1805 that according to some people “Tournay” got its name from the large number of towers in the city of “Tornacum” . However, he thinks this hypothesis is unlikely.

Development of Pronunciation

Frédéric Hennebert

The pronunciation does not seem to have been discussed in detail by the various authors, because only Frédéric Hennebert (1837–1873) had dealt with this topic by concentrating on the pronunciation of the medieval spelling "Tornai" . After emphasizing that the 12th century orthography was very simple, he developed the idea that the “ai” at the end of “Tornai” was neither a “compound vowel” nor a diphthong , as this concept was unknown at the time was and two vowels were pronounced separately.

Hennebert gave some examples, such as the spelling of the verbs "traire" (German: milking ), "trahir" (German: betrayed ), or "laic" (German: lay ) of the noun "laïc" , after which he defended the idea that “Tornai” would be pronounced “Tor-na-i” in three syllables . Then he put forward what he called a more conclusive argument by quoting the "Chronique rimée" of the chronicler and Bishop of Tournai from around 1242 Philippe Mouske .

" Tornai fut d'ancisserie
Dame de si grant signorie
Dame de si grant seuretés
Qu'ot VI vint catiaus que cités. "

- Philippe Mouskes :

The verses are only regular if the verse teaching of the eight-syllable is observed and "Tornai" would then be composed of the three syllables "Tor-na-i" . According to the current orthographic rules for medieval texts, it would be necessary to use an umlaut on the vowel "i" in the form of an i umlaut in order to identify the separate pronunciation ( diariesis ) of two consecutive vowels.

In the local language of the "Tournaisiennes" Tournai is currently pronounced as in French , but Frédéric Hennebert emphasized in 1853 that "it would be possible to find the very weakened sound of the Tournai diphthong" aï "in the dialect " .

Onomastics, toponymy, anthroponymy and historiography

Chronology of publications on the topic (incomplete)

  • 1805: Adrien Alexandre Marie Hoverlant de Beauwelaere (author): Essai chronologique pour servir à l'histoire de Tournay .
  • 1829: Jean-Baptiste-Bonaventure de Roquefort (author): Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue françoise Volume II.
  • 1840: Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin (author): Histoire de Tournai et du Tournésis .
  • 1853: Frédéric Hennebert (author): Essai historico-philologique sur le nom de Tournai in Mémoires de la Société historique et littéraire de Tournai Volume I.
  • 1857: Alexandre-Guillaume Chotin (author): Mémoire sur l'étymologie historique et l'orthographe des noms des villes, bourgs et hameaux de la province de Hainaut in Mémoires et publications , II² série, Volume IV.
  • 1864: Aimé-François-Joseph Bozière (author): Tournai Ancien et Moderne
  • 1997: Daniel Blampain (author): Le français en Belgique
  • 2003: Jean Loicq (Author): La toponymie ou science des noms de lieux. Son application au patrimoine celtique de l'Ardenne , In Folia Electronica Classica n ° 5.
  • 2003: Xavier Delamarre (author): Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise
  • 2005: Jean-Jacques Jespers (author): Dictionnaire des noms de lieux en Wallonie et à Bruxelles
  • 2009: Isabelle Glorieux (Author): Tournai, une ville fondée par un soldat de Tullus Hostilius? On the subject of the origines légendaires de la cité des Cinq clochers , In: Folia Electronica Classica n ° 8.

Dispute about "i" or "y" (final)

During the 19th century two camps clashed over how to write the name of the city, either "Tournai" or "Tournay". The dispute seemed to have taken a rather lively course, Frédéric Hennebert himself represented the end of the name with "y" as a strange and bizarre neography , which was called to torment future philologists with an alliance of ignorance , inattention and whims if he assumes that followers of the "y" are becoming increasingly rare. Hennebert defended the ending “ai” because it replaced the old ending “acum” for all other toponyms. According to him, the “y” , the last “i” , began to replace the end of the 13th century , and enthusiasm for this spelling increased until the end of the 17th century .

Even today it happens that the spelling Tournay is chosen to give the name an old character. A good example of this is the Brasserie de Cazeau, which calls its beer "Tournay" based on an old beer recipe from the Abbey of Saint-Martin de Tournai. In unofficial parlance, “TY” is used as an abbreviation for the city name Tournai , which is pronounced as “t - i” .

Genesis of the linguistic boundary between Gallo-Roman and Germanic languages

Tournai's toponymic research takes up the problem of language borders and the associated historical-political discourse. In this context, several historical questions arose during the toponymic studies:

  • Mobility of the language border: Can Tournai be a German toponym on Roman soil?
  • Germanity of some Belgian tribes: Was Tournai in the land of the Menapier or the Nervian and was the language of these tribes Germanic or Celtic?
  • Influence of the Germanic invasions: If the toponym is of Germanic origin, did it arise during the Roman occupation or after the arrival of the Franks ?

The processing of some of these questions was distorted in the past by the influence of romantic nationalism and could only be checked, corrected and then rectified through studies since the beginning of the 20th century . Adriaan Hendrik Bredero (* 1921) cited in particular the controversial thesis of the German historian Franz Petri , who wanted to prove with his research that the language border came from the Franconian occupation of the southern Netherlands and France .

On the one hand because the toponym suffixes underlined by Petri were identified as a result of the Frankish invasions by Walther von Wartburg and on the other hand because Charles Verlinden explained that the language border only really began to exist a few centuries later and that the areas north of the border mentioned were 5th century were almost uninhabited.

One of the studies that preceded the 20th century was the book "Mémoire sur la démcation des langues flamandes et wallonnes d'une partie de la Belgique," published in 1807 by Jean-Joseph Raepsaet.

While the author describes the debate about the Germanic or Gallic origins of the Belgian-Gallic tribes as well as the colonization of the Nervier lands by southern Gallier, he also focused on the debate on the original language of the "people" of the "Tournaisiennes" and on the debate about the origin of the Menapier and the Nervian in the city. He therefore stated that, in his opinion, it was very likely that the city, regardless of the origin and language of the first Tournaisiennes, was Latinized during the more than five centuries of Roman rule. According to Raepsaet, this Latinization would thus be the origin of the Romance dialects of the Flemish castellany , which was the Tournaisis, and compares this hypothesis with the Frenchization of Flanders after the conquest of this province by Louis XIV.

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Blampain Daniel (dir.), Le français en Belgique, Duculot et CFB, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1997, p. 8, ISBN 978-2-8011-1126-0 (French)
  2. ^ Loicq Jean, «La toponymie ou science des noms de lieux. Son application au patrimoine celtique de l'Ardenne », Folia Electronica Classica, no 5, Louvain-la-Neuve, January-June 2003 ,. Retrieved September 3, 2019 (French).
  3. ↑ tùr in German. Retrieved September 3, 2019 .
  4. ↑ Isabelle Glorieux: Tournai, une ville fondée par un soldat de Tullus Hostilius? A propos des origines légendaires de la cité des Cinq clochers (German, Tournai, a city founded by a soldier of Tullus Hostilius? About the legendary origins of the city of five bell towers). In: Licenciée en langues et littératures classiques Docteur en Philosophie et Lettres (Histoire de la civilization médiévale). November 23, 2004, accessed September 7, 2019 (French).
  5. ↑ Royal Cercle Choral Tornacum. Retrieved September 7, 2019 (French).
  6. ↑ a b “Tournay Blonde”. Retrieved September 7, 2019 (Dutch).
  7. ^ Tournay. Retrieved September 7, 2019 .
  8. ↑ garage Tornacum Motors Tournai. Retrieved September 7, 2019 (French).
  9. ^ Tabula Peutingeriana, Section 1: Belgica and Germania Inferior. Retrieved September 9, 2019 (French).
  10. ↑ The "Itinerarium provinciarum Antonini Augusti": An imperial street directory of the Roman Empire. Tradition, routes, comments, maps, by Bernd Löhberg. Retrieved September 9, 2019 .
  11. ↑ European towns: their archeology and early history, Barley, MW, Council for British Archeology. Retrieved September 9, 2019 .
  12. ^ Notitia Dignitatum in partibus occidentis. Retrieved September 9, 2019 (Latin).
  13. ^ The Roads of Romain Britain The Notitia Dignitatium. Retrieved September 9, 2019 .
  14. ^ State and Manufactory in the Roman Empire. In: Axel W Persson. New York: Arno Press, 1979, p. 143 , accessed September 9, 2019 .
  15. ↑ a b Maurits Gysseling: Toponymisch Woordenboek van België, Nederland, Luxemburg, Noord-Frankrijk en West-Duitsland (vóór 1226), Tongres, Belgisch Interuniversitair Centrum voor Neerlandistiek. 1960, accessed September 9, 2019 (Dutch).
  16. ^ Mémoires de la Société historique et littéraire de Tournai. Société historique et archéologique de Tournai, Société historique et archéologique de Tournai, 1888, accessed on September 9, 2019 (French).
  17. ^ Mémoires de la Société historique et littéraire de Tournai, Volume 1. In: Mémoires de la Société historique et littéraire de Tournai, Volume 1 Sur le nom de Tournai. Société historique et archéologique de Tournai pp. 14–17, 1853, accessed on September 9, 2019 (French).
  18. ↑ Notre structure (IDETA, a technical and operational tool for municipalities and companies). Retrieved September 11, 2019 (French).
  19. ↑ Isabelle Glorieux: Tournai, une ville fondée par un soldat de Tullus Hostilius? Retrieved September 12, 2019 (French).
  20. ↑ The Hainaut. Retrieved September 12, 2019 .
  21. ↑ Jean LOICQ. Retrieved September 12, 2019 (French).
  22. ^ Xavier Delamarre: Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental. 2003, accessed on September 12, 2019 (French).
  23. ↑ Daniel Blampain, In: Deboeck Superieur. Retrieved September 12, 2019 (French).
  24. ↑ Aubin L. Millin: Journey through Savoy and Piedmont to Nice and Genoa, Volume 1. In: This coin alone was struck for DURNACUS - Tournay ... p. 108. Verlag GF Müller, 1817, accessed on September 13, 2019 .
  25. ↑ Lagoy, Roger de Meyran (1789-1860; marquis de). Retrieved September 13, 2019 (French).
  26. ↑ Les monnaies gauloises d'argent de la vallée du Rhône , Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 1983. (PDF) Retrieved September 13, 2019 .
  27. ^ Hucher Eugène, Bulletin Bibliographique , in de Witte Jean et de Longperrier Adrien (dir.), Revue numismatique , série, Tome VIII, Paris, 1863, pp. 53–54 (French)
  28. ↑ Hucher Eugène (1814-1889)
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  56. ↑ Author: Loicq, Jean 2003 (French)
  57. ↑ Delamarre, Xavier , Paris 2003, ISBN 2-87772-237-6 (French)
  58. ↑ Jespers, Jean-Jacques , 2005, 649 pp. ISBN 2-87386-409-5 (French)
  59. ↑ Author: Glorieux, Isabelle (French)
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  61. ↑ La brasserie de Cazeau est reprise dans, Bières du Monde, Éditions Prisma, 2011, ISBN 978-2-8104-0178-9 (French)
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  68. ↑ In the context of the time, the adjective "Walloon" describes a broader linguistic reality than it is today and is therefore to be understood in the sense of "Romance", since the author is also familiar with Picard's language peculiarities (cf. on this topic the article History of the term Walloon Language ). When used in the sense of “Germanic”, the adjective “Flemish” stays correct here because it describes the Flemish dialects.