Viticulture in Spain
The Spanish wine is a sector of great importance for the Spanish economy , because the country has the largest under vines in the world. Around 967,000 hectares of vineyards (as of 2017) are cultivated by around 150,000 winemakers in almost 5,000 bodegas (wineries) and bottling plants. In 2014, Spain became the world's largest exporter of wine for the first time, but the bulk of it consisted of cheap wines for further processing.
Important grape varieties
Wines in the most varied of styles and qualities are made from more than 250 grape varieties . Although Spain is better known as a red wine country , 50% of the area is planted with white grape varieties. Spain is clearly the largest white wine producer in the world. According to a data collection from the year 2000, the 15 most common grape varieties are:
- Airén (white) with 338,635 ha, tendency sharply falling
- Tempranillo (red) with 112,950 hectares, with a strong upward trend
- Bobal (red) with 92,630 ha
- Grenache = Garnacha (red) with 86,800 ha, tendency strongly decreasing
- Monastrell (red) with 65,100 ha
- Pardillo or Pardina (white) with 51,572 ha
- Macabeo or Viura (white) with 32,905 ha
- Palomino or Listán blanco (white) with 29,845 ha
- Mencía (red) with 11,330 ha
- Pedro Ximénez (white) with 11,115 ha
- Cayetana Blanca (white) with 10,743 hectares, with a strong upward trend
- Chelva (white) with 10,711 ha
- Parellada (white) with 10,415 ha
- Mazuelo (red) with 9,470 ha
- Xarel-lo (white) with 9,227 ha
2003 Wine Law
In 2003 the Spanish Parliament passed a new wine law. There are three main changes:
- The responsibility for the quality regulations of the individual growing areas as well as the responsibility for checking compliance is divided between two institutions. So far, the Consejos Reguladores have done both .
- With the Vinos de la Tierra , the country wines, there is now the possibility of identifying barrel-aged wines with graduated names comparable to quality wines.
- In the future, wines from individual sites , the vinos de pago , can be defined as the highest quality level . This regulation paved the way for the internationally known top wines that have become known in Rioja , Ribera del Duero , Navarra or the Priorat over the past 10 years , but also as country wines under the names Superreservas, Vinos de Autor or Vinos de Alta Expresión . These mostly modern wines did not meet the formal requirements of the region in the past, as these are often formulated too rigidly. The new regulation will promote regional top wines in the future.
Spanish wine quality system
- Vino de Mesa is the simplest level of table wine and can come from anywhere in Spain. The label must not show the region of origin, a vintage or an indication of the grape variety.
- Vino de la Tierra (VdlT) corresponds to a country wine or a French Vin de pays. For the Vino de la Tierra, the grape variety and vintage may be specified. There are currently 42 VdlT regions.
- Around half of the Spanish vineyards are allowed to carry the controlled designation of origin DO ( Denominación de origen ). There are currently 64 DO (C.) Areas. The areas of Rioja and Priorat are even allowed to bear the designation DOCa ( Denominación de origen calificada ).
- Since the 2003 amendment to the law, 18 wineries have been recognized as vino de pago (similar to the Crus Classés in Bordeaux), making them the top in Spain's quality system. Well-known goods are for example:
- Dominio de Valdepusa
- Dehesa del Carrizal
- El Vicario
- Pago de Arínzano
- Pago de Otazu
- Prado de Irache
- Casa del Blanco
- Finca Élez
- El Terrerazo
- Los Balagueses
- Pago Guijoso
There are the following quality levels within a growing area:
- Cosecha : This label on the back is worn by wines that either have not matured in wooden barrels and / or bottles for the necessary time to be allowed to carry one of the higher names, or that have been graded by the producer.
- Vino joven are usually the wines that are not aged in wood, but there is no legal stipulation. The Jovenes wear the aforementioned as a label on the back.
- Semi Crianza or Crianza Corta is an unofficial name and denotes wines that have been in wooden barrels for a few months, but have not been stored long enough to be marketed as Crianza. You can often find the names Roble or Barrica on the label.
- CVC (Conjunto de varias Cosechas): a blend of several years. Is hardly in use anymore.
- Crianza : Wine with at least six months of barrel storage and 12 to 18 months of bottle storage with a total age of at least 24 months. Exceptions: in the areas of Navarra, Rioja, Ribera del Duero and Penedès, twelve months of barrel storage are required. The minimum age for white wines is one year, of which 6 months in bottle and barrel.
- Reserva , red: Wine with at least one year in barrel and two years in bottle; white: Wine with at least 6 months in barrel and 1.5 years in bottle
- Gran Reserva , red: Wine with at least 2 years in barrel and 3 years in bottle; white: Wine with at least 6 months of barrel storage and 3.5 years of bottle storage
The intention behind these quality levels is to only bring high-quality wines onto the market when they have reached a certain level of drinking maturity. Since Spain has a very large proportion of wines that have seen a barrel and are therefore Crianza, Reserva or Gran R., it is the first choice if you want to get very cheap barrel wines.
The Consejo Regulador defines the “Reglamento” for each DO area with the description of the permitted grape varieties, the permitted documents, decisions about new plantings, the regulation of the yield per hectare, the density of tillering, the pruning and the production methods, such as ripening technology, alcohol content , Residual sugar, dry extract values, etc. The Consejo Regulador of the respective region only approves the label after sensory testing. The central authority is called INDO ( Instituto Nacional de Denominaciones de Origen ).
Every year, the Guía Peñín , Spain's most famous and most important wine guide, gives an overview of the quality of Spanish wines .
History of viticulture in Spain
Since approx. 4000 BC Viticulture is practiced in Spain. Grape remains found even prove the existence of the wild grape at the end of the Tertiary . Around 1100 BC The Phoenicians founded the city of Cádiz on the south coast of Spain and increased their viticulture. After the Phoenicians came the Carthaginians and continued the winemaking tradition.
In the second and third centuries BC During the Punic Wars, the power relations on the Mediterranean were changed in favor of the Roman Empire. The subsequent political stability on the Iberian Peninsula encouraged trade with Rome . Finds of amphorae in the Italian capital show that a lot of Spanish wine was drunk there at that time. In particular, wines from Baetica (roughly equivalent to today's Andalusia) and Tarraconensis (Tarragona) enjoyed great popularity. As provisions for the Roman soldiers, the wine came to the Loire Valley, Brittany , Normandy and England.
Small label school
Here is a translation aid for the most important terms on labels for wines from Spain:
- abocado: lovely
- aguardiente: often used abbreviation for pomace brandy ( aguardiente de orujo )
- añejo, añejado por ...: old, aged by ...
- barrica: barrel, barrique
- blanco: white
- bodega: winery, see bodega
- bodeguero: owner of a bodega
- brut: very dry. This designation is only used for sparkling wine and corresponds to the French meaning.
- cava: Catalan for sparkling wine , Spanish variant of sparkling wine
- cepa: vine, grape variety
- comarca: district
- cosecha: vintage, also refers to the back label
- criado por ...: expanded by ...
- dulce: sweet
- elaborado por ...: expanded by ...
- embotellado por ...: bottled by ...
- espumoso: sparkling wine
- generoso: fortified aperitif or dessert wine
- método tradicional: since August 31, 1994 replacement name for méthode champenoise
- rosado: rosé (rosé wine)
- SAT: privatized cooperative winery
- seco: dry
- semiseco: semi-dry
- tinto: red, red wine
- vendimia: grape harvest
- viña: vineyard, vineyard
- viñedo: vineyard, vineyard
- vino: wine
- vino corriente: everyday wine
- vino de aguja: sparkling wine
- vino de pasto: simple table wine
- vino de prensa: pressing of the solid components from the fermentation process
- vino gaseoso: sparkling wine, cheap sparkling wine made by adding carbonic acid
Growing regions
The part of the country (zona vinícola por comunidades autónomas, comparable with the federal states) in which this growing area is located follows the official name (possibly several names).
Denominación de Origen growing region
- DO Abona - Canary Islands
- DO Alella - Catalonia
- DO Alicante - Valencia
- DO Almansa - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Arabako Txakolina - Basque Country
- DO Arlanza - Castilla-León
- DO Arribes - Castilla-León
- DO Bierzo - Castilla-León
- DO Binissalem Mallorca - Balearic Islands
- DO Bizkaiko Txakolina - Basque Country
- DO Bullas - Murcia
- DO Calatayud - Aragon
- DO Campo de Borja - Aragon
- DO Cariñena - Aragón
- DO Catalunya - Catalonia
- DO Cava - Catalonia + other regions
- DO Cigales - Castilla-León
- DO Conca de Barberà - Catalonia
- DO Condado de Huelva - Andalusia
- DO Costers de Segre - Catalonia
- DO Dehesa del Carrizal Vinos de Pago - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Dominio de Valdepusa Vinos de Pago - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO El Hierro - Canary Islands
- DO Empordà - Catalonia
- DO Finca Elez Vinos de Pago - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Getariako Txakolina - Basque Country
- DO Gran Canaria - Canary Islands
- DO Jerez - Andalusia
- DO Jumilla - Murcia
- DO La Gomera - Canary Islands
- DO Lanzarote - Canary Islands
- DO La Mancha - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO La Palma - Canary Islands
- DO Málaga - Andalusia
- DO Manchuela - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Manzanilla de Sanlúcar de Barrameda - Andalusia
- DO Méntrida - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Mondéjar - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Monte Lentiscal - Canary Islands
- DO Monterrei - Galicia
- DO Montilla-Moriles - Andalusia
- DO Montsant - Catalonia
- DO Martúe La Guardia Vinos de Pago - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Navarre - Navarre
- DO Otazu Vinos de Pago - Navarre
- DO Pago Florentino Vinos de Pago - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Pago Guijoso Vinos de Pago - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Penedès - Catalonia
- DO Pla de Bages - Catalonia
- DO Pla i Llevant Mallorca - Balearic Islands
- DO Prado de Irache Vinos de Pago - Navarre
- DOCa. Priory - Catalonia
- DO Rías Baixas - Galicia
- DO Ribeira Sacra - Galicia
- DO Ribeiro - Galicia
- DO Ribera del Duero - Castilla-León
- DO Ribera del Guadania - Extremadura
- DO Ribera del Júcar - Castilla-La Mancha
- DOCa. Rioja - Rioja
- DO Rueda - Castilla-León
- DO Sierras de Málaga - Andalusia
- DO Somontano - Aragon
- DO Tacaronte-Acentejo - Canary Islands
- DO Tarragona - Catalonia
- DO Terra Alta - Catalonia
- DO Tierra de León - Castilla-León
- DO Tierra del Vino de Zamora - Castilla-León
- DO Toro - Castilla-León
- DO Úcles - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Utiel-Requena - Valencia
- DO Valdeorras - Galicia
- DO Valdepeñas - Castilla-La Mancha
- DO Valencia - Valencia
- DO Valle de Güimar - Canary Islands
- DO Valle de La Orotava - Canary Islands
- DO Vinos de Madrid - Madrid
- DO Ycoden-Daute-Isora - Canary Islands
- DO Yecla - Murcia
Vinos de Calidad VCPRD
- VC Lebrija - Andalusia
- VC Valles de Benavente - Castilla-León
vV.C. Valtiendas - Castilla-León
Vinos de la Tierra
- VT Bailén - Andalusia
- VT Bajo Aragón - Aragon
- VT Betanzos - Galicia
- VT Cádiz - Andalusia
- VT Campo de Cartagena - Murcia
- VT Cangas - Asturias
- VT Castilla - Castilla-La Mancha
- VT Castilla y León - Castilla-León
- VT Contraviesa-Alpujarra - Andalusia
- VT Córdoba - Andalusia
- VT Costa de Cantabria - Cantabria
- VT Desierto de Almería - Andalusia
- VT Eivissa - Balearic Islands
- VT El Terrerazo - Valencia
- VT Extremadura - Extremadura
- VT Formentera - Balearic Islands
- VT Gránada Sur-Oeste - Andalusia
- VT Illa de Menorca - Balearic Islands
- VT Illes Balears - Balearic Islands
- VT Laujar-Alpujarra - Andalusia
- VT Liébana - Cantabria
- VT Mallorca - Balearic Islands
- VT Norte de Granada - Andalusia
- VT Pozohondo - Albacete
- VT Ribera de Andarax - Andalusia
- VT Ribera de Gállego-Cinca Villas - Aragón
- VT Ribera del Jiloca - Aragon
- VT Ribera del Queiles - Aragón + Navarre
- VT Serra de Tramuntana-Costa Nord / Mallorca - Balearic Islands
- VT Sierra de las Estancias y los Filabres - Andalusia
- VT Sierra Norte de Seville - Andalusia
- VT Val do Miño-Ourense - Galicia
- VT Valdejalón - Aragon
- VT Valle de Cinca - Aragon
- VT Valles de Sadacia - Rioja
Vino de Mesa
- Andalucía
- Aragon
- Islas Balears
- Islas Canarias
- Castilla-La Mancha
- Castilla y León
- Catalunya
- Extremadura
- Galicia
- La Rioja
- Madrid
- Murcia
- Navarre
- Valencia
The official name (possibly several names) of the region is followed by the vineyard area in hectares and the point in time from which the region is recognized as a DO region or as a Vino de la Tierra region in the format [mm / yyyy]. In some regions, the regional wine law was only passed a few years after being appointed DO (delay, e.g. due to the civil war). There is an additional time stamp for these regions. The individual data for a region are separated from each other with a "•".
Andalusia
Andalusia is the southernmost region of Spain and therefore the hottest part of the peninsula. The sherry produced by Jerez de la Frontera is of international importance.
- Bailén , VdlT • 01/2003
- Cádiz , VdlT • 02/2000
- Condado de Huelva , DO • 5,700 ha • 09/1932 • 12/1932
- Contraviesa-Alpujarra , VdlT • 10/1992
- Cordoba , VdlT • 06/2004
- Desierto de Almería , VdlT • 07/2003
- Granada Sur-Oueste , VdlT • 07/2003
- Jerez , DO (for sherry; full name: "Jerez-Xérès-Sherry") • 10,500 ha • 09/1932 • 01/1935
- Laujar-Alpujarra , VdlT • 04/2000
- Los Palacios , VdlT • 03/2003
- Málaga , DO • 1,100 ha • 09/1932 • 10/1937
- Montilla-Moriles , DO • 9,500 hectares • 09/1932 • 10/1945
- Norte de Granada , VdlT • 06/1999
- Ribera del Andarax , VdlT • 03/2003
- Sierra Norte de Sevilla , VdlT
- Sierra Sur de Jaén , VdlT • 09/2003
Asturias
- Cangas de Narcea , VdlT • 05/2001
Aragon
Aragon is located in northeastern Spain. The region includes the wide valley of the Ebro. In the north the Pyrenees dominate, supplying the arid Ebro Valley with water. Due to its location near this mountain range, the DO Somontana wines have the best potential. The three other DO areas are located south of the Ebro.
- Bajo Aragón , VdlT • 08/2001
- Calatayud , DO • 6,400 ha • 02/1990
- Campo de Belchite , VdlT • 08/2001
- Campo de Borja , DO • 7,200 ha • 05/1977 • 02/1980
- Cariñena , DO • 16,700 ha • 09/1932 • 05/1960
- Ribera del Gállego-Cinco Villas , VdlT • 08/2001
- Ribera del Queiles , VdlT (part of the region is in Navarre ) • 10/2003
- Somontano , DO • 3,300 ha • 04/1980 • 06/1985
- Valdejalón , VdlT • 08/2001
- Valle del Cinca , VdlT • 08/2001
- Valle del Jiloca , VdlT • 08/2001
Balearic Islands
In 1991 Mallorca received its first recognized quality area, Binissalem , north of Palma at the foot of the Tramuntana Mountains. In 1999, the Pla i Llevant DO area followed in the east of the country . Both areas account for 90% of Mallorca's total wine production. In 2001, around 25 million liters of wine were produced in both areas on approx. 700 hectares. Around 240 winemakers are registered on Mallorca, but only a small number of them have so far met the prescribed criteria for growing quality wines.
- Binissalem-Mallorca , DO • 385 ha • 01/1991
- Formentera , VdlT
- Ibiza , VdlT • 05/2003
- Illes Balears , VdlT • 02/2003
- Isla de Menorca , VdlT • 03/2002
- Plà i Llevant , DO • 250 ha • 03/2001
- Serra de Tramuntana-Costa Nord , VdlT • 02/2002
Basque Country
- Chacolí de Álava (Basque Arabako Txakolina ), DO • 55 ha • 07/2002 • 08/2002
- Chacolí de Vizcaya (Basque Bizkaiko Txakolina ), DO • 140 ha • 11/1994
- Chacolí de Guetaria ( Getariako Txakolina in Basque ), DO • 170 ha • 04/1990
- Rioja Alavesa is one of the 3 sub-regions of the DOC Rioja and is located in the Basque Country • 12,500 ha (included in the total size of the Rioja )
Canary Islands
- El Hierro , DO • 270 ha • 05/1995
- Gran Canaria • 250 ha
- La Gomera , VdlT • 01/1994
- La Palma , DO • 950 ha • 06/1994
- Lanzarote , DO • 2,200 ha • 06/1994
-
Tenerife
- Abona , DO • 1,600 ha • 09/1996
- Tacoronte-Acentejo , DO • 1,700 ha • 09/1992
- Valle de Güímar , DO • 900 ha • 09/1996
- Valle de la Orotava , DO • 680 ha • 11/1995
- Ycoden-Daute-Isora , DO • 1,450 ha • 06/1994
Cantabria
- Costa de Cantabria , VdlT
- Líebana , VdlT
Castile-La Mancha
- Almansa , DO • 7,600 ha • 01/1964 • 03/1966
- Castilla , VdlT • 05/1999
- Dominio de Valdepusa , Pago DO • 42 ha • 02/2003 • 03/2003
- Gálvez, VdlT • 04/1988
- La Mancha , DO • 193,000 ha • 09/1932 • 03/1966
- Manchuela , DO • 3,400 ha • 07/2000 • 06/2004
- Méntrida , DO • 12,300 ha • 01/1964 • 03/1966
- Mondéjar , DO • 860 ha • 03/1997
- Pago Guijoso , Pago DO • 04/2005
- Pozohondo , VdlT • 04/1988
- Ribera del Júcar , DO • 9,000 ha • 06/2003
- Sierra de Alcaraz , VdlT • 06/1995
- Uclés , DO • 04/2005
- Valdepeñas , DO • 29,100 ha • 09/1932 • 08/1968
The region is also being created:
- Finca Elez , Pago DO • 37 ha
Castile and León
Castile-Léon consists of nine provinces and forms the heartland of Spain, as the Reconquista , the reunification of Spain under Christian rule in the Middle Ages, was largely carried out from here . The Duero River influences the climatic conditions of the DO zones Cigales, Ribera del Duero, Rueda and Toro. The latest DO Bierzo is geographically separated from the other regions and is stylistically based on wines from Galicia.
- Arribes del Duero , VdlT • 01/2003
- Bierzo , DO • 4,100 ha • 11/1989
- Castile and León , VdlT • 09/2002
- Cigales , DO • 2,600 ha • 03/1991
- Ribera del Arlanza , VdlT • 02/1998
- Ribera del Duero , DO • 15,300 ha • 11/1979 • 07/1982
- Rueda , DO • 6,900 ha • 09/1932 • 01/1980
- Tierra de Léon , VdlT (former name “Valdevimbre-Los Oteros”) • 04/1999
- Tierra del Vino de Zamora , VdlT • 09/2000
- Toro , DO • 4,400 hectares • 05/1987
- Valles de Benavente , VdlT • 09/2000
The region is emerging:
- Arribes , DO (This region originates from the Arribes del Duero country wine region)
Catalonia
- Alella , DO • 600 ha • 09/1932 • 12/1955
- Catalunya , DO • 7,000 ha • 02/2001
- Cava (supra-regional denomination with a focus on Catalonia), D • 32,000 hectares in total • 02/1986
- Conca de Barberà , DO • 6,000 ha • 12/1989
- Costers del Segre , DO • 4,144 hectares • 05/1988
- Empordà • 2,500 ha • 07/1972 • 05/1975
- Montsant , DO • 2,058 ha • 07/2002
- Penedès , DO • 27,500 ha • 09/1932 • 05/1960
- Pla de Bages , DO • 550 ha • 06/1997
- Priorat , DOCa • 1,600 ha • 09/1932 • 07/1954
- Tarragona , DO • 8,000 ha • 09/1932 • 03/1947
- Terra Alta , DO • 9,200 ha • 12/1972 • 09/1985
Extremadura (region)
- Extremadura , VdlT • 11/1999
- Ribera del Guadiana , DO • 16,100 ha • 04/1999
Galicia
Galicia with its capital Santiago de Compostela is located in the north-west of Spain and differs significantly from other parts of Spain. The Atlantic on one side and the mountain ranges of the Cordillera Cantábrica ensure a more humid and cooler climate. The region is also often called the green Spain . There are five DO regions, of which Rias Baixas is the most internationally known area.
- Betanzos , VdlT • 02/2001
- Monterrei , DO • 660 ha • 01/1996
- Rías Baixas , DO • 2,400 ha • 07/1988
- Ribeira Sacra , DO • 1,200 ha • 09/1997
- Ribeiro , DO • 3,000 ha • 09/1932 • 07/1957
- Valdeorras , DO • 1,300 ha • 07/1945 • 07/1957
- Valle de Miño-Ourense , VdlT • 02/2001
La Rioja (Spanish region)
- Rioja (3 sub-DOs that are spread across the political regions of La Rioja , Navarra and the Basque Country ), DOCa • together 60,200 ha • 09/1932 • 03/1947
- Valles de Sadacia , VdlT • 03/2003
Autonomous Community of Madrid
- Vinos de Madrid , DO • 11,800 ha • 11/1990
Murcia (region)
- Abanilla , VdlT • 01/2003
- Bullas , DO • 5,500 ha • 09/1994
- Campo de Cartagena , VdlT • 01/2003
- Jumilla , DO • 41,300 ha • 07/1931 • 01/1966
- Yecla , DO • 4,500 ha • 07/1972 • 05/1975
In the Middle Ages, the pilgrims of Santiago de Compostela stimulated the demand for wine. At the end of the 19th century, Navarre benefited from its proximity to France. Since phylloxera invaded northern Spain much later than in France, it was possible to export a considerable part of the production there for about 20 years. In 1892 the vineyards fell victim to the pest. Even if the region recovered relatively quickly from this infestation, the current vineyard area is only a third of the area of 1890. The winemakers switched from producing simple rosados to more sophisticated red wines relatively early . The Garnacha grape variety dominates the vineyards. Tempranillo is far behind in second place. White wine only accounts for around 10% of wine production. Macabeo is the predominant grape.
- Navarra (wine region) , DO • 15,900 ha • 09/1932 • 04/1967
- Ribera del Queiles , VdlT (part of the region is in Aragón ) • 10/2003
- Rioja , DOCa • 3,000 hectares of the sub-zone Rioja Baja are located in the political region of Navarra (these are included in the overall size under "La Rioja")
Valencia (region)
- Alicante , DO • 14,600 ha • 09/1932 • 02/1957
- Castelló , VdlT • 09/2003
- El Terrerazo , VdlT • 09/2003
- Utiel-Requena , DO • 40,000 ha • 09/1932 • 02/1957
- Valencia , DO • 17,700 ha • 09/1932 • 02/1957
literature
- Jan Read: Spain's Wines 2005/06 . 7th edition. Hallwag Verlag Munich, ISBN 3-7742-6962-9 .
- John Radford: The New Spain . 1st edition. Mitchell Beazley, ISBN 1-84000-928-4 .
- Jeremy Watson: The NEW & CLASSICAL wines of Spain . 1st edition. Montagud Editores Barcelona, ISBN 84-7212-087-2 .
- José Peñín: Guía Peñín 2011 . Heel Verlag, ISBN 978-3-86852-333-1 .
Web links
- Information about Spanish wine regions and wines
- Information about wine regions in Catalonia and wines
- Information about grape varieties in general
- Photos Viticulture in the Priorat
- spanienwein.info The only German-speaking Spain wine portal
- laseleccion.info The grand prize for the best Spanish wines
Individual evidence
- ↑ German Wine Institute : Statistics 2018/2019 . Mainz 2019 ( deutscheweine.de [PDF; 706 kB ] Source: German Wine Institute, according to the Office International de la Vigne et du Vin, Paris).
- ↑ Thomas Urban Spanish winemakers want to get away from the cheap image sz.de , August 30, 2017.
- ↑ Ministero de Agricultura: LISTADO DE Denominaciones. (PDF) Retrieved September 3, 2019 (Spanish).