Crimean Bridge

Crimean Bridge
	Crimean Bridge 2019
Official name	Крымский мост
use	Road and railroad
Crossing of	Kerch Strait , Tusla Island , Taman Peninsula Spit
place	Kerch - Taman
construction	2 parallel tied arch bridges with long access ramps
overall length	19.0 km including access ramps ; ; 18.1 km (railroad) ; 16.9 km (motorway), of which a total of more than 7 km over water
Number of openings	one each (street / train)
Longest span	227 m
Construction height	80 m
Clear height	35 m
vehicles per day	≤ 40000
building-costs	228 billion rubles
start of building	2015
completion	2018 (road) ; 2019 (rail passenger transport)
opening	May 16, 2018 (road bridge) ; December 23, 2019 (railway bridge)
planner	SC Institute-Giprostroymost - Saint-Petersburg
	location
	Course of the bridges
	Proportion of bridges and entrances / exits over land and island

45.268333333333 36.55Coordinates: 45 ° 16 ′ 6 ″ N , 36 ° 33 ′ 0 ″ E

The Crimean Bridge ( Russian Крымский мост Krymski most , Ukrainian Міст через Керченську протоку unofficially "Кримський міст" : project name Kerch Strait Bridge is) the road and rail link between the peninsula of Crimea on the Kerch Strait to the Taman peninsula in the Russian region of Krasnodar . The road connection was officially opened in May 2018, the release for restricted rail traffic took place in December 2019. The start of rail freight traffic is planned for summer 2020.

After several failed attempts and contracts signed between Ukraine and Russia in 2013, the project was carried out after the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014 on the basis of an order from Russian President Vladimir Putin to the Ministry of Transport .

description

The 19 km long Crimean Bridge, including the land accesses, crosses the Kerch Strait (6 km), the island of Tusla (6 km), a shallow water area (1.3 km) and the spit of the Taman peninsula (5.7 km ). It consists of a bridge structure for a four-lane motorway and, south of it, a separate structure for the parallel, double-track railway line. This makes this property the largest bridge built by Russia. The shipping canal is crossed by a 227 m long arched bridge with a clear height of 35 m.

The motorway bridge is 16,857.28 m long. Their directional lanes, separated by guard rails , each have two lanes and a narrow hard shoulder. Each directional carriageway has a structurally separate superstructure made of an orthotropic plate on two longitudinal beams. The railway bridge is 18,118.05 m long. The tracks lie on ballast beds and each have a superstructure made of steel, two-cell hollow boxes with orthotropic slabs. The bridges stand on 595 piers at a pillar spacing of 54 m to 64 m, which were founded on around 7000 piles. The two steel tied arch bridges were built on land near the bridge and then brought to the installation site with pontoons .

history

Old plans

Taman Peninsula with Tschuschka (top left), map from 1943.

Bridge part of the old bridge from the Second World War

The construction of a bridge over the strait was discussed again and again. Even before the First World War, the British planned to build a railway line across the Kerch Strait that would continue to India. Tsar Nicholas II was also interested in the idea. At the beginning of the 20th century, the shipbuilding engineer Vasily Mendeleev (1886–1922), son of the famous Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev , made the concrete proposal to connect the strait with a dam for the first time. A group of Russian engineers then worked on a project until 1910. However, the outbreak of World War I prevented its realization. In the 1930s a new bridge was planned from the Soviet Union . Soon, however, the Second World War prevented the implementation of the plans.

Second World War

After the advance of the German Wehrmacht into the Crimea in the Second World War, the paramilitary organization Todt began building a bridge as part of Operation Gotenkopf in order to be able to supply the Kuban bridgehead on the east side of the Kerch Strait , which existed from January to October 1943 . However, this 4.5 kilometer long railway bridge was a few kilometers further northeast of today's connection: after a construction period of 150 days, it connected the Crimea with the Chushka peninsula, roughly on the route on which the ferry connection between the ports of Port Kawkas and Port Crimea will later run should. The connection of the bridge to the railway line was near the fortress Jenikal . On the Caucasian side, the bridge ended just under 3 kilometers southwest of Port Kawkas. At the same time, there was a 5.1-kilometer cable car that transported up to 1,000 tons of loads a day. The Soviet aerial reconnaissance was aware of the building, but Josef Stalin forbade bombing it. After the retreat of the German troops to the Crimea, forced by a counter-offensive by the Red Army , the incompletely completed bridge was blown up by the Germans in October 1943.

The decision to reconstruct the railway bridge over the Kerch Strait was made on January 25, 1944. That was before the liberation of Kerch on April 11, 1944; it became possible after the Kerch-Eltigen operation . The Soviet construction troops built a railway bridge within seven months using the remains and the building material left behind and according to the German construction plans. The bridge project consisted of 115 parts with spans of 27 meters each. A 110-meter-long swing bridge was built over the navigable Kerch-Jenikalsker Canal , which ships of any size could pass in both directions at the same time. At the same time, railway lines were built as a connection to the east and across the Crimea.

On November 3, 1944, the first train drove over the restored bridge. The icebreakers planned by the Germans were not yet completely built. The accident that became inevitable as a result occurred on February 18 and 20, 1945: under the influence of wind and currents, ice fields moved from the Sea of Azov towards the bridge. The ice was so thick that it could not be destroyed by blasting or bombing. On February 18, 1945, 32 pillars broke. The supports, which were already secured, withstood the pressure of the ice. By February 20, 42 pillars had been damaged. Thus the bridge was only in operation for three months. A week before the disaster, on February 11, the last train carrying passengers Josef Stalin and the Soviet delegation returning from the Yalta conference had rolled over the bridge.

post war period

In 1949 new bridge concepts were developed - with two levels for road and rail traffic. The cost of the project was estimated at 2 billion rubles (at 1949 prices). After installing the first pillar foundations, however, it became clear that the columns were not sufficiently stable. The project has been postponed for the time being. The western bridgehead was to be decorated with a huge stele with the coat of arms and the statue of Stalin.

In 1953 the Kerch ferry replaced the bridge between Port Kawkas and Port Krim. Soon four rail ferries were operating, later three more car ferries from Riga . The remains of the pillars of the destroyed bridge hampered shipping for many years. In 1968, all but one off the eastern bank were demolished and removed. Around 1990 the rail ferries had to be shut down because they were ready for scrap.

The construction of a new bridge has been discussed repeatedly since then, but was never considered a priority project as the connection via Ukraine to Crimea was considered sufficient. Letters of intent from 1993, 2000 and 2008 petered out, as was the proposal for a tunnel in 2004.

On December 24, 2003, Russia and Ukraine signed an agreement on the common use of the Sea of Azov, which defines the sea as the internal waters of both states. The treaty guarantees the ships of both countries the right of peaceful passage . In 2010, Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and Russian President Dmitri Anatoljewitsch Medvedev revived plans for a bridge for the upcoming 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi. A memorandum was signed on November 26, 2010; On December 17, 2013, corresponding contracts were concluded at the meeting of the joint Russian-Ukrainian government commission.

The situation changed with the annexation of the Crimea peninsula, which until then belonged to Ukraine, in March 2014. As a result of the action, Ukraine interrupted all supply lines running through its territory on December 26, 2014 as well as the train and bus connections overland to Crimea. Since then, goods have been transported between Russia and the peninsula by sea or air.

In order to establish a direct transport connection, the project of crossing the bridge over the Kerch Strait was given top priority for Russia. As a temporary measure, the railway ferry from the Taman Peninsula to Kerch was reopened on August 1, 2014 after 25 years. Until the bridge project is completed, traffic to Russia across the Kerch Strait will be handled provisionally with rail and car ferries, some of which have been withdrawn from other routes. Some ferries were bought second-hand abroad. The route soon became the busiest sea connection in the world, with up to 110 passages a day: In 2017, 5.71 million people, 1.78 million cars and 78 thousand railroad cars were carried. Sometimes there were waiting times of up to 30 hours. In addition, a helicopter connection was set up.

Emergence

Since the annexation of Crimea in March 2014, tourism, traditionally one of the main sources of income in Crimea, has collapsed. Prices and the cost of living rose sharply, income plummeted, and many jobs were lost. Prior to 2014, over 70 percent of tourists traveled to and from mainland Ukraine. This land connection was now broken or was considered too risky. Russia offered subsidized airline tickets for civil servants and pensioners and promoted " patriotic vacations" in Crimea. Nevertheless, the number of visitors declined. The bridge is designed to boost tourism in the Crimea and lower the price of food deliveries. The bridge also has a symbolic meaning for Russia and provides a counterpart to the natural land connection to Crimea, which Ukraine has in contrast to Russia.

planning

The arch bridges 2019

In March 2014, the Russian Prime Minister Medvedev commissioned the state road construction agency Avtodor with the establishment of a subsidiary for the preparation of a feasibility study and the construction of a bridge. The bridge was supposed to lead from Kerch in the Crimea over the island of Tusla to the Taman peninsula and thus establish a direct connection between the Russian mainland and the Black Sea peninsula. It was designed with a four-lane motorway and a two-track railway line. The ferry connection , which has existed since 1953 and is part of the European route 97 , is to remain in place.

financing

The Russian state budget provided 228 billion rubles (approx. 3 billion euros ), whereby the two approaches to the bridge from Crimea and the Krasnodar region were to be financed elsewhere. The construction of the motorway and railway line between Krasnodar and the Crimea is expected to generate 70 percent of the annual income of the state budget for all roads and bridges. In 2014, the Russian newspaper Vedomosti reported that other infrastructure projects had been postponed because of the Crimean Bridge. For example, the construction of a bridge over the Lena to Yakutsk was postponed until after 2020; the 44 billion rubles earmarked for this was invested in the Crimean Bridge.

construction

Construction site (2016)

Lifting the railway bridge (2017)

The company Stroigasmontasch (SGM), owned by Arkadi Rotenberg , received the contract to build the bridge . Rotenberg is assigned to the immediate environment of the Russian President Vladimir Putin ; Rotenberg himself is affected by the sanctions imposed on Russian elites for the annexation of Crimea. SGM received the contract to build the bridge at the beginning of 2015 without a tender. The Kerch Strait is a difficult place to build and is characterized by mud volcanoes on the seabed, seismic activity and, in winter, by drifting ice floes. The bridge and the access roads lead through a seismically active zone of approximately 9 points on the Richter scale , which is a critical value for such a construction and traffic management. A group of mud volcanoes also has to be avoided on the eastern approach. The E 97 / A-290 bypasses the active Gryazevoy and the Karabetova Sopka volcanic cone within sight (approx. 2 km). On the Crimean side, a bypass of the Kerch / Fort Totleben (Russian Керченская крепость , Ukrainian Фортеця Керч / форт Тотлебен ) and Cape Burun (Russian / Ukrainian Акнская Бурн ) was necessary because of the historical sites located there. This extended the route by around 3 kilometers. 45.317195 36.487253

In October 2015, the construction work on the construction site equipment was well advanced. One of the highlights of the construction project was the assembly of two bridge arches with a span of 227 meters.

Companies involved in the construction were placed on the US sanctions list in September 2016 .

According to an online survey in December 2017, the bridge was officially named Крымский мост (German: Krim-Brücke). The project name was based on the historic bridge that was 10 kilometers further northeast.

In September 2018, a floating crane rammed the bridge, damaging a light pole and bending the bridge railing. In October 2018, part of the planned railway line fell into the water.

Inauguration and partial openings

Highway

Start of the opening run on the road bridge

The inauguration took place on May 15, 2018 by a parade of construction vehicles , in which Vladimir Putin drove ahead at the wheel of an orange KamAZ 65115 tipper.

On May 16, 2019, the road was partially opened to the general public: only vehicles up to 3.5 t and buses were allowed to use the bridge. From October 2018, the traffic of heavy trucks will also be permitted, with the exception of the transport of dangerous goods.

railroad

Opening of the railway line on December 23, 2019

The official commissioning of the railway line took place on December 23, 2019 with an opening ride with Putin in the driver's cab of a diesel regional train across the bridge. Before that, at the end of September, the first diesel multiple unit with journalists on board drove over the bridge for test purposes. The rolling stock of this train connection is provided by Grand Serwis Express instead of the state railway company , as the state railway RŽD did not want to take the risk of sanctions in international traffic. The new trains from St. Petersburg to Sevastopol will take around 45 hours - over 9 hours longer than the connections through Ukraine, which were discontinued in 2014. At the beginning, the new Crimean Bridge was passed in both directions in the middle of the night. The private railway company lacks trains to operate the route more often. The double-track expansion of the line had not yet been completed at the time of opening.

The first scheduled train reached Sevastopol in Crimea on the morning of December 25th. For the time being, a pair of trains will run daily via Moscow over the bridge to the Crimea and back. The Russian railway published plans for further direct connections between the Crimea and other Russian destinations without specific details. Initially, only passenger trains will run across the bridge. The start of regular freight traffic is only planned in the course of 2020, as the double-track expansion has not yet been completed. Delays arose because, according to the first measurement results, the intended load is not possible.

Effects

environment

Radar and satellite data for assessing ice conditions in the Kerch Strait show that the Crimean Bridge is blocking the drift ice on the way from the Sea of Azov across the Kerch Strait. Every year in the cold season of the year, the Sea of Azov is completely covered with ice, with cold winters occurring more frequently since the turn of the millennium and the sea water partially iced up until March. Before the bridge was built, the pieces of ice were carried unhindered by currents and winds across the Strait from Kerch to the Black Sea . Since the bridge was built, the drift ice has stuck to the pillars of the bridge: since then the bridge has worked like a dam that does not let the drift ice through. Satellite data and observations show that the drift ice presses against the bridge piers even in strong north-easterly winds and that the ice floes cannot pass even at the widest point under the bridge. Pressure creates press hills at the contact points . The jammed drift ice can mean that cargo ships can no longer pass the bridge and icebreakers have to be used to open a passage for other ships under the bridge. The construction project was not subjected to any environmental impact assessment in advance . It is unclear whether the ice formations in the Sea of Azov were taken into account in the construction planning.

Since the construction of the Crimean Bridge, an increased concentration of suspended solids and increased algal blooms have been noted in the surrounding waters. In a study of the ecological risk areas in the Black Sea, the bridge was cited as one of the main sources of pollution. The fact that the bridge was built directly over the island of Tusla in the Kerch Strait caused irreparable environmental damage on the island. Before it was built, Tusla was an important natural area for marine and migratory birds. During the construction of the bridge, parts of the forest on the island were cut down and the island was used as a parking lot and storage facility for building materials. As a result of the construction work, the water exchange between the Azov and Black Seas has changed significantly. Before that, the water flowed evenly around the island at low speed. For the bridge construction, a dam was built, which forms an artificial spit . Since then, the main stream has been running at high speed between the Tusla and the man-made dam and has increased erosion on the southeastern part of the island. The impairment of water exchange has a significant impact on temperature and ice conditions in the Kerch Strait and the Sea of Azov. In summer the water is warmer than before the construction and in winter it is colder. The latter increases both the duration of the ice cover and the thickness of the ice. The temperatures and the lack of oxygen due to the ice cover change the living conditions of fish in the Sea of Azov and their migration to the Black Sea. Most of the species of fish that live in the Sea of Azov die when the temperature is below 4 ° C. Increased fish deaths are to be expected in the Taman Bay in particular .

economy

Since the occupation of Crimea and the construction of the Crimean Bridge, Russia has restricted Ukrainian and international shipping traffic in the Sea of Azov . Ships can only navigate the Sea of Azov via the Kerch Strait. Since the occupation, Russia has controlled both sides of the Kerch Strait. The Sea of Azov and especially the ports of Mariupol and Berdyansk there are of great importance for the Ukrainian economy . The construction of the Crimean Bridge has made the situation for Ukrainian shipping even worse. The bridge was built so low that only ships no higher than 33 meters can pass under it. As a result, shipping traffic and the number of ships that used to call at Mariupol and Berdyansk have halved. The port in Henichesk can also lose considerable income. A bulk carrier had to cut its mast off on its way to Mariupol to fit under the bridge. Panamax- class cargo ships can no longer pass to the Sea of Azov because of the low bridge. Only Handysize ships or smaller ones fit under the bridge, and they too have to shorten the masts. As a result, Ukrainian ports are increasingly cut off from the world by water. Mariupol saw its revenues decrease by 30 percent. According to estimates by the Ukrainian Ministry of Infrastructure, financial losses due to restrictions on shipping amount to between US $ 20 million and US $ 40 million annually. In addition, more and more Ukrainian and foreign ships going to Mariupol and Berdyansk are being detained and checked by the Russian domestic intelligence service FSB, sometimes several times, and the ship's crews are being interrogated. Overall, the Russian Navy has increased its presence, warships of the Caspian Flotilla have been moved to the Sea of Azov. The Russian inspections and delays last up to a week, with each additional day at sea costing a shipping company about $ 15,000. Dock workers lost their jobs. Other port companies switched to the four-day week because there was not enough work. Russia justifies the increasing number of interventions in Ukrainian shipping with safety concerns. Ukraine and the United States, on the other hand, speak of an economic blockade and ongoing attempts by Moscow to weaken and destabilize Ukraine even further.

The reduction in traffic connections by water has triggered a local economic crisis , especially on the Chushka and Taman peninsulas . Many jobs in the port, transport, trade, gastronomy and accommodation businesses have been lost. Sales have collapsed dramatically due to the diversion of road traffic. The sales of up to 10,000 employees in bridge construction are also significantly reduced due to a drop in staff. The train ferries are still at full capacity as rail freight traffic over the bridge is unlikely to start before summer 2020.

Since the incident off Crimea in November 2018, Russia has increasingly blocked the passage in the Kerch Strait. To this end, Russia positioned a cargo ship directly under the bridge on November 25, 2018, thereby blocking shipping traffic, contrary to the contract. Services such as MarineTraffic show that ships have been stuck in the roads in front of the bridge passage ever since . The logistics of the passages (permits, controls) are inadequate or deliberately disrupted.

Reactions

On May 15, 2018, the European External Action Service of the European Union condemned the construction and partial opening of the bridge and the illegal annexation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia. The statement said that the Russian Federation built the bridge without Ukraine's consent and again violated Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity . The construction of the bridge aims at the further integration of the illegally annexed Crimea in Russia and the separation of the peninsula from the Ukraine, to which the Crimea still belongs. The bridge also limits the passage of ships across the Kerch Strait to Ukrainian ports in the Sea of Azov .

In addition to the political background and the restriction of shipping, the quality of the hasty construction work is also criticized. Workers at the bridge also reported exploitation.

Suspicion of circumvention of EU sanctions

Since September 2017 two, later (as of early May 2018) a total of seven Dutch companies have been investigated on suspicion of circumventing EU sanctions. The companies are said to have supplied machines, equipment parts and special rams for the construction of the bridge and carried out maintenance work on the existing systems. Companies in EU countries are prohibited from delivering goods and services to Crimea because of the sanctions.

Web links

Commons : Crimean Bridge - collection of images

Крымский мост. In: Официальный информационный сайт строительства Крымского моста. Retrieved January 15, 2020 (Russian, official website of the bridge).
Vladimir Vasak: ARTE report. (Video 25 min.) Russia: The new bridge to the Crimea. In: Reports and Research. arte , accessed on January 17, 2020 (available from 07/19/2019 to 07/18/2022).
Elisabeth Bauer: First line Moscow – Crimea :. 33 hours to Simferopol. In: The daily newspaper . December 30, 2019 (travel report of the maiden voyage by train).; accessed on December 30, 2019
Crimean Bridge :. Will Putin's flagship project be a failure? Stern , November 7, 2019, accessed January 15, 2020 .
Infographics. Project Crimean Bridge across the Kerch Strait. Sputnik News , March 29, 2016, accessed on January 15, 2020 (source of image material: Rosavtodor ). . Interesting representation of the division of the bridges.
Eckart Pasche: Record bridge in the conflict area. In: VDI nachrichten , edition 22. VDI , May 31, 2019, accessed on January 15, 2020 : “The Crimean Bridge is a major Russian project that was implemented in a short time and under difficult conditions. Unlike the engineering, the political circumstances are controversial. "
Crimean Bridge. Retrieved on January 15, 2020 (detailed information, unfortunately without legal notice and © credits).
Largest construction site in Europe :. (mp4) Crimean Bridge over the Kerch Strait. A musical journey. RT , February 19, 2018, accessed on January 15, 2020 (Russian, 71-minute RT report on the construction).
Hans-Joachim Hoppe: The Kerch Bridge. In: Eurasian magazine . January 1, 2019, accessed on January 15, 2020 (helpful background information).
The Crimean Bridge :. Ten exciting facts about the project of the century. In: Russia Beyond the Headlines. July 28, 2019, accessed January 15, 2020 .
Putin's Bridge to Crimea May Carry More Symbolism Than Traffic. The New York Times , November 11, 2017, accessed January 17, 2020 .
Сергей Мокрушин: "Рано или поздно моста не станет": почему в России опасаются пусаются пусаются пусаются пусакать гру зовзые в грему в. Крым.Реалии, October 14, 2019, accessed on January 15, 2020 (Russian, German "Sooner or later there will be no bridge": why are you afraid in Russia of letting freight trains to the Crimea? ).
Валерия Маслова, Анастасия Румянцева: «Логистическая интеграция полуострова» :. начались испытания нагрузкой железнодорожной части Крымского моста. RT На русском , October 23, 2019, accessed on January 15, 2020 (Russian, German “Logistic integration of the peninsula”: load tests on the railway section of the Crimean Bridge have begun ).
Светлана Гудкова: "Крымский мост обречен" :. почему и когда развалится главный проект Путина. Obozrevatel, October 20, 2019, accessed on January 15, 2020 (Russian, German “The Crimean Bridge is doomed to fail”: Why and when will Putin's main project “Logistic integration of the peninsula” fall apart: stress tests on the railway section of the Crimean Bridge ).
Илья Изотов: Опубликовано расписание поездов через Крымский мост. RGRU, October 31, 2019, accessed on January 15, 2020 ( German published train schedule over the Krymsky Bridge ).

Individual evidence

↑ Section of the "Tawrida" motorway

↑ Benjamin Triebe: The Russian billionaire and the bridge to nowhere. In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . February 7, 2015, accessed December 25, 2019 .

^ Construction of the bridge between Russia and Crimea is delayed. In: Salzburger Nachrichten. April 14, 2016, accessed December 25, 2019 .

↑ Julia Kusznir: Analysis: Russian infrastructure projects for the Crimea. New Sochi or supply shortages? bpb , November 13, 2014, accessed December 25, 2019 .

↑ ^a ^b The Crimean Bridge (transport crossing over the Kerch Strait) Stroygazmontazh, English

↑ Krymsky Bridge Project Description SC 'Institute-Giprostroymost - Saint-Petersburg'

^ ^A ^b Hans-Joachim Hoppe : The Kerch Bridge. In: Eurasian magazine . January 1, 2016, accessed December 25, 2019 .

↑ Abstract on the article by M. S. Rudenko: История строительства и разрушения моста через Керченский пролив . History of the construction and destruction of the bridge over the Kerch Strait , published in the magazine Транспортное строительство (Russian: “Transportbauwesen”), No. 6, 1991, on a LiveJournal about rail transport in Ukraine, accessed on December 25, 2019 (Russian)

↑ Agreement between the Russian Federation and Ukraine on Cooperation in the Use of the Sea of Azov and the Kerch Strait , Russian, ratified by the Russian Federation on April 22, 2004 by Law No. N 23-ФЗ , annotated with Пусть Путин, Лавров, Шойгу и Косачев не делают вид, что не читали этого договора ( Putin, Lavrov, Shoigu and Kosachev may not have read the law )

↑ Ukraine claims Russia 'rammed our tugboat' off Crimea . In: BBC , November 25, 2018.

↑ Russia supplies coal and electricity to Ukraine , Süddeutsche.de, December 28, 2014.

↑ Helicopter traffic through Kerch Strait to be launched this week, ticket price is 2500 rubles ( Memento from November 26, 2015 in the Internet Archive ), Krymedia.ru, June 24, 2015. (English).

↑ ^a ^b Crimea is becoming a Russian money pit . In: World Policy Journal , October 24, 2016.

^ The High Price of Putin's Takeover of Crimea . In: Bloomberg , March 31, 2017.

↑ Three years after the annexation of Crimea: “Hold on!” . In: Deutschlandfunk Kultur , October 29, 2017.

↑ Putin's Bridge to Crimea May Carry More Symbolism Than Traffic . In: The New York Times , November 11, 2017.

^ Medvedev Signs Decree Creating Contractor for Kerch Strait Bridge Project. The Moscow Times , March 4, 2014.

↑ Деньги на дорогу до Якутска могут перебросить в Крым . In: Wedemosti , July 14, 2014.

↑ Как всего за два года был построен Крымский мост . In: Wedemosti , May 15, 2018.

↑ Мост в Крым будет строить компания друга Путина. Deutsche Welle, January 15, 2015, accessed on August 23, 2016 (Russian, German: “The bridge to Crimea will be built by a friend of Putin's company”).

↑ DVV Media Group GmbH: Login . In: DVZ . ( dvz.de [accessed on May 15, 2018]).

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f MI Romashchenko et al .: About Some Environmental Consequences of Kerch Strait Bridge Construction . In: Hydrology ( Science Publishing Group ). 6, No. 1, 2018, pp. 1-9. doi: 0.11648 / j.hyd.20180601.11 .

↑ TO Ovsyuchenko et al .: Estimation of the seismic hazards of low-active areas by the Example of the kerch-ataman region . In: Science and Technological Developments . 96, Nw. 1, 2017, pp. 5-18. doi: 10.21455 / std2017.1-1

↑ reports in Russian, richly illustrated and video collection:
Грязевой вулкан Карабетова сопка
Вулканы и грязевые источники Карабетова сопка
Грязевой вулкан "Карабетова сопка"
Карабетова сопка - грязевой вулкан

^ Author Klaus-Helge Donath: Bridge builder Putin . In: Sächsische Zeitung , May 15, 2018.

↑ US imposes sanctions on 'Putin's bridge' to Crimea . In: Reuters , September 1, 2016.

↑ 'Crimean Bridge' Tops Online Vote To Name Kremlin's Mega-Project. In: The Moscow Times . December 18, 2017. Retrieved May 15, 2018 .

↑ Крымский мост «съехал» в Керченский пролив ( Eng . "Crimean Bridge" slipped "into the Kerch Strait"). In: Kommersant , October 4, 2018.

↑ Putin drove a truck across the Crimean Bridge: State television broadcast live. orf.at May 18, 2018, accessed January 17, 2020.

↑ ^a ^b Putin opens the first bridge to the Crimea and lands a patriotic coup , NZZ from May 15, 2018, accessed on January 17, 2020

↑ Heavy trucks can drive over the bridge to the Crimea for the first time verkehrsrundschau.de: accessed on October 28, 2018

↑ EU criticizes the opening of the Crimean Bridge for train traffic orf.at, December 23, 2019, accessed December 23, 2019.

↑ "Longest Bridge in Russia" orf.at, May 15, 2018, accessed on May 15, 2018.

↑ видео тестовой поездки поезда по Крымскому мосту

↑ Вагоны поезда «Таврия» Illustrated description of the train

↑ Putin opens the controversial railway bridge to Crimea , Echo of Time , December 23, 2019

↑ New train connections in Russia's 2019/2020 rail timetable , November 9, 2019

↑ "Putin attends the opening of the railway section of the Crimean Bridge"

↑ annexed Crimean peninsula: first train passes controversial bridge - SPIEGEL ONLINE - video . In: Spiegel Online . December 25, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed December 25, 2019]).

↑ Express train to Sevastopol , Junge Welt , December 27, 2019

↑ ^a ^b OJ Lavrowa, MI Mitjagina, AG Kostjanoi: Ледовая обстановка в Керченском проливе в текущем столетии. Ретроспективный анализ на основе спутниковых данных ( Eng . "Ice conditions in the Kerch Strait in the current century. Retrospective analysis based on satellite data "). In: Современные проблемы дистанционного зондирования Земли из космоса ( Institute for Space Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences ). 14, No. 2, 2017, pp. 148–166. doi: 10.21046 / 2070-7401-2017-14-2-148-166
OY Lavrova, MI Mityagina, TY Bocharova, AG Kostianoy: Long-term monitoring of sea ice conditions in the Kerch Strait by remote sensing data . In: Proceedings of SPIE , October 2017. doi: 10.1117 / 12.2277829 .

↑ OY Lavrova, MI Mityagina, AG Kostianoy, MA Strochnov: Satellite Monitoring of the Black Sea Ecological Risk Areas . In: Ecologica Montenegrina . No. 14, 2017, pp. 1–13.