German expedition to the Northern Arctic Ocean

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Map of Svalbard with the route of the Heligoland and corrections of the coastlines by Captain Rüdiger. The numbers indicate the plankton stations.

The German expedition to the Northern Arctic Ocean , also called the Helgoland Expedition after the ship used , led to Spitsbergen and the Murman coast in the summer of 1898 . Organizationally, it was headed by the businessman and journalist Theodor Lerner , scientifically by the Berlin zoologists Fritz Schaudinn and Fritz Römer . The focus of scientific interest was on marine biology and ornithology . The most important geographical result was the first survey of the König-Karl-Land .

precursor

After the discovery of the island of Spitsbergen by Willem Barents on 19 June 1596 Svalbard was in the 17th century mainly by Dutch whalers visited. The next voyage of discovery that reached the archipelago was that of the Russian admiral Vasily Tschitschagow , who, in his search for a passage from the Kola Peninsula to Kamchatka, had the west coast of the island mapped from 1764 to 1766 . This was followed by research trips by the British Admiralty , led by Constantine Phipps (1773) and William Edward Parry (1827), which significantly expanded geographical knowledge of the Svalbard Archipelago, but whose participants also made observations of nature. Phipps is the first to describe the polar bear .

Joseph Paul Gaimard led the first purely scientific expedition to Spitzbergen in 1838 and 1839 on board the French corvette La Recherche . The focus was on research in the field of oceanography , glaciology , zoology and botany . In 1858 Otto Martin Torell explored the entire west coast of Svalbard from Hornsund to Amsterdamøya . Three years later he was driving along the north coast. Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld continued the series of Swedish ventures in 1864, 1868 and 1872–1873. In 1868 the ship of the First German North Pole Expedition under Carl Koldewey sailed through the Hinlopen Strait between Spitsbergen and Nordostland to Wilhelmøya . During the First International Polar Year 1882-1883, Sweden set up a geophysical research station on Isfjorden . Extensive meteorological and geomagnetic observations were made under the direction of Nils Ekholm .

In the following years, Svalbard was visited almost annually by geographers who steadily expanded their knowledge of the archipelago. Particularly noteworthy are the Swedish expeditions of Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1868–1895) in 1890 and Gerard de Geer in 1896 as well as the exploration of the interior of the island by the English alpinist Martin Conway in 1896 and 1897. In 1889, the German zoologist Willy Kükenthal led a research trip organized by the Bremen Geographical Society with the yacht Berentine , on which some islands of the King Karl Archipelago were mapped for the first time .

Preparation and goals

Fritz Schaudinn
Fritz Römer

In the winter of 1897/98, the journalist Theodor Lerner began to plan a private hunting trip to Svalbard, which was also intended to search for Salomon August Andrée and his two companions. Lerner had visited Andrée in 1896 and 1897 on Danskøya to watch the start of his attempt to reach the North Pole with a gas balloon . The balloon and crew had since gone missing, and various aid expeditions attempted to investigate their fate.

In the course of the preparations, the character of the upcoming trip changed to the effect that zoological, oceanographic and geographical work was included in the program on the basis of agreements with the Reichsmarineamt , the Natural History Museum Berlin and the Zoological Institute of the Friedrich Wilhelms University Berlin . The zoologists Fritz Römer and Fritz Schaudinn were given the opportunity to take part in the voyage, to dispose of the ship and the crew and to influence the route. Ernst Haeckel supported the expedition financially through the Paul von Ritter Foundation. The Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger , for which the journalist Reinhold Cronheim took part as a reporter on the trip , also took over part of the financing .

The main features of the planned expedition were determined by a scientific conference in Berlin in early 1898. They stipulated that the Helgoland should drive from Bremerhaven via Tromsø first to the east coast, then to the west and north coasts of Spitzbergen and then return to Tromsø via Jan Mayen to replenish the coal and food supplies there. It was planned to then head for the Franz-Joseph-Land archipelago via Vardø , Archangelsk and Nowaja Zemlya and, if possible, to map König-Karl-Land on the way back. The focus of the trip should be the marine biological work of Schaudinn and Römer, especially in the field of plankton and deep sea research . Furthermore, one wanted to make inquiries into the northern waters after the whereabouts of the Andrée expedition . In addition, the interests of the other expedition participants were also taken into account wherever possible. The following were named as secondary goals:

  1. Research and collections in the field of bacteria, animal parasites or other physiological interest;
  2. hunting in one's own interest as well as in the interest of zoological research;
  3. to give a painter an opportunity to study;
  4. to give a writer the opportunity to collect material on descriptions of the North Sea, the experiences in it and its wonders, for the larger public;
  5. as much as the circumstances brought with them and allowed oceanographic, meteorological and geographical observations to be made. This activity was necessarily limited by the number and training of the personnel, as well as by the number of instruments to be carried on the small ship, which the expedition had borrowed from the imperial navy due to the special thanks.

Theodor Lerner also intended to take possession of the Bear Island for the German Empire . He pursued the plan to build a German fishing and whaling station here and to exploit the island's coal reserves.

Attendees

The leader of the expedition was Theodor Lerner, a busy journalist and businessman who had previously made several trips to the Arctic.

The scientific work was carried out by Fritz Römer and Fritz Schaudinn. Römer, a student of Haeckel, was curator at the Natural History Museum in Berlin at the time. After traveling to Willy Kükenthal in Breslau , he later became director of the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt am Main . Schaudinn was a private lecturer at the Zoological Institute in Berlin. He was one of the leading protozoa researchers and discovered the syphilis pathogen in 1905 together with Erich Hoffmann .

The ship's doctor Ludwig Julius Brühl (* 1870), assistant at the Royal Physiological Institute in Berlin, carried out his own research in bacteriological , physiological and hygienic areas. The animal painter Richard Friese wanted to study the large arctic mammals in their natural habitat. The writer and journalist Reinhold Cronheim was looking for material for reports. In order to hunt, the royal forestry assessors from Krosigk and Brüning as well as the grand ducal Mecklenburg hunting junker from Strahlendorf took part in the trip.

The nautical leader of the expedition was Korvettenkapitän a. D. Hugo Rudiger . The crew consisted of two helmsmen, three machinists, a stoker, four sailors and a taxidermist . In Tromsø, the ice pilot Sören Johannesen and the harpooner Claus Thue (1856–1929) were taken on board.

equipment

The fishing steamer Helgoland was chartered for the expedition from the Oldenburgische Hochseefischerei-Gesellschaft in Geestemünde . The ship was only 34 m long and was therefore easy to maneuver through narrow gullies in the ice. Its shallow draft of just five meters made it possible to penetrate deep into the shallow bays of the area traveled. The steam winch required for the intended trawl was already in place, but a 2500 m long steel wire cable with a hemp core was procured so that it could also thresh in the deep sea . In addition, a hand winch was screwed onto the railing , which was used for plankton catches at shallow depths. For Tiefenlotungen we equipped the ship with a sounding machine by Sigsbee from. The room in the front part of the steamer, which had previously been used to store the caught fish, was converted into a laboratory. The Helgoland only got the last Arctic equipment in Tromsø, Norway: two fishing boats were brought on board and a crow's nest was attached to the top of the foremast as a lookout.

The most important equipment for catching marine animals was the various nets . A larger square trawl, several triangular dredges with a side length of 75 cm and various smaller hand dredges were used for the investigation of the bottom fauna. Fishing was carried out with a small course , a herring net, a flounder net, several hand nets, pots and fishing tackle . For the plankton research , gauze nets of various shapes and sizes were on board.

Course of the expedition

Rolvsøya whale station: Investigation of a fin whale
Rossøya (left) and Vesle Tavleøya (center), the northernmost islands of Svalbard
On the island of Storøya

The Heligoland left Geestemünde at the end of May 1898. After a stopover in Bergen , the last crew members came on board in Tromsø. Before reaching the high seas, Lerner stopped at the whale station on Rolvsøya . Here the zoologists had the opportunity to study the anatomy of a 22-meter-long female fin whale .

From June 12th to 15th the Helgoland was anchored off the south coast of Bear Island . While the hunters were climbing Miseryfjellet , the biologists examined five of the freshwater ponds that are found in large numbers on Bear Island. In the meantime, Lerner staked out a 60 hectare claim with Captain Rüdiger to formally assert his claim to mine coal here in the future. In a letter to the German Chancellor , he asked that he be given the protection of the German Empire if necessary . In doing so, Lerner thwarted a secret plan of the German government without his knowledge , which also resulted in taking possession of Bear Island. One day after the Helgoland , a Swedish expedition led by geologist Alfred Gabriel Nathorst arrived on Bear Island.

The first ice floes appeared within sight of the southern cape of the island of Spitsbergen . The Helgoland stayed east and entered the Storfjord , the great waterway between Spitsbergen in the west and the islands of Edgeøya and Barentsøya in the east. Here the density of the ice floes increased. With calm, sunny weather and air temperatures of around 6 ° C, the Helgoland sought its way north through the drift ice . On June 20, the ship reached the entrance to Ginevrabotnen, which was blocked by the ice masses as was Freemansund, the second strait leading into Olgastrasse . The path could therefore only be continued south. The researchers went ashore several times, e.g. B. at Edgeøyas Disco Bay and on Berentineøya Island , where Kükenthal was stranded in 1889.

The expedition wanted to head for their actual destination with King Karl Land, but already at Halvmåneøya on the southeast coast of Edgeøya they came across a belt of thick pack ice. Therefore, the west coast of Svalbard, which was kept ice-free by the Gulf Stream , was approached first. On June 27, the Helgoland had to seek shelter from a storm in Bellsund . Two days later the Kongsfjord was reached. On Magdalenefjord over the ride led by the Sørgattet in Smeerenburgfjord . In Virgohafen , the expedition members visited the house of the British adventurer Arnold Pike and found Andrée's balloon hall from 1896 in ruins.

On July 1st, Helgoland headed for the island of Moffen via the initially ice-free sea . The 80th north latitude was exceeded. The route continued to the northernmost islands of Spitzbergen, Ross Island (Rossøya) and Small Table Island (Vesle Tavleøya) . A northward advance was stopped by the ice at 80 ° 48 'north. Then the Helgoland turned into the Hinlopenstrasse between the islands of Spitzbergen and Nordostland , which was navigable to Torellneset. Here was turned, and - with a stopover in Wijdefjord  - circumnavigated the ship, the island of Spitsbergen north, around July 12, the Advent Fjord with cruise ship of the Hamburg-American Packetfahrt-Actien-Gesellschaft (HAPAG) Augusta Victoria to meet, from the as agreed coal was taken over.

On July 15, the journey continued with the destination Ostspitzbergen. Before a storm, however , the Helgoland first had to seek shelter in the Hornsund . Then it went around the South Cape and past Edgeøya, so that on July 23, King Karl Land came into view. For orientation - the map indicated the southern tip of Svenskøyas 15 nautical miles too far south - a small island was entered, which Rüdiger later named Helgolandøya . By August 5th, the entire archipelago was explored and a short push to the northeast in the direction of Franz-Josef-Land was undertaken. The biologists found a rich fauna on their trawls and land excursions. Captain Rüdiger mapped the little-known area on the fly.

With the aim of determining the ice line in the northeast, a course was now set for northeast land, which was reached at Cape Poppy. Here the voyage continued north along the east coast of the island and anchored at Storøya on August 7th , which Captain Rüdiger found 20 nautical miles further north than indicated on his English nautical chart. Here the decision was made to pass northeastern country north. At Martensøya the expedition waited two days for good weather before the advance north was undertaken, which led the ship to the ice edge on August 11 at 81 ° 32 ′ north, which Heligoland followed to the west before heading south into the Hinlopenstrasse turned. The ice conditions made it possible to drive through the Bismarck Strait (today Bjørnsund) west of Wilhelmøya. The ship drove through the Olga Strait along the west coast of Barentsøya and Edgeøya, made detours to Heleysund and Freemansund and was stopped again by drift ice at Ryke Yseøyane. Finally, the Heligoland passed the island of Hopen and reached Tromsø on August 22nd.

There was little time left for the second part of the trip, as summer was now well advanced. Nowaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land were no longer realistic goals. The remaining program was therefore shortened and Arkhangelsk was declared a new destination. After a ten-day stay in the port of Tromsø, which was used to bunker coal, clean the machine and pack the biological collections, the Helgoland left again on September 2nd. The rough sea initially did not allow dredges. The first stop on the Murman Coast was Port Vladimir, a small fishing port in Ura Bay, where the nets could be cast again. The next step was the Katharinenhafen in the Kolabucht , where the settlement Alexandrowsk (today Polyarny ) was being built. The scientists visited the biological station there and undertook a two-day excursion to the island of Kildin with its deputy director Leonid Breitfuß , where they examined the relict lake Mogilnoje . Then the Helgoland continued her journey to Arkhangelsk. After a few dredges in the White Sea , the expedition returned to Geestemünde at the beginning of October via Vadsø , Hammerfest and Tromsø.

Although land expeditions and boat trips were kept on the lookout for traces of the missing Andrée, the search was unsuccessful. The remains of the balloonists were not found until 1930 on the island of Kvitøya east of Storøya .

Results

zoology

Richard Friese : Polar Bear Family

The results of the marine biological work of the Heligoland expedition were impressive. The favorable ice conditions in the summer of 1898 made it possible to circumnavigate the entire Svalbard archipelago and all the larger fjords in just one season. The researchers had set up 51 dredging stations here and eight more on the Murman coast. The trawl was deployed several times at many of these stations. The yield of benthic organisms was correspondingly large . Of particular interest to experts were the dredges at the northernmost point of the journey, which were carried out on the continental slope at a depth of over 1000 m and for the first time provided information about the Arctic deep-sea fauna . In addition, plankton nets were deployed at 86 stations, 82 of them in the waters of Svalbard.

Mammals and especially birds formed further focal points. With the help of the hunters traveling with them, it was possible to kill 40 polar bears, 43 seals, 3 arctic foxes and numerous birds. Four polar bears were caught alive. The biologists also examined the stomach and intestinal contents of the killed animals in order to obtain information about the nutritional conditions and the parasite infestation of the respective species. A breeding colony of the rare ivory gull has been discovered on Abeløya .

The results of the Heligoland expedition were so extensive that Römer and Schaudinn decided not only - as usual - to publish the results of their expedition, but also to publish a comprehensive work on the arctic fauna , called Fauna Arctica . The numerous specialist colleagues who took part in this daunting task were not only asked to provide a scientific description of the material collected by Römer and Schaudinn, but also to take stock of the already known species of the group of animals they worked on. You should also make a comparison between different areas of the Arctic and at the same time between the Arctic and the Antarctic . In addition to Römer and Schaudinn, 70 other zoologists took part in this work.

Many preparations by Römers and Schaudinns are now in the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, including their important collection of marine invertebrates .

Oceanography and geography

The Helgoland was the first German ship that managed to circumnavigate the entire Svalbard Archipelago, and the first ship ever to circumnavigate the northeastern country counterclockwise . During the voyage, Captain Rüdiger made a number of corrections to the available nautical charts, which - especially in Ostspitzbergen - were imprecise. He found Storøya 20 nautical miles further north than expected. In addition, depth plumbing was repeatedly carried out, which expanded the incomplete knowledge of the soil profile of the waters around Svalbard.

The greatest success in the geographic area was the first survey of King Karl Land. In the same summer, the Swedish expedition Nathorsts mapped the archipelago. CJO Kjellström and Axel Hamberg (1863–1933) created a map that shows Abeløya's east coast only as a dotted line. Rüdiger's map is not only more accurate, it was also published a year earlier than the Swedish one. Both represented a great step forward compared to Kükenthal's map from 1889.

The expedition gave names to several geographical objects , for example Helgoland Island, Tirpitz Island and Kükenthal Island . Today other names remind of their participants: Cape Schaudinn, Römerneset, Lernervegen, Lernerneset and Cape Brühl.

Publication of the results

Front cover of the first volume of Fauna Arctica

As early as November 5, 1898, Captain Rüdiger gave a lecture to the Society for Geography in Berlin about the course of the expedition and its geographic yield, which was published in the negotiations of the society. On May 24 of the following year, Römer and Schaudinn presented the first preliminary results of their research work at the 9th annual meeting of the German Zoological Society in Hamburg .

In January 1900, Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena published the first delivery of the first volume of Fauna Arctica with contributions by Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn, Franz Eilhard Schulze , Johannes Thiele , Otto von Linstow and Hubert Ludwig . Two more deliveries followed in August and December. The second volume appeared in three deliveries in 1901 and 1902, the third in 1903 and 1904, and the fourth in 1905 and 1906. After both publishers died early, August Brauer continued the series in 1910 with the fifth volume. Its last delivery was not published until 1928, followed by the sixth volume from 1931 to 1933, edited by Walther Arndt .

literature

Web links

Commons : Helgoland Expedition 1898  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Gerrit de Veer: A true description of three voyages by the north-east towards Cathay and China. Undertaken by the Dutch in the years 1594, 1595 and 1596 . Charles T. Beke (Ed.), The Hakluyt Society , London 1853, p. 77 (English, Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  2. ^ William James Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers - A Historical Encyclopedia . tape 1 . ABC-CLIO, 2003, ISBN 1-57607-422-6 , pp. 140 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search).
  3. ^ William James Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers - A Historical Encyclopedia . tape 2 . ABC-CLIO, 2003, ISBN 1-57607-422-6 , pp. 626 (English, limited preview in Google Book search).
  4. ^ Susan Barr: The Swedish Expedition to Svalbard . In: Susan Barr, Cornelia Lüdecke (Ed.): The History of the International Polar Years (IPYs) . Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 2010, ISBN 978-3-642-12401-3 , pp. 89–94 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-642-12402-0 (English, limited preview in Google book search).
  5. ^ Negotiations of the Society for Geography in Berlin. Volume 25, No. 4, 1898, pp. 197 f. ( Text archive - Internet Archive ).
  6. ^ Hugo Rüdiger: General information about the course of the expedition to the European North Sea on board the steamer "Helgoland". In: Negotiations of the Society for Geography in Berlin. Volume 25, No. 8/9, 1898, pp. 430–448, here p. 431 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  7. ^ A b Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1, Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 5 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  8. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 6 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  9. ^ Theodor Lerner: polar driver. Under the spell of the Arctic . Oesch Verlag, Zurich 2005, p. 34 f.
  10. ↑ Klaus Barthelmess: Bäreninsel 1998 and 1899: How Theodor Lerner unknowingly thwarted a secret mission of the German Sea Fisheries Association to create a German Arctic colony . In: Polar Research. Volume 78, 2009, pp. 67-71.
  11. ^ William Barr: The Helgoland Expedition to Svalbard: The German Expedition in the Northern Arctic Ocean, 1898. In: Arctic. Volume 41. No. 3, 1988, pp. 203-214, here: p. 205.
  12. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 17 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  13. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1-84, here p. 18 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  14. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1-84, here p. 19 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  15. ^ Hugo Rüdiger: General information about the course of the expedition to the European North Sea on board the steamer "Helgoland". In: Negotiations of the Society for Geography in Berlin. Volume 25, No. 8/9, 1898, pp. 430–448, here p. 443 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  16. ^ Hugo Rüdiger: General information about the course of the expedition to the European North Sea on board the steamer "Helgoland". In: Negotiations of the Society for Geography in Berlin. Volume 25, No. 8/9, 1898, pp. 430-448, here p. 442 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  17. ^ A b Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1-84, here p. 29 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  18. ^ Hugo Rüdiger: General information about the course of the expedition to the European North Sea on board the steamer "Helgoland". In: Negotiations of the Society for Geography in Berlin. Volume 25, No. 8/9, 1898, pp. 430–448, here p. 446 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  19. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 37 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  20. ↑ Ian Gjertz, Berit Mørkved: Norwegian Arctic expansionism, Victoria Iceland (Russia) and the Bratvaag Expedition (PDF; 590 KB). In: Arctic. Volume 51, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 330-335.
  21. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1-84, here p. 39 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  22. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1-84, here p. 52 f. ( Text archive - Internet Archive ).
  23. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1-84, here p. 57 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  24. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 28 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  25. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 4 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  26. ^ Collection of marine invertebrates at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin.
  27. ^ Fritz Römer, Fritz Schaudinn: Introduction, plan of the work and travel report. In: F. Römer, F. Schaudinn (eds.): Fauna Arctica. Volume 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, pp. 1–84, here p. 31 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  28. ^ Hugo Rüdiger: General information about the course of the expedition to the European North Sea on board the steamer "Helgoland". In: Negotiations of the Society for Geography in Berlin. Volume 25, No. 8/9, 1898, pp. 430–448, here p. 445 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  29. ↑ Axel Hamberg på Nathorstexpedionen 1898 on the website axelhamberg.se, accessed on January 25, 2017 (Swedish).
  30. ^ William Barr: The Helgoland Expedition to Svalbard: The German Expedition in the Northern Arctic Ocean, 1898. In: Arctic. Volume 41, No. 3, 1988, pp. 203-214, here: p. 209.