Battle near Grüningen

Battle near Grüningen

Part of: Seven Years War

COMBAT DE GRUNINGEN , from: JF Roesch , JC Jaeger: Plans of Zwey und Vierzig main battles, meetings and sieges of the Seven Years War , Frankfurt, 1790.

date	August 25, 1762
place	between Grüningen , Holzheim and Lang-Göns , Principality of Solms-Braunfels, Upper Rhine Empire
Casus Belli	The French Lower Rhine Army was to be decisively defeated before it was united with the Upper Rhine Army
output	French victory
consequences	Allied withdrawal

Parties to the conflict
Kurhannover Great Britain Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel Hessen-Kassel	France
Commander
Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel	Louis V. Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Condé

The battle near Grüningen (also Battle of Grüningen , French: Combat de Grüningen , Combat de Grummingen ) took place on August 25, 1762 during the Seven Years' War near Grüningen (West German theater of war, near Giessen).

The smaller French Lower Rhine Army under the Prince de Condé strove to unite with the weakened Upper Rhine Army. The Hereditary Prince of Braunschweig tried to prevent unification with a small Allied army. The Upper Rhine Army fought against the Prussian ally, the Duke of Braunschweig . All four armies moved together in the direction of the Wetterau. After preliminary battles and the nightfall of August 24th to 25th, the French troops took up positions on the wall of the still existing Roman Wetterau Limes near Grüningen. The French faked a withdrawal, but reinforced the Limeswall on a broad front with cannons from Giessen. The Hereditary Prince received a report that Prince Condé was withdrawing. The attack by the Allies advancing on August 25 came to a halt after two hours of heavy artillery fire. The battle ended with the retreat of the Allies to Grünberg.

Seven Years War

The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was the conflict of its time, England and France rivaled in the colonies and on the seas. Prussia, allied with England, not only fought against Austria, which wanted to recapture Silesia , which had been lost in the Second Silesian War (1744–1745), but also with Russia, France, Sweden and the empire for its existence (“La déstruction totale de la Prusse”) ). England and Electorate Hanover (Braunschweig-Lüneburg) were in personal union (the King of Great Britain was also Elector of Braunschweig-Lüneburg). France could easily hit England in Hanover. The task of the Prussian allies in Germany, Kurhannover / Great Britain , Braunschweig , Hessen-Kassel a . a., under the Duke of Brunswick - brother-in-law of Frederick the Great and cousin of the English king - it was to protect the western flank of the Prussians against the French. On the other hand, it was in the interests of Great Britain to bind French forces on the continent ("America has been conquered in Germany", William Pitt the Elder , Prime Minister of Great Britain, 1761). After the defeats in the colonies and on the seas, France noticeably lost interest in the war in Germany. The war in North America was decided in favor of Great Britain in 1761. France had begun peace negotiations with Great Britain in 1762, also as a result of the general exhaustion of the warring parties (war fatigue). The battle took place during the 1762 campaign in the last year of the war.

Campaign 1762

The French tried to secure as good a position as possible in Germany for the end of the war, so Kassel , the capital of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel , was to be claimed as a bargaining chip, and Göttingen and Minden were also occupied as advanced positions. France had taken over the greater part of Hesse. The Allies wanted to drive the French out of Hesse, since a siege of Kassel or Göttingen would only have drawn enemy troops into Hanoverian territory and the cities would fall by themselves as soon as the main French army in Hesse had been decisively defeated. The army command at the Versailles court was keen not to have to surrender any part of Hesse, which is why the armies behaved slowly and defensively (see also Cabinet War) in order not to risk losing a larger part of Hesse. After winter quarters, France had two armies in the western theater of war in Germany, the main army ("Upper Rhine Army") under the marshals Soubise and Estrées in Hesse in the area of ​​the Werra and Fulda up to the Main and Rhine and the smaller side army ("Lower Rhine Army “) In Westphalia and on the Lower Rhine under the Prince de Condé. From the army of the Prussian allies under the Duke of Braunschweig, which stood north of the Diemel (north of Kassel), was u. a. a part under the Hereditary Prince of Brunswick, the Duke's nephew, contrasted with the French army on the Lower Rhine. In the last days of the war, France was basically only concerned with strategic positions for the peace negotiations.

Starting position

Overview map on the history of the campaign of Duke Ferdinand of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in 1762

After the defeat in the Battle of Wilhelmsthal on June 24th, the main French army withdrew under the cannons of the fortified Kassel. The Duke of Braunschweig cut off the French connection to Frankfurt and captured and destroyed the magazines in Rothenburg. The supply situation of the French army near Kassel became increasingly worse ( lack of forage , insecurity of connections), so that it seemed necessary to move the army back to Hesse. Even before the Duke had defeated Prince Xavier of Saxony in the Battle of Lutterberg on July 23, the French side army under Condé was ordered to Hesse on July 17 to unite with the weakened main power and to relieve them.

On July 23, Condé moved with the side army from the Lower Rhine and Westphalia via the Westerwald to Dillenburg , the march was secured by the Corps Conflans. The Hereditary Prince of Braunschweig pursued Condé on July 25th. He came to the vicinity of Marburg via Korbach and Frankenberg on August 1st . General Stainville was sent by the French main army near Kassel to establish the connection to Condé and to secure the supply of provisions. The Duke of Braunschweig then ordered General Luckner , who had previously conquered Fulda, to attack Stainville, but which Luckner thought was too strong. The Duke planned a general attack by the Allied army in several groups over the Fulda for August 7th in order to drive the French out of the Kassel area. However, the execution fell short of expectations. Condé had meanwhile reached Grünberg , where General Hardenberg confronted him at the Ohm to prevent him from crossing north. General Wurmser then captured Ulrichstein and oppressed the left wing of the Hereditary Prince's corps, whereupon Luckner moved to Alsfeld to cover the Hereditary Prince's flank. Condé could not avoid the Hereditary Prince in the direction of Lauterbach and Hersfeld, as this would have threatened his supplies from Frankfurt and Giessen. Condé and the Hereditary Prince watched each other and were only in slight contact.

The peace negotiations between France and England were still delayed. The French marshals had repeatedly made representations to Versailles because of the supply conditions for their army near Kassel. The Versailles court no longer wanted a defeat at Kassel and on August 14th gave the army high command complete freedom for their operations. For August 16, Soubises and d'Estrées ordered the evacuation of Göttingen and Minden and the march out of Kassel, where a strong garrison remained. After the union with the Lower Rhine Army, Kassel should be horrified again in an offensive, if necessary. On August 20, the freed occupation troops joined the army near Hersfeld. After the French march out, which was a surprise for the Allies, Kassel was immediately besieged. The entire war shifted to Upper Hesse . The main goal of the Allies was to drive France out of Hesse, to defeat Condé before the armies were united and to push the two army groups behind the Main.

Pressed by the Duke, the main French army had to go towards Büdingen in order to be able to meet with Condé at Friedberg .

Course of battle

The Hereditary Prince divided his corps into three columns , subordinated them to Lieutenant General Hardenberg, Oheimb and Bock, left the luggage of his corps under light guard ( cover ) and set off for Lich with his troops at eight in the morning . Together with the Luckner Corps, he personally led the way as the vanguard. At Lich they saw the French troops encamped on a hill near Grüningen. The Hereditary Prince crossed the Wetter with the three columns and the corps Luckner near Lich, Arnsburg, Muschenheim and south of Muschenheim and marched towards Eberstadt, where he had the soldiers form to attack. The Allies were able to push back the advanced light troops of the French and partly push them away in the direction of Butzbach, but they could not continue the battle because of the falling night. The troops of the Hereditary Prince spent the night armed between Holzheim and Dorf-Güll . The light troops (advance troops) of both armies remained in contact throughout the night. During the night, Condé withdrew behind the still existing Wetterau Limes ("Pfahlgraben", "Landwehr") near Grüningen. He reinforced the Limeswall in a broad front with heavy artillery with which he now dominated the entire area and behind which he was in cover. On the morning of August 25th, the Allies found the French not in their previous positions, cleared in all directions and believed they had withdrawn again. The Hereditary Prince thought that reported troops behind Grüningen were the rearguard of the French and decided to pursue them immediately and attack them. He let advance in two meetings (lines) on both sides of Grüningen, but got into so violent artillery fire ("lively cannonade") that the Allies lost three of the six Hessian six-pounder cannons that were in the lead. Under these circumstances, an attack could only be successful with high losses and the French could then still retreat under the cannons of the fortified Giessen five kilometers away, where 8 battalions stood to cover the French connection to the Main. On the basis of these considerations, the Hereditary Prince broke off the engagement and at eleven o'clock had his corps return to Arnsburg and Luckner to Munzenberg. Some French dragoons followed the allies to the weather. The Hereditary Prince returned to the abandoned position in Grünberg on August 26th, Luckner took up his position in Wetterfeld near Laubach and Condé moved on towards Friedberg.

• gallery
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  “Combat de Gruningen”, title page of a four-sided print, 1762, 24.5 × 36.5 cm

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  Detailed bilingual legend of the French units involved.

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  Map oriented to the southeast. Map showing the positions of the Allied (red) and French (yellow) troops. Land value = Limeswall, Abatis = mess

Consequences of the battle

Course of the Limes, which is largely leveled today and overgrown with hedges, to the northeast near Grüningen (left side: the lower, "French side" in the battle plan)

After the battle, the Hereditary Prince wrote to his uncle the Duke:

“I have bypassed Prince Condé entirely through Lich; he was in Grüningen. Now he sat down behind the pole ditch. I thought of attacking him; but found the entire enemy army and many cannons before me. So now I'm marching to the heights of Eberstad "

- Hereditary Prince of Braunschweig

The Hereditary Prince's corps had lost 150 men and 3 six-pound Hessian cannons. Luckner Corps losses are not recorded. The battle at Grüningen itself was of little importance. The Hereditary Prince of Brunswick had not achieved his goal of decisively defeating Condé before uniting with the main army. Despite their victory, the French army withdrew to the Nauheim area.

On August 30, the armies met again in the Battle of Johannisberg (near Nauheim). In the course of the battle, the main French army under Marshals Soubise and Estrées also reached the battlefield. The wounded Hereditary Prince had to go back to Wölfersheim. The Duke of Braunschweig and his troops did not arrive in time to intervene decisively in the battle. The theater of war then shifted slightly to the north to the Ohm. On October 31, the French occupation surrendered in Kassel. France withdrew from the war a short time later, after the preliminary peace in Fontainebleau, on November 3, 1762 , between England and France. Duke Ferdinand had recaptured the areas of Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and parts of Westphalia. In this way, France could not offset its overseas losses against German conquests when the peace was concluded. France then withdrew its troops from Germany.

The victories of the battle near Grüningen and the subsequent battle on Johannisberg are among the few victories of the French in the Seven Years' War. Prince Condé's early fame in France was due not least to the two battles.

Local reports

Upper Hesse, around Giessen. From a French atlas of 1759

Central Hesse had been a deployment, battle, operations and foraging area for the Allied and French troops as early as 1757 . The surrounding villages in the areas of the Principality of Solms-Braunfels and the Landgraviate of Hessen-Darmstadt stood on the French side as a result of the Reich execution. The population of these areas was therefore not always hostile to the French. Foraging, looting and devastation, but also contributions to magazines and constant billeting, burdened the population, so it was of no use to them that their sovereign was on the French side. Seven years of war, if not always in the area, left deep exhaustion. As a result of the shortage, there was an increase in the price of goods and an increase in the debt of the state and municipal coffers.

Local records and diaries received report on the event:

“On August 25, advance troops of the Hereditary Prince of Braunschweig occupied Grüningen, which had been evacuated by the French. The entire French army expected the attack in a position behind the pile ditch with the right wing at level 247 (Ludwigshöhe), with the left wing at the northern end of the pile ditch.
In the woods on the right wing (Lang-Gönser Wald, the "Chopped") barricades were built, and heavy artillery had been brought from Gießen. Unsuspecting that he had the whole army in front of him, the Hereditary Prince of Brunswick advanced against the position on the southern slope of the upper Steinberg. Since his light troops had informed him that the enemy was marching to Wetzlar, he believed that he was only dealing with part of the French army.
At 9 o'clock in the morning he had the advanced guard of 7 battalions and 6 artillery advance against them . 2 battalions took action against the height 278, now known as "Wartberg".
As the columns reached the crest of the hill, they were caught in extremely brisk gunfire, which not only put an end to their advance very quickly, but also rendered half of the guns that had been positioned at the windmill unusable, and almost all of the crews and killed horses. Only now did they realize that the entire French army was standing there and that there was no question of withdrawing them. Under these circumstances the Hereditary Prince refrained from attacking and gave orders to go back to Eberstadt ... "

- Records of the Giessen chronicler

“1762, this year, like the last year of the war, it was the most terrible before us. Because not to think of the foraging and billeting, the French army came to our summer field just at the time when they wanted to put on the sickle.
At 7 o'clock in the evening on August 24th, the Hereditary Prince of Braunschweig attacked the French, who left their advantageous camp at night in the greatest confusion and positioned themselves on the other side of the heights.
The next morning the Hessian grenadiers broke into the village and did not live up to their best. Around 7 o'clock everyone believed that the battle would come, but because it was not possible to get at the French in their entrenchments, so it was a terrible cannonade, which lasted 3 hours. After the same, as the Hereditary Prince withdrew to the Eberstadt fields, the French penetrated and lived like barbarians. They hit me, the pastor, badly with bumps and blows, plundered the house and stole what they could. "

- Diary notes, Pastor Hensler, Grüningen

“In 1762, on August 26th, the headquarters of Prince Conde came to stand there in the barley field on the hill, which not only ruined the whole barley field, but also afterwards everything was transported so that nothing remained of hay and summer fruits; and Prince Conde, who was of royal blood, lodged in the parsonage with 300 horses, 80 mules and 200 servants and 30 cooks.
On August 25th there was a skirmish between the Hereditary Prince of Brunswick, General Luckner, on the Allied side, then led by Prince Conde, on the French side, near Grüningen; and the Germans had to give way. "

- Church book Pohl-Gons

“Designation of what the Allied troops committed to Muschenheim residents on August 24, 1762 before excesses.
Kaspar Weisel: A front wheel from a 6 bottle car . 2 snails ad 12 pounds 4 fl. 1/4 of wheat flour 15 kr , 5 chickens 1 fl, 2 measures of salted butter 2 fl, 1 large pot with cheese ad 10 pounds 1 fl. 20 kr, together 14 fl 35 kr. [...]
Then these troops squeezed and damaged the community in general when:

1. Of barley, oats and hay, so loaded onto the wagons and transported to the army, 1056 rations of 1 fl 15 kr = 2070 fl.
2. If you have packed 50 more rations, each line at least 20 rations, to attach 1000 rations a 1 fl 15 kr = 1250 fl;
3. Did the people have to give away 6 eighths of pure barley a 6 fl = 36 fl;
4. In front of the field guards we had to give 30 liters of bread a 12 kr = 6 fl,
5. Has the whole pen been ruined by the hordes, as it was still new; from mayor and court valued at 35 fl;
6. 8 pair of hammels a 8 fl = 64 fl;

together 3461 fl. "

- H. Preceptor (teacher): List of the looting in Muschenheim, Folio 24 p., 1762

Trivia

30 years after the battle near Grüningen, on April 21, 1797, another battle took place near Grüningen in the course of the French Revolutionary Wars . In the cavalry battle, Michel Ney , a French general and later Marshal Napoleon, was captured by Austrian hussars and, after only two months of imprisonment, was replaced by Leoben after the peace .

Remarks

1. ↑ After Kessel. The military historian Kessel (1907–1986) had attempted to complete the General Staff's work on the Seven Years' War , which was published by 1914 (until shortly before the Battle of Torgau in 1760). His manuscripts have been lost since 1945, but were made accessible to science again in 1992.
2. ↑ The battle took place at the site of a Roman auxiliary fort, which was partially reconstructed and preserved in 1995 as a small fort in Holzheimer Unterwald . The Limes runs north-west of Grüningen for 8.5 km in a straight line from south-west to north-east.
3. ^ The Palatinate between Hesse and France as well as Bavaria, Cologne, Württemberg and Mecklenburg-Schwerin had signed a subsidy agreement with France in 1757 .
4. ↑ Gießen, 10km away from Grüningen, was part of the Hesse-Darmstadt area and was therefore on the French side due to the execution of the Reich . The two Hessian counties Kassel and Darmstadt were thus in different camps. The Hessen-Darmstadt district regiment ( garrison in Gießen) under Prince Georg Wilhelm marched with the Imperial Army. Since 1758 the garrison town was occupied almost entirely by "allied" French.
5. ↑ For cover: In contrast to larger howitzers, cannons did not fire in an archery shot, but in flat orbit.
6. ↑ The smallest cannon used in the Seven Years' War (besides the Amusette ) was the three-pound cannon . The six-finder, the next larger cannon, had a rate of fire of two to three rounds per minute, at a range of 1300m. As a light and mobile artillery piece for the corps (independent artillery brigades), it required 12 men to operate and 8 draft horses to move. (Witzel, 2008, p. 203) The capture or destruction of enemy fields was mentioned in every victory report.
7. ↑ This is followed by the losses of another 34 residents of Muschenheim

literature

Secondary literature

• Eberhard Kessel : The campaign in Upper Hesse until the end of the war and the simultaneous sieges and the last events. In: The End of the Seven Years' War 1760-1763. Volume 2. Schöningh, Paderborn 2007, ISBN 978-3-506-75706-7 , pp. 883-884.
• Rudolf Witzel: Hessen-Kassel's Regiments in the Allied Army 1762. Books on Demand, 2007, ISBN 978-3-8334-7531-3 , p. 247 ( books.google.de ).
• Udo Kraft: 250 years of the battle on Johannisberg near Bad Nauheim in the Seven Years' War 1756–1763 on August 30, 1762. with a diorama by Jürgen Petermann. In: Contributions to local history. Issue 18, Nieder-Mörler History Association, Bad Nauheim 2010, ZDB -ID 2054035-8 .
• Ingo Kroll: Combat calendar of the Allied Army 1757-1762. Books on Demand, 2013, ISBN 978-3-7322-8113-8 , pp. 147-148.
• Rudolf Vierhaus (ed.): The Seven Years War. In: Propylaea History of Germany. Volume 5. 1984, ISBN 3-549-05815-2 , pp. 327-341.
• Dieter Brüstle, Guido Schmitz: Suddenly you had to deal with the whole army of Prince Condé. About the history and course of the meeting near Grüningen. In: Heimat im Bild. Supplement to the Gießener Anzeiger, Biedenkopf, November 1977, ZDB -ID 917593-3 .
• Max Liebig: From the last year of the Seven Years War: From the meeting at the Limes near Grüningen / Holzheim on August 25, 1762. In: Hessian homeland. Supplement to the Gießener Free Press (from 1966 Gießener Allgemeine ), September 12, 1962, ZDB -ID 913764-6 .
• August Röschen: Contributions to the history of the seven years' war in Upper Hesse. In: Annual report of the Oberhessischer Verein für Localgeschichte , 5, Gießen, 1886–1887, 1887, p. 27 ( ohg-www.uni-giessen.de ).
• Julius Wilbrand: On the history of the Seven Years' War in Upper Hesse. In: Annual report of the Oberhessischer Verein für Localgeschichte , 4, Gießen, 1884–1885, 1885, p. 22 ( ohg-www.uni-giessen.de ).

Sources and representations with source character

• Du Plat: Mouvements du corps d'armeé sous le ordres de SAS Monseigneur le Prince Héréditaire de Brunsvic-Lünebourg depuis le 4 juin jusau'au 26 août 1762. Journal of the General Staff Officer of the Hereditary Prince. former Army Archives Potsdam, 15A, manuscript. 338f. and Hannover 38A, A, 8b
• La Gazette . No. 71, September 3, 1762, p. 324 ( gallica.bnf.fr ).
• Johann Christoph Adelung, Johann Christian Hörning: Memories of Frederick, the great, now reigning king in Prussia. 1763, p. 500 f ( books.google.de ).
• Officer who served in the British forces: The Operations of the Allied Army: Under the Command of His Serene Highness Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswic and Luneberg, During the Greatest Part of Six Campaigns, Beginning in the Year 1757, and Ending in the Year 1762. T. Jefferys, 1764, p. 268 ( babel.hathitrust.org ).
• Christian Friedrich Hempel: Hero, state and life history of the most noble and powerful prince and lord, Lord Frederick the other now most gloriously ruling king in Prussia, Prince Chur of Brandenburg, and sovereign Duke in Silesia. 1764, pp. 416-420 ( books.google.de ).
• Henry Lloyd : History of the Seven Years' War in Germany between the King of Prussia and the Empress Queen with her allies. Translated and edited by Georg Friedrich von Tempelhof: 6 volumes. Berlin 1783 ff., Volume 6, p. 282 f ( books.google.de ).
• Johann Wilhelm von Reden, Wilhelm August von der Osten (ed.): Campaigns of the Allied Army in the years 1757 to 1762. According to the diary of the Adjutant General, later Field Marshal von Reden. 3 volumes, BG Hoffmann, 1805, p. 219 f ( books.google.com 3 volumes, there are three pages 219, scroll down).
• Henri Jomini: Traité des grandes opérations militaires. Dumaine, Paris 1851, p. 251 ( babel.hathitrust.org ).
• Carl Renouard: Reflections on the operations of the French and Allied armies as well as those of the Prince Condé and the Hereditary Prince from August 18th to 29th. In: History of the war in Hanover, Hesse and Westphalia from 1757 to 1763, The campaigns from 1761 and 1762 , Volume 3, 1864, p. 738 ( reader.digitale-sammlungen.de ), Reprint LTR-Verlag, 1995, ISBN 3 -88706-362-7 , ISBN 3-88706-360-0 .
• Christian Heinrich Philipp von Westphalen : History of the campaigns of Duke Ferdinand of Braunschweig-Lüneburg: posthumous manuscript , Volume 6, Decker, Berlin 1872, p. 986 ( 528-537 , reader.digitale-sammlungen.de ).
• Charles Pierre Victor Pajol: Les guerres sous Louis XV , 1886, Volume 5, p. 418 ( archive.org ).
• Marie Louis Adrien de Tarragon: Historique du 15e régiment d'infanterie cidevant Balagny - Rambures - Feuquières - Leuville - Richelieu - Rohan - Crillon - La Tour du Pin - Boisgelin - Béarn, l'un des six petits vieux. Limoges, Paris 1895, p. 129 ( archive.org ).
• Rudolf Wilhelm Georg Mohr: War history walk through Gießen and the surrounding area , compiled by Captain Mohr, Inf.-Regt , based on the sources available in the University Library of Gießen . 116 , Brühl'sche Univ.-Buch- und Lithdruckerei, Giessen 1905; Reprint: Friedhelm Leblanc (ed.): Series of publications by the local history working group Buseck. Issue 9, 1999, page numbers follow the reprint.
• Henri d'Orléans Aumale: Le cabinet des livres. Plon-Nourrit et Cie, Paris 1911, p. 209 ( gallica.bnf.fr ).

Local history

• Horst Vetter: Heimatbuch Gambach. Magistrat der Stadt Munzenberg, luwei, Butzbach 1990, p. 161.
• Paul Görlich: Severe Tribulation in the Seven Years War. Licher Heimatbuch, Magistrat der Stadt Lich, Lich 1989, pp. 520–524; also in: Extensive looting is documented. 1762 was a tough year for Muschenheim , in: Hessische Heimat, Part 1: No. 4, February 13, 2010 p. 16, Part 2: No. 5, February 27, 2010, pp. 19-20.
• Waldemar Küther (arrangement), Wilhelm Fey: Grüningen. In: Pohlheim: young city on the Pfahlgraben; the history of their districts. Magistrat der Stadt Pohlheim (ed.), Herr, Gießen 1982, pp. 288–290.
• Johann Bayer: On the history of the Lang-Göns community. Edited by the municipality of Lang-Göns, Lang-Göns 1976, pp. 127–128.
• Evangelical Church Pohl-Göns: Anno 1762 August 26th. In: Pohl-Göns church book, 1610–1935, central archive of the Evangelical Church in Hesse and Nassau; quoted in: Hüttenberger Bote - Evangelisches Heimatblatt of the parishes Lang-Göns, Kirch-Göns and Pohl-Göns, Evangelischer Verlag Heidelberg, August 1930, 5th year, p. 4.

Web links

Commons : Battle of Grüningen  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. XVIII.
2. ↑ Vierhaus 1984, p. 336.
3. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 857.
4. ↑ ^{a b} Kessel, 2007, p. 504.
5. ↑ ^{a b} Kessel, 2007, p. 834.
6. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 850.
7. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 848.
8. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 854
9. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 866.
10. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 858.
11. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 869.
12. ↑ Kessel, 2007, pp. 869-870.
13. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 872.
14. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 874.
15. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 875.
16. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 877.
17. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 877.
18. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 878.
19. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 879.
20. ↑ Kessel, 2007, p. 847.
21. ↑ Reden, 1805, p. 219
22. ^ Mohr, 1905.
23. ^ Mohr, 1905, pp. 22-23.
24. ^ Hüttenberger Bote , 1930, p. 4.
25. ↑ Görlich, 1989, pp. 520-524, after Fertsch, 1934.
26. ^ Affair of Gruningen, April 21, 1797. on historyofwar.org.

Coordinates: 50 ° 30 ′ 28.7 "  N , 8 ° 42 ′ 20.1"  E