Industrial hemp

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Hemp plants

Industrial hemp or industrial hemp includes all varieties of hemp (genus cannabis ) that are grown for commercial use - apart from its use as an intoxicant or medicinal product . These are mainly varieties of the hemp species Cannabis sativa and its cultivated form Cannabis sativa var. Sativa . The Indian hemp ( Cannabis indica ), on the other hand, only plays a role as a drug and medicinal plant.

Industrial hemp is mainly grown for the production of hemp fibers . Other products used are hemp shives , hemp seeds (for the production of hemp oil ) and hemp flowers and leaves (for the production of essential hemp oil ). New cold pressing processes now make it possible to extract the hemp juice from the upper part of the plant as food. This high-quality plant component can be used for nutrition instead of rotting in the field as before.

A total of 52 hemp varieties certified by the EU are available for commercial cultivation. These varieties grown for fiber and seed use have a very high fiber content of 30 to 40% in contrast to those that are used as intoxicants and medicinally. They also contain only a very small amount of tetrahydrocannabinol (less than 0.2% THC) and are therefore unsuitable for making hashish and marijuana .

Cultivation

Variety selection and approval

The choice of varieties is limited to the permitted varieties. In 2017, a total of 52 hemp varieties were approved for permanent cultivation in the EU. In addition to the cultivation suitability, a THC content of less than 0.2% (0.6% THC in Italy) is mandatory for the approval of the variety. Only certified seeds may be used. The cultivation of fiber hemp must be reported to the Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food as the competent authority.

Location and crop rotation

Deep, humus and nutrient-rich soils with regulated water supply are particularly suitable for high-yield industrial hemp cultivation. Waterlogging, acidic and compacted or extremely light (sandy) soils primarily impair the early development of plants. Steep slopes and altitudes of more than 400 m above sea level are to be avoided. The hemp, which germinates at 1 to 3 degrees, is relatively insensitive to cold temperatures and can withstand frosts down to -5 degrees. However, it needs a lot of warmth for its growth, so in Germany only the earlier varieties are matured. The water requirement is relatively low at 300 to 500 l / kg dry matter (for comparison: the water requirement of cotton is around 10,000 l / kg), but the roots growing up to 3 meters into the ground can also use water supplies from deeper soil layers.

In the crop rotation, hemp has a positive effect on the subsequently grown crops (secondary crops) and it is usually grown before winter cereals . The high weed suppression, the loosening of the soil by the large root system and the positive effect on the soil tare are advantageous . Since hemp is very self-tolerant, it can also be grown on the same area for several years in a row ( monoculture ).

Cultivation and harvest

Machine hemp harvest

The sowing takes place between mid-April and mid-May with grain seed drills at a sowing depth of 4 to 6 cm. The fertilization with a total of 60 to 150 kg of nitrogen , 40 to 140 kg of phosphorus (P 2 O 5 ) and 75 to 200 kg of potassium per hectare for fiber hemp, which is cautious compared to grain, takes place before sowing and possibly again three to four weeks later. With the dual use of fibers and seeds, which is mainly practiced in France, fertilization with nitrogen applications of up to 100 kg / ha is rather lower. Organic fertilizers such as manure can be used well. Neither weed control nor plant protection measures are necessary.

The harvest of fiber hemp takes place with special machines or harvesting technology adapted for the hemp harvest at the time of full bloom of the male flowers and extends, depending on the variety and growing conditions, from the end of July to the end of September. The post-harvest treatment in the field differs depending on the type of intended digestion of the hemp fiber . For long fiber processing , the hemp straw is laid out in parallel on the field and dried. The drying is followed by roasting and renewed drying in the field. To pre-treat the fiber breakdown of the short fiber and total fiber line , the hemp straw is cut and roasted in the field and then pressed into round and square bales. If the seeds are also used, harvesting takes place when the seeds are fully ripe from mid-September to mid-October; slightly modified combine harvesters are used.

use

The range of applications for industrial hemp is very broad and ranges from the use of hemp fibers as a raw material for the textile industry to the use of hemp oil and hemp seeds in nutrition to use as a building material. Today, hemp fibers are also increasingly used as a fiber component in natural fiber-reinforced plastics and other modern areas of application.

The use as a medicinal plant and intoxicant is by definition excluded for industrial hemp.

Fibers and shives

Hemp fibers are the raw material for very resistant textiles.

See main articles hemp fiber and shives

Hemp fibers represent the most important raw material of industrial hemp both in terms of quantity and abundance of possible uses. From ancient times to the present day, hemp fibers have been and are used to manufacture a large number of products. Historically, they were especially important for the manufacture of canvas , ropes and ropes well into the 19th century. In 1455 Gutenberg printed the first Bible on hemp paper. In 1492 Columbus sailed to America with sails and ropes made of hemp. In 1870 the Bavarian Levi Strauss made the first jeans from hemp in the USA.

Today they play a central role in the production of hemp paper (special papers, especially cigarette paper ), hemp textiles (clothing, technical textiles), natural insulation materials and as reinforcing fibers for natural fiber-reinforced plastics .

The fractions obtained as by-product in the recovery fiber shives are used primarily as animal litter used, especially in horses and small animals. However, they are also used as a raw material for the production of lightweight panels , as bulk insulation or other applications as a building material and energetically as a fuel.

In 2019, an Italian patent enabled the first stretchy hemp, which was called "H-EMP", thanks to a small amount of Lycra ©.

Seeds

Seeds that are still hanging on a dried hemp plant

As seeds are achenes formed Nuts , which are referred to as "Seeds" or "hemp seed". They are 3 to 4 millimeters in size, from brown to green-gray in color and have a thousand-grain mass of 15 to 20 grams. They contain 28 to 35% fat, 30 to 35% carbohydrates, 20 to 24% proteins and, in addition to vitamin E, calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron, particularly high levels of vitamin B, especially vitamin B1 and vitamin B2 . The proteins mainly consist of the globulin edestin , which is very easy to digest. The seeds contain all amino acids essential for the human body and are suitable for humans as a protein source with a Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score of 0.66. The low lysine content of the hemp seed protein , however, limits the protein value .

Hemp seeds are used as food without further processing, but also serve as a basis for extracting the hemp oil and as high-quality animal feed, especially for birds, but also for fish and mammals. Hemp seeds, regardless of the variety, contain no THC or other intoxicating ingredients. In recent years, hemp oil pressed from hemp seeds and the seeds themselves have become increasingly popular again as food. The seeds can be used to make hemp flour, a hemp butter similar to peanut butter or hemp soup . The seeds themselves are sold both roasted and unroasted.

Hemp oil

Hemp oil is pressed from the hemp seeds, which are used both unpeeled and peeled. The thin shell contains chlorophyll , so the oil from unpeeled seeds is green in color. It also contains bitter substances and fiber . Oil from peeled hemp seeds contains less color and bitter substances and has a correspondingly nuttier taste. Hemp oil is mainly used as a food in the form of salad oil and has a number of high-quality ingredients such as essential fatty acids . It is unsuitable as a frying oil due to its sensitivity to heat. It is also used as an oil in the cosmetics industry, especially as an additive in natural cosmetics , and as lamp oil . In contrast, the oil is not used to generate energy. Although it could be used as a basis for vegetable oil -based fuels ( biodiesel , vegetable oil fuel ), there is currently neither the need nor the technical maturity to use the hemp oil, which is classified as high-quality, for energy purposes. Press residues from oil extraction ( press cake ) can be used as high-quality feed in cattle breeding.

The hemp nut and the hemp oil obtained from it are considered to be nutritious food. Hemp nuts and hemp oil contain more than 90% polyunsaturated fatty acids . The essential fatty acids linoleic acid and alpha-linoleic acid deserve special mention here. The omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid in particular is found in such large proportions in very few edible oils. Due to its overall balanced fatty acid composition, hemp oil is a very valuable edible oil.

Hemp essential oil

Hemp essential oil is an essential oil that is obtained by distillation from the leaves and flowers of hemp (Cannabis sativa). The oil is made up of a large number of different ingredients. Hemp essential oil is used as an additive in the production of correspondingly flavored iced teas , cough drops , hemp beer, chocolate and other products. It is also used in cosmetics and perfumes. As an addition to massage and skin oil, essential hemp oil is said to have a calming and anti-inflammatory effect, relieve tension and relieve cramps, swellings and phantom pain. The oil is also used in aromatherapy and is said to have a relaxing and balancing effect and to cleanse the airways.

Drinking hemp

Some companies produce and sell a drink made from hemp seeds as drinking hemp. The name was chosen because the word "milk" may only be used for animal products, so it is not allowed for this drink despite its white color.

Other ingredients

marijuana
Structural formula of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

The use of hemp as a drug is generally not considered a useful application, but the ingredients responsible for the psychotropic effects, especially cannabinoids , can also be important for medicinal uses. The central component for this form of use is the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but other cannabinoids also play a role in the medicinal effect. In contrast to other industrial hemp applications, THC-rich hemp varieties are used for medical applications, the cultivation and use of which is internationally prohibited in many countries. Fiber hemp varieties also contain cannabinoids that can be used for medicinal purposes, but they are not suitable as a drug plant.

Although the possession and use of THC-rich products requires authorization, many people use psychotropic hemp products. Medical use is also usually based on self-medication , which is subject to legal approval. The dried and crushed resinous plant parts of THC-rich hemp varieties can be smoked as marijuana . The resin is also processed as hashish or hashish oil and consumed in different forms. In recent years, vaporizers in particular have helped many people in the medical field to cope with the side effects of their main treatment or the symptoms of their actual illness more quickly than with oral administration and with fewer carcinogenic substances than with the usual smoking .

With the dronabinol there is a trans-isomer of THC obtained from the hemp bloom, which is mainly used as a medicinal product in the USA. It is produced in Germany by the companies Bionorica Ethics and THC Pharm, but finished medicinal products containing dronabinol have not yet been approved in Germany, but can be imported in the form of the Marinol® preparation in accordance with Section 73 (3) AMG. Most often, however, dronabinol is prescribed as a prescription substance for dronabinol capsules or oily dronabinol drops. A synthetic analog is benzopyranoperidine ( Nabitan , Nabutam).

history

Historical use

Industrial hemp in France

The use of hemp fibers can be traced back over several millennia and well into human history. The oldest finds come from China around 2800 BC. BC, where ropes were made from hemp fibers. The plant has been used since the Yangshao culture in the 4th millennium BC. Since about 900 BC In BC hemp also found widespread use in West Asia and India. The oldest textile fragment made of hemp fibers comes from a grave of the Zhou dynasty (1122–770 BC), near Ankara , hemp textiles from the 8th century BC were found. Found. Around 500 BC Hemp cultivation for the area between China and the Caspian Sea can be assumed. In Europe, the manufacture of hemp textiles was also proven by grave finds; Here the oldest woven fragment comes from a Celtic burial mound near Stuttgart from a time around 500 BC. BC and another with processed hemp fibers from around the year 570 was found near Paris. Until the 3rd century BC Hemp found its way to Italy, especially in the form of ropes and similar products. For the late Middle Ages , a particular concentration of hemp cultivation can be observed in the Baltic States and the adjacent areas of Russia, Poland, Northern Germany and the Netherlands, Brittany and Burgundy . At that time, alongside flax, it was the most important industrial crop . Like flax, it was mostly grown on smaller, garden-like areas. However, hemp was easier to process than flax. Because of its great tensile strength, it was mainly used to make sailcloth, ropes and sacks, but because of its coarseness, it was rarely made into cloth.

The oldest evidence of paper made from hemp fibers also comes from China from 140 to 87 BC. BC and thus represents the oldest paper find in China. Hemp paper became popular in China from around the year 105, but did not reach Europe via the Middle East until the 13th century. It was first detected in Germany in the 14th century.

Theodor von Hörmann: “Inserting hemp”, around 1890

In the 16th century, the Spanish conquistadors urged the Spanish-born settlers in what is now Mexico, what is now Texas and what is now California to grow industrial hemp. The English colonists further north also later followed suit. In the 17th century, the cultivation of hemp in today's US states like Virginia was so important for the development of the continent that cultivation was expressly required. It was possible to pay your taxes with hemp for more than 200 years. Similar regulations were used in other US states today.

Hemp rope

Hemp fibers reached their peak in use in the 17th century, when they were mainly used for the production of ropes and sailcloth for shipping; for a normal sailing ship around 50 to 100 tons of hemp fiber were required and the materials were replaced on average every two years. Until the 18th century, hemp fibers were the most important raw materials for the European textile industry, alongside flax , nettle and wool , with hemp mainly used in the manufacture of outerwear and workwear due to the coarser bundles of fibers. Hemp processing played a key role in textile processing before the introduction of cotton and other exotic fibers such as jute , sisal and ramie .

In the United States , there was a renewed boom in hemp cultivation in the first half of the 19th century when thousands of African-American slaves from the Upper and Lower South were forcibly deported into the interior and the Deep South via the Second Central Passage . Hemp cultivation was extremely labor intensive and not profitable for the growers without the use of slaves. The centers of hemp cultivation were Kentucky , Missouri and Tennessee . After the abolition of slavery (1865), hemp cultivation experienced a decline. Above all, the development of cotton spinning machines in the 19th century and the cheap imports of cotton and jute, especially from Russia and Asia, ended the use of hemp and flax as textile fibers. At the same time, the demand in shipping also decreased, as many ships were converted to steam power and sailcloth was no longer needed. A cheaper alternative was also developed in paper production by making paper from wood .

Cultivation declined sharply in the 19th century and was only able to gain in importance again briefly in Germany due to the trade embargoes for exotic fibers during the world wars. In the 1930s, machines came onto the market that made manual work (stripping) superfluous. But they came z. B. no longer used in the USA. Because there the Hemp plant was brought into disrepute under the name Marihuana by the anti-hemp campaign by Harry J. Anslinger (head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics ) and William Randolph Hearst (newspaper mogul). The result was that cultivation in the USA was heavily taxed through the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 passed by Congress, after which it was banned entirely. In the war economy of the Second World War , incentives were given again to grow hemp. There was a lack of hemp because the route to Asia was blocked. The Ministry of Agriculture had the educational film Hemp for Victory made for this purpose. After the Second World War, hemp was again banned as marijuana in the USA.

After the Second World War, industrial hemp was only grown on very small areas in Europe. Between 1982 and 1995 the hemp cultivation of the industrial hemp varieties bred in the 1950s and 1960s with an almost completely lacking THC content was banned in Germany (by the Narcotics Act ) and many other countries. The reason given was the prevention of the illegal use of cannabis as an intoxicant . In France, the industrial hemp varieties continued to be used for the production of cigarette paper , and in several Eastern European countries hemp continued to be grown on a small scale. The most important producer of hemp fibers at this time was the Soviet Union with 140,000 hectares of hemp cultivation area, which, however, had been reduced to 40,000 hectares by 1990. Cultivation in Romania , Poland , Hungary and the former Yugoslavia was also important .

In the 1990s, the bans were withdrawn due to the growing interest of agriculture and industry in the raw material, and since 1996, hemp has been allowed to be grown again in Germany subject to conditions ( Section 24a of the Narcotics Act). Today the cultivation of low-THC industrial hemp varieties is legalized in all European countries as well as in countries such as Canada and Australia, only in the USA the cultivation is still completely prohibited.

Usage today

Inner door trim made of hemp fiber reinforced plastic (matrix polyethylene PE)

The worldwide cultivation areas for industrial hemp are around 60,000 to 100,000 hectares today and vary greatly from year to year. For 2005 the worldwide cultivation area was estimated at about 115,000 hectares, of which about 80,000 hectares in Asia (mainly China and North Korea), 14,000 hectares in EU countries, 5,700 hectares in other European countries, 10,000 hectares in North America (excluding Canada), 4,300 hectares are in South America and 250 hectares in Australia. The leading growing countries are China, Russia, Canada and France, while in other countries the cultivation is rather low. In Switzerland, for example, the canton of Graubünden is known for its industrial hemp cultivation.

In Europe, until the beginning of the 1990s, hemp was grown almost exclusively in France (around 6,000 hectares) and used for the production of cigarette paper , with small exports coming from Spain to France. Especially in the search for alternatives to the stagnating and partially declining food cultivation and against the background of increasing fallow land , hemp was promoted like other renewable raw materials across Europe after the ban on cultivation was abolished , at the same time hemp as a useful plant increasingly gained scientific and economic support, among other things through various Book publications for the benefit of the hemp plant. In December 1985 the book "The Emperor wears no clothes" by Jack Herer was published , which was also published in German in 1993 under the title " The rediscovery of the useful plant hemp " . The publication made the versatility of the useful plant hemp public and became the standard work for hemp activists and industrial hemp farmers.

In the years after 1985 there was a veritable hemp boom, which brought immense growth not only to the heavy hemp but also to the uses of the useful plant. In the course of this hemp wave, structures emerged all over the world that campaigned for a normalization of the legal situation or simply a complete legalization. In Germany z. B. 1992 the HANF, which for this purpose operates the Hemp Museum Berlin , and in 2000 the European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA) to promote hemp as an industrial crop. The industrial hemp that is grown by farmers today has been cultivated so that it has a very low THC content. Cultivation is strictly controlled in many countries. The largest European growing area is the French Aube department in Champagne .

By 1998, the cultivation of industrial hemp in Europe (excluding Spain) quadrupled to almost 40,000 hectares. In Spain from 1997 to 1999 high cultivation figures of up to 20,000 hectares were achieved through premium payments, but most of the subsidized harvest was not processed. In 2006, around 14,000 hectares of industrial hemp were grown in the countries of the European Union, 8,000 of them in France alone and over 1,000 each in Germany, Great Britain and the Czech Republic. Forecasts assume that hemp cultivation will increase to around 20,000 hectares across Europe due to the increasing demand for hemp fiber-reinforced materials and insulation material as well as the price increases for exotic fibers.

Long hemp fibers are almost exclusively used in the production of textiles today. They are very tear-resistant and are particularly suitable for the clothing industry. A classic application for the tow as a loose long fiber material is the sealing when screwing pipe threads .

Due to their low tendency to rot, harmless to health and resistance to pests, hemp fibers are used as insulation , e.g. B. for house building, well suited, but only have a market share of 7% in the construction industry. Today, short fibers are also used in cellulose , nonwovens , such as rearing nonwovens for cress seeds, special papers and natural fiber-reinforced plastics . One focus is the use of hemp fibers in automobile construction, where they are used as reinforcement for plastics for door and trunk linings. In particular, the further expansion of the insulation market and the use of natural fiber-reinforced plastics outside the automotive industry are currently determining the growth of the European hemp market. For example, they are used in the production of suitcases, laptop cases and grinding wheels. Today, these plastics are no longer used solely for their mechanical properties, but are also used as design elements, such as the Eco Elise from Lotus Cars presented in July 2008 .

  • Insulation block made of hemp fibers

  • Hemp built into the insulation system

  • Hemp fabric sack, Japan

  • B-pillar made of hemp fiber reinforced plastic (matrix polypropylene PP)

  • Glove box made of hemp fiber reinforced plastic (matrix polypropylene PP)

Hemp in heraldry

Due to the earlier economic importance of hemp in various regions of Europe, depictions of hemp can still be found today as a common figure in coats of arms , such as hemp leaves, flowers or entire hemp stalks.

  • Hemp stalk (male) in the coat of arms of Wangen-Brüttisellen , Switzerland

  • Three hemp stalks (female) in the coat of arms of Cañamares , Spain

  • Blooming male hemp in the coat of arms of Kimovsk Raion , Russia

  • Hemp in the coat of arms of Hamme , Belgium

  • Hemp leaf in the coat of arms of Henfenfeld , Germany

  • Three hemp flowers (male) in the coat of arms of Échenevex , France

  • Hemp leaf in the coat of arms of Kanepi , Estonia .

Legal situation in Europe

The worldwide growing commitment and the growing political pressure led to the fact that hemp cultivation was also dealt with on a European level. In 1989 the European Commission decreed in Regulation No. 1164/89 that the cultivation of hemp varieties with an active ingredient content of less than 0.3% must be legalized as fiber hemp. With effect from April 16, 1996, the general ban on growing hemp for industrial hemp, which had existed since 1982 in the Narcotics Act , was lifted in Germany. Therefore, supervision is not the responsibility of the Ministry of Justice, but the Ministry of Health or Agriculture. However, the cultivation is still subject to approval and is usually only granted to full-time farmers under strict conditions. This control is intended to avoid that THC-rich varieties are cultivated for illegal drug production, since it is hardly possible to distinguish the different varieties visually. The private or unauthorized cultivation of cannabis is still prohibited in Germany, as is the trade in all parts of the plant without a license .

Medical problems, occupational diseases

As early as 1700, the connection between the released dusts and respiratory problems among workers was established. But not only many hemp workers suffered from it, other workers who work with natural raw fibers such as cotton , flax or bast fibers can also contract byssinosis .

See also

Portal: Hemp  - Overview of Wikipedia content on the topic of hemp

literature

  • Chandra, Suman, Lata, Hemant, ElSohly, Mahmoud A. (Eds.): Cannabis sativa L. - Botany and Biotechnology. Springer 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-54563-9
  • Michael Carus et al .: Study on the market and competitive situation for natural fibers and natural fiber materials (Germany and EU) , Gülzower specialist discussions, Volume 26, Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V. 2008.
  • nova-Institut (Ed.): Das kleine Hanf-Lexikon. Verlag Die Werkstatt, 2nd edition, Göttingen 2003, ISBN 3-89533-271-2 .
  • nova-institut (ed.): Hemp seeds and hemp oil as food and medicine , Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-89533-242-9 .

Web links

Commons : Hemp  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Commons : Hemp in Coat of Arms  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Hemp  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

Most of the information in this article has been taken from the sources given under literature; the following sources are also cited:

  1. ↑ Carus et al. 2008
  2. ↑ The Only Real Hemp Juice - Sana Hemp Juice - sana, hemp juice, plant, THC Free, health, energy .
  3. ↑ a b Approved industrial hemp varieties in the EU (2017). (PDF) Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Food, accessed on March 31, 2018 .
  4. ↑ Frank Waskow: Hanf & Co .: the renaissance of domestic fiber plants . Ed .: Catalysis Institute for Applied Environmental Research. Verlag Die Werkstatt, Göttingen 1995, ISBN 3-89533-138-4 , p. 45 .
  5. ↑ Jochen Eichelmann: Italy: Hemp up to 0.6% THC allowed! In: German Hemp Association . July 5, 2017 ( hanfverband.de [accessed May 1, 2018]).
  6. ↑ Hemp cultivation advertisement. Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food , 2012, archived from the original on March 24, 2012 ; accessed on March 21, 2016 .
  7. ↑ Attachment display. (No longer available online.) Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food , March 31, 2015, archived from the original on March 25, 2016 ; accessed on March 21, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ble.de
  8. ↑ K 2 O
  9. ↑ a b K.U. Heyland, H. Hanus, ER Keller: Oil fruits, fiber plants, medicinal plants and special crops In: Handbuch des Pflanzenbaues, Vol. 4, pp. 301-307, ISBN 3-8001-3203-6
  10. ↑ Italian patent
  11. ^ Arthur Friedman, Arthur Friedman: Italy's Opera Campi to Launch Stretch Hemp Apparel. In: Sourcing Journal. September 17, 2019, Retrieved December 2, 2019 (American English).
  12. ↑ James D. House, Jason Neufeld, Gero Leson: Evaluating the quality of protein from hemp seed (Cannabis sativa L.) products through the use of the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score method . In: Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry . 58, No. 22, November 24, 2010, ISSN  1520-5118 , pp. 11801-11807. doi : 10.1021 / jf102636b . PMID 20977230 .
  13. ↑ Ralf Buck: Cooking and baking with hemp , Göttingen, 1999, ISBN 3-89533-272-0
  14. ↑ Michael Carus, Thomas Breuer, Florian Gerlach, 2007: Testing of hemp oil with regard to its suitability as a fuel for engines suitable for vegetable oil. Study by nova-Institut GmbH ( pdf )
  15. ↑ Hemp as a food . In: Hash Marihuana & Hemp Museum . ( hashmuseum.com [accessed July 18, 2017]).
  16. ↑ § 3 Permission to deal with narcotics .
  17. ↑ New recipe form - recipe information for dronabinol (PDF)
  18. Jump up ↑ on the early days see Jürgen Schultze-Motel: Hanf , In: Lexikon alten Kulturen Vol. 1 (1984), p. 344
  19. ↑ on antiquity see Christian Hünemörder : Hanf , In: Der Neue Pauly Bd. 5 (1998), Sp. 151f.
  20. ↑ on the Middle Ages see Christian Reinicke: Hanf , In: Lexikon des Mittelalters Bd. 4 (1999), Sp. 1918f.
  21. ^ W. Hingst, H. Mackwitz: Reiz-lingerie. Our clothes: fashion, poisons, eco-look. Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt 1996
  22. ↑ a b c after Heyland et al. 2006
  23. ^ Gregor Delvaux de Fenffe: Plants: Hemp . 6th July 2017.
  24. ↑ King Hemp by Rand Clifford .
  25. ^ Slavery in the Hemp Industry - History of the Hemp Industry in Kentucky .
  26. ↑ History of Bócsa et al. 2000, pp. 11-20, and Carus et al. 2008, pages 17-21.
  27. ↑ after Carus et al. 2008: Worldwide cultivation areas for hemp in 2005 (estimate). Page 34.
  28. ↑ Ursina Straub: The Alpine pioneers get everything out of the hemp nuts. In: suedostschweiz.ch . January 31, 2019, accessed February 4, 2019 .
  29. ↑ Jack Herer: The Emperor Wears no Clothes. The Authoritative Historical Record of Cannabis and the Conspiracy Against Marijuana. Ah Ha Publishing, Van Nuys 1985; 1 edition in Germany 1993 as Hemp & The Marijuana Conspiracy: The Emperor Wears no Clothes and German, extended translation Hanf - The rediscovery of the useful plant hemp, cannabis, marijuana. Heyne 1996 (translation: Herer and Mathias Bröckers . As managing partner of Europe's first specialist wholesaler for hemp products (HanfHaus GmbH), Bröckers has been helping to make hemp products available again since 1993.)
  30. ↑ a b c after Carus et al. 2008: Hemp cultivation in the EU. Pages 25-28.
  31. ↑ after Carus et al. 2008: Hemp - A Historical Look at pages 17–21.
  32. ↑ Lotus Eco Elise: Lightweight with natural materials in Auto-News.de
  33. ↑ Hemp in heraldry (Hemp in heraldry). wikimedia.org, 2013, accessed October 14, 2016 .
  34. ↑ Second law to amend the Narcotics Act ( http://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jumpTo=bgbl196s0582.pdf ), Federal Law Gazette Part I 1996 No. 21 of April 15, 1996 (accessed on July 21, 1996) .2020) in connection with the seventh ordinance on the amendment of narcotics regulations ( http://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jumpTo=bgbl196s0562.pdf ), Federal Law Gazette Part I, 1996, No. 19 from April 3, 1996 (accessed on July 21, 2020).
  35. ↑ Cannabidiol. Retrieved May 28, 2019 .
  36. ↑ The BtMG defines in Annex I (to Section 1, Paragraph 1, narcotics that are not marketable) as exceptions to the cannabis ban:
    a) seeds, unless they are intended for unauthorized cultivation
    b) [plants and parts of plants belonging to the cannabis genus] if they come from the cultivation in countries of the European Union with certified seeds of [special] varieties […] or if their tetrahydrocannabinol content does not exceed 0.2 percent […]
    c) if they are planted as protective strips during beet breeding and before of the flower are destroyed
    d) if they are cultivated by agricultural companies that meet […] requirements […] […] .
  37. ^ Carina Steyer: Byssinose. Occupational disease of the hemp workers. 6/2016, pharmische-zeitung.de [1]