Italians in Crimea

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An Italian-speaking ethnic group lived and still lives on the Crimean peninsula , most of them in Kerch .

history

The Roman Empire A.D. 117

Ancestors of the Italians populated some areas of Ukraine and Crimea since the time of the Roman Empire and the republics of Venice and Genoa .

middle Ages

The Venetian trading colonies

The Crimea in the 15th century
  • Principality of Theodoro
  • Genoese colonies
  • Khanate of Crimea

    • After the medieval crusades , merchants from Genoa and Venice discovered the Crimea as a favorable post for their trade missions to Asia. They founded the cities of Cembalo , Caulita , Lusta , Soldaia , Caffa and Vosporo, which still exist today, as branches on the south coast .

    The Franciscan Wilhelm von Rubruk landed in Soldaia in 1253 to begin his journey to the Far East of Asia , and in 1260 the brothers Maffeo Polo and Niccolò Polo , father of the famous medieval traveler to China, Marco Polo , visited theirs on their first trade trip to the Mongol Empire Brother Marco the Elder in Soldaia, Venice, where he ran an office.

    In 1340 Toloktomur, the then emir of Solgat (Crimea), offered the Venetians the city of Vosporo (also: Bosporus, today's Kerch) with its port and an area belonging to it, so that they would be just as complete masters of it as the Genoese in Caffa .

    The Genoese trading colonies

    Carlo Bossoli: Feodosia (1856)

    After Genoese received permission from the Khan of the Golden Horde to establish a settlement in the middle of the 13th century , they founded a colony in the settlement of Kafa (Italian Caffa), near present-day Feodosia, in 1266.

    In 1289 the Genoese consul of Caffa, Paolino Doria, called together the merchants and citizens of the city to help the troubled 'brothers' in the Genoese headquarters in Tripoli . The city had been conquered, depopulated and destroyed by the Mameluke Sultan Qalawun .

    In 1316 the consul of Caffa was instructed to give the Armenians , Greeks and other non-Genoese Christians a certain space outside the city walls against interest .

    While the holdings of Genoa in the Crimea expanded westward from Caffa to the harpsichord, they expanded in the east of Kaffa through the acquisition of Vosporo (date unknown). Vosporo, which was a populated and wealthy city, was founded by Pope John XXII in 1332 . raised to a metropolis and placed in front of her as spiritual shepherd the Dominican Franz von Camerino . The earliest mention of a Genoese consulate in Vosporo dates back to 1456.

    The conquest of Crimea by the Ottoman Empire marked the end of the Italian trading colonies. After taking Caffa, the Italians living there were moved to Constantinople on July 12, 1475 with all their belongings .
    Some of them succeeded in overpowering the Ottoman crew of their ship on the crossing and escaped by ship to     Moncastro ; But since they got into a dispute over the distribution of the rich booty that was in the ship, the lord of Moncastro seized the booty and chased the Italians away. The others came to Constantinople, populated a previously deserted region of the city and paid the sultan 's poll tax .

    Modern times

    Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in Italy 1815

    A renewed presence of Italians in Feodossija with surnames like Amoretti, Bianchi-Scoccimarro, Criscola, Durante, Gallera, Lagorio, Scassi and Spinelli has been handed down from around 1800. The immigrants came mainly from Genoa, and the Italian and Genoese roads were two of the most important roads in the city.

    19th century

    At the beginning of the 19th century, Italians from different regions of Italy ( Liguria , Campania , Apulia ) also settled in the coastal cities of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov ( Odessa , Nikolaev , Sevastopol , Mariupol , Berdjansk , Taganrog ).

    Recruitment and Emigration

    After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, emissaries of Tsar Alexander I were sent to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to recruit colonists . They were mainly successful in the province of Terra di Bari .
    Lured by promises of good earnings, abundance of fish, fertile soil on Kronsland (30 Desjatine = ~ 33 ha) and tax exemption for up to 10 years, mainly seafarers (fishermen, boatmen, helmsmen, shipyard workers, captains), but also farmers (fruit growers, vegetable gardeners) migrated in 1820 with special knowledge in olive and wine growing mainly from the Apulian cities Trani , Bisceglie , Molfetta and Bari to Russia , where they mainly settled on the Kerch peninsula in the northwest of the city of the same name.
    Mainly a beefsteak tomato, which is now called the Black Krim tomato, the vine tomato Regina di Torre Canne and     grapevines were taken home from home . In 1895 there were 20,000 vines.

    The emigrants were soon followed by teachers, notaries, doctors, engineers, architects, merchants and artists. Mention should be made of the merchant Raffaele Scassi, who received permission to build the port of Kerch in 1821 , and the architects Alexander Digby and Giorgio Torricelli , on whom the Roman Catholic Church , the most important historical buildings in the city center and the museum building on Mount Mithridates are to be mentioned go back in Kerch.

    Among the immigrants were many owners of watercraft with which they transported goods to the ports of the Azov Sea (Taganrog, Berdyansk, Mariupol) and the Black Sea (Feodosiya, Simferopol , Odessa, Kherson , Nikolaev). Others worked as workers on Russian ships.

    In contrast to the peasants, who retained almost all of their original nationalities ( Kingdom of Sardinia , Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), those who worked on Russian ships first took Russian-Tsarist and then Soviet citizenship , as Article 48 of the Merchant Navy Code prohibited foreigners from to work on Russian ships.

    “ … The seafarers who came to Kerch and, according to an order, are in possession of the registration certificate and a passport issued by the political authorities of the kingdom and are obliged to change their nationality, hand over their passport to the local authorities, swear the oath of their subjects and receive them for it a Russian passport; but keep their registration certificate for a possible restoration of their original citizenship ... It often happens that these Italians, referred to in Russian as 'citizens of Kerch', are subject to difficulties there [in Kerch] (less those who left some fortune was) and come here to this royal chancellery [in Odessa]. Wife and children of the deceased who, in accordance with Article 11 [paragraph 3] of the [Italian] Civil Code [of 1865], have become foreigners and who, in the pure dialect of their province, demand to be returned [to Italy] ... "

    “ ... no other coastal shipping between the ports of the empire is allowed here than under the Russian flag. That is why a good number of them give up their Italian citizenship unless they take it up again when they decide to return home ... But not enough: they want to enjoy the convenience of both subjects, without the disadvantages of either and therefore many register their children as Italian subjects both with the royal offices of the consulates and with the local authority and keep them until the age of conscription. After this time, the young people take on Russian citizenship, which does not cause any difficulties here, and so they achieve the dual purpose of more freedom and profit for their businesses by avoiding military service in both Italy and Russia ... "

    Italians quickly settled in local society and the community grew quickly. Kerch had 13,106 inhabitants in 1855 and around 30,000 in 1870. In 1884 there were over 1,000 people living in the Italian colony, most of whom came from the Adriatic coast and were involved in coastal shipping or as seamen and owners.

    Soon the Italians in Kerch were able to improve their standard of living, buying new land and watercraft, and opening small shops. Some moved to Feodosiya, Simferopol, Odessa, Nikolaev, Mariupol, Berdyansk, and some other Black Sea ports, such as Batumi and Novorossiysk .

    In 1870 there was another wave of emigration from Apulia to Kerch. It was relatives and acquaintances of the emigrants of 1820 (see above) who were attracted by advantageous offers of land that the Tsar sold for a good price, after which the agricultural population in Kerch predominated.

    After 1870 emigration came to a standstill. Those who had made a fortune returned to Italy.

    In 1893, Alessandro De Goyzueta di Marchesi, Italian consul of Odessa, reported that the Kerch colony, with 86 Italian families, was the largest of the Italian colonies, but if you take into account those who have acquired Russian citizenship because of trade, there are around 1,500 inhabitants .
    According to an 1897 census, 1.8% of the population in Kerch Province were Italians, a percentage that rose to 2% by 1921, representing a population of around 2,000 people.

    20th century

    Kerch around 1902

    In 1914 there was an Italian elementary school, a library and a cooperative in Kerch . The local newspaper Kerčenskij Rabocij regularly published articles in other languages, including Italian .

    With the October Revolution of 1917, with which the Tsarist Empire became the Soviet Union , a bitter time began for the minorities in Russia . The political conditions in the Black Sea area were unstable for years. Some of the Italians, mostly wealthy farmers who had retained their original citizenship, decided to return to Italy.

    The Kingdom of Italy terminated diplomatic relations with Russia and convened the population living in Russia with Italian citizenship; so also the Kerchitalians. On March 18, 1918, the Italian royal agent of Feodosia informed the minister that the return migration had to be stopped due to the invasion of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops in Odessa ( Operation Faustschlag ).

    “ The Italian Military Mission announces that it has been decided that no amnesty will be granted to citizens guilty of desertion in the current war. "

    In 1919, during the Russian Civil War , two Italian cruisers moored in Sevastopol , taking a total of 100-150 Italians on board, most of them from the Crimea. Pyotr Wrangel , General of the White Army , helped around 150,000 people to flee to Constantinople between April and November 1920 . Among them were numerous Italian families from Kerch who, due to bureaucratic problems, had to wait up to two years for their entry permit to Italy.

    collectivization

    Of the approximately 2,000 people of Italian descent who lived in Kerch in 1922, 650 were 'subjects of the Kingdom of Italy '. Those who first took Russian-Tsarist and then Soviet citizenship were those who, as foreigners under Article 48 of the Merchant Navy Code (see above), were not allowed to work in the war or merchant navy.

    The Communist Party of Italy ( Italian : Partito Comunista d'Italia) dealt with the Italians of Kerch in the early 1920s through the Committee for Emigration ( Italian : Comitato dell'Emigrazione). The Italian anti-fascists who had fled to the USSR in the early 1920s were sent to Kerch to "re-educate" the Italian minority living there. They smuggled their way into the community, gave lessons in the standard Italian language, made anti-fascist propaganda and reported to the NKVD . The Italian teachers were dismissed from the education office as incompetent in the education of children in the USSR and personnel from Moscow who were oriented towards the guidelines of the party were replaced.

    On the initiative of the former Italian Communist MP Anselmo Marabini , an agricultural cooperative was founded in 1924, a 15-minute walk from Kerch , which was to serve as a model kolkhoz. The collective farm was later named "Sacco and Vanzetti" in honor of Ferdinando Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti , two Italian anarchists executed in the USA . The initiative received the full support of the Soviet authorities, but met strong opposition, especially from the wealthy Kerchitalians. Marco Simone became head of the kolkhoz after he joined the new Bolshevik course .

    In connection with the forced collectivization (1930-1933) 16 kolkhozes from 16 different ethnic minorities were founded in the Crimea. The largest collective farm was the Armenian, followed by the Italian with 870 hectares of land and a herd of 80 cows, 200 sheep and pigs and a dozen horses.

    persecution

    More than half of Kerchitalians resisted the initiative to hand over their own land to the kolkhoz, and those who could fled and tried to return to Italy. Those who stayed lost their right to vote as a “socially alien element”, as a person hostile to the party and the Soviet state, or as “exploiters” such as entrepreneurs, traders and wealthy farmers ( kulaks ) and were called “Lischenzy” (man without rights) stigmatized. The loss of the right to vote meant, besides losing his job, the exclusion from trade unions and cooperatives, which in turn made it impossible to obtain bread cards, also the loss of social housing and, in some cases, after the introduction of the passports in the 1930s, the expulsion from the big cities. The "Lischenzy" were also imposed individual taxes with increased rates, up to and including preventing them from studying or entering the military. In the 1920s, 51 Kerchitians were included in the list of "Lischenzy".

    “ … Lischenzy are those Soviet citizens who have lost their right to vote and thus almost all of their other rights, including the rights to a bread card and living space, because, after investigations by the strict authorities, they do not belong to the working class. In Russia, workers are understood to be employees of state offices, factory workers and small farmers, the latter only when they cultivate their own fields without using paid workers. All other sections of the population, such as small traders, owners of small workshops or people who have no activity whatsoever, are viewed as an "element alien to the class" and treated accordingly.
    The children of such Lischenzy have a hard time getting on in life. The sins of the fathers revenge to the fourth generation .... The Lischenzy progeny everywhere meet great suspicion. They are cast out from the party, from the government offices and universities without mercy, or, as it is customary to express themselves in Russia, herausgesäubert .... "

    In the 1930s, many of the "Lischenzy" were arrested and sentenced to three years' exile in so-called Specposëlki ("special settlements") in Kazakhstan and Siberia .

    According to a census from 1933, the population of Italian descent in the province of Kerch had fallen to 1.3%, which corresponds to a population of around 1,320 people, around 750 people less than in 1921 (see above), compared with the 71.6% Russians , 8.8% Ukrainians , 7.7% Jews , 3.9% Tatars , 2.1% Greeks, 1.9% Armenians, 0.5% Germans, 0.1% Bulgarians and others more.

    After the murder of Sergei Mironowitsch Kirov in December 1934, the party was supposed to be “purged” of politically “unreliable” and opposition persons from the Stalinist point of view . In the so-called Great Terror from 1937 to 1938, the political cleansing reached its climax: around 1,000 people were shot every day. In this period were in the USSR after the Soviet Criminal Code Article 58 204 Italians of espionage accused in favor of Italy and counter-revolutionary activities, arrested, tortured and in summary proceedings sentenced to years of hard labor in the gulag in Kazakhstan and Siberia, where most of the cold, the hunger and succumbed to the hardships. 105 were sentenced to death by shooting: 26 in 1937 and 79 in 1938. Many of their bodies are in the mass graves of Butowo or Kommunarka . 29 Italians were shot dead in Butowo and 8 in Kommunarka.

    Dante Corneli , Italian writer and anti-fascist, who fled to the USSR in 1922 and then spent 24 years in the Vorkuta labor camp , speaks of more than 2,000 Italian victims of the agricultural kolkhoz in Kerch.

    According to the Russian academic Vladimir F. Schischmareff, who studied the Apulian language in the Crimea, in 1940 more than 1,1000 people of Italian origin lived in Kerch, home of the largest colony of Italians in the country, and more in Feodosia, Taganrog , and Kherson and Krasnodar .

    In the 1930s, inquiries from Italians living in southern Russia and people of Italian origin to the Italian embassy in Odessa increased. They either asked for help to migrate back to Italy, the home of the ancestors , or for intervention to obtain a residence permit, which the Soviet authorities refused to do.
    Requests for repatriation were much higher than the predictions of the Odessa Consul General, who reported repression , searches , seizures , arrests and deportations of Italians during collectivization. While some managed to migrate back, others were expelled as Italian citizens by the Soviet authorities.

    deportation

    With the outbreak of the Second World War and the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Stalin left on August 20, 1941, even before the German Wehrmacht units arrived in Crimea in autumn 1941, for fear of collaborating with the enemy ( German Reich ) drive out almost 53,000 Crimean Germans “forever”.

    Kerch was occupied by the Wehrmacht for six weeks on November 16, 1941 and briefly recaptured by the Red Army on December 30, 1941 in the Kerch-Feodosia operation . The population of Italian origin living there was declared an enemy of the people and, based on a census carried out by the German Wehrmacht, was deported in three deportations to Kazakhstan and Siberia for alleged collaboration with the enemy "for their own safety".

    “ Italian come out! You have two hours to prepare for the trip. You are subject to deportation from the city! Italy is fighting alongside Germany, so all Italians are subject to deportation. "

    The sources do not match the number of deportees. It is estimated that there were no fewer than 2,000 Kerchitalians. The first and most extensive deportation took place on 28/29. January 1942, and those who escaped the first raid were deported from February 8-10, 1942 (72 people). The few families (fewer than ten) that remained were deported on June 24, 1944, after the Red Army retook a second time . While the first two groups were deported to Kazakhstan, the third and last group was deported to Siberia.

    The deportees had to be ready to leave within two hours and go to Kamysh-Burun (today: Arshynzewo, a district in the southwest of Kerch), the assembly point. Each person was not allowed to take more than 8 kg.

    Bartolomeo Evangelista (* 1915 in Kerch; † after 2000 in Saratov ), who was accused by the Soviet authorities of continuing to work as chief engineer in the dry dock of Kerch during the German occupation of the city, reports:

    “ ... On the night of January 29, 1942, I was taken from the pre-trial detention cell to Major Khvatov, head of the Kerch city NKVD.
    He addressed me and said:
    “Bartolomej, I remember your father from the time we ran around without pants. Now you are going to Kamysh-Burun, where all the Italians from Kerch have gathered. They will send you to the east and make a note of one thing: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth .... "     "

    In Kamysh-Burun, the Kerchitalians were loaded onto trucks at dawn on January 29, driven to the port and stowed in the hold of two steamers. Shortly after departure, one of the steamers sank with its human cargo after a German bomb attack. The other steamer, “Kalinin”, arrived in Novorossiysk around 5 o'clock in the afternoon . 400–500 people were unloaded at the dock and had to spend the night outdoors on the pier .

    From Novorossiysk the journey continued on January 31st in ten cattle wagons (two for the second deportation group). A journey of over 6,000 km through six now independent states began: Russia, Georgia , Azerbaijan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
    Via Baku in Azerbaijan, Krasnovodsk in Turkmenistan, Aralsk in Kazakhstan, the deportees arrived on the night of March 5, 1942 (April 10, 1942 for the second deportation group) at −30 ° C in Atbasar in the Akmolinsk province , where they were in the Steppe were exposed. Those who were lucky and considered suitable for work were selected by representatives of the collective farms and divided among Karaganda , Akmolinsk and the surrounding area, where they were housed in barracks and semlyankas (earth huts).

    Most of the deported children and elderly people died as a result of the stress, cold, hunger and illnesses of the week-long journey. The bodies were left in the few stations where the trains stopped.

    “ ... My two children (two and five years old) died like all of them from typhus and pneumonia ... I left one behind at the Kartaly train station ; I took the other one with me ... "

    " ... During this" trip "two of my sister Lina's four children died and I left them at the medical supply points at the train stations, the first at Kartaly train station, the second I don’t know where, [back]. Our family consisted of eleven people: my mother, my uncle, my grandmother, my sister, my wife, myself and five children. In September 1942, after six months, there were only six of us left, my mother, my sister, my wife and I, and my sister's oldest daughter. In other families the condition was no better. In the Simone family, only two of the seven people remained. In the family of Aunt De Martino of 5 people only two etc ... "

    While women, children and the elderly were sent to the kolkhozes in Karaganda ( Dolinka ), Spasski, Akmolinsk and Atbassar (Prigorodnoye) and had to look for ways to survive that were not actually granted to the "fascists", the men were aged between 15 and 65 years for forced labor in the metallurgical combine of Chelyabinsk transported, which was headed by the NKVD under construction.
    On the territory of the combine there were 15 camp points (OLP = separate labor camp subsector), where more than 90,000 people were housed: Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Romanians, Poles, Finns, etc., some of whom were in the construction of the metallurgical combine Some were used in the mines and in the construction of roads and houses.

    All deportees were registered in the military leadership's office after their arrival. The passport was removed and stamped Spezposelenie (special settlement). It was forbidden to move freely outside the village without the permission of the military administration. In addition, the deportees had to report to the military leadership once a month.

    Not only those of Italian origin were deported, but also the Italian anti-fascists who had fled Italy in the 1920s and found refuge in the Soviet Union (see above). The Italian Embassy in Moscow was interested in the Italian citizens who had been interned in Camp 99 in Karaganda since 1941 . Some of them were released, expelled and deported to Italy.

    Some of the few survivors were allowed to return to Kerch during Khrushchev's tenure in the 1950s and 1960s . There they found that they had lost everything and were no longer allowed to go back to their former homes. Many could not even prove that they were of Italian descent, as their documents had been confiscated at the moment of their deportation.

    “ ... When we managed to return to Kerch after years, our houses were occupied by strangers and we have no right. The land in the cemetery, which was once bought by our great-grandfather, is also occupied with graves of others ... "

    Some families stayed in Chelyabinsk, other places in the Urals , Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kuban , the Komi Republic and Saratov . In 1993 there were still 365 people of Italian descent living in Kazakhstan.

    Officially, 1,028 Italians were killed in these deportations; half of them belonged to the Kerch community. The others were Italian anti-fascists who had emigrated, mostly communist activists.

    Current situation

    On April 26, 1991, the Supreme Soviet passed Law No. 1107-1 "For the Rehabilitation of the Oppressed Peoples ". In this document, 20 nationalities " and others " were explicitly indicated for rehabilitation.
    After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the assignment of the territory to Ukraine, the parliament of the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Crimea adopted the Soviet resolution in 1992 and recognized the deported local ethnic minorities of the Tatars, Germans, Greeks, Armenians and Bulgarians.
    The monument against cruelty and violence was erected in Kerch, listing the five nationalities. The Italians, who for the Soviets fell under " other ", had not been recognized as a deported ethnic group (as of March 2015). This recognition is associated with economic advantages. These are pension increases, discounts on medicines and transport, exemption from tuition fees, free summer camps for children and financial support for the return to Crimea for those still living in the deportation sites.

    From 1992 to 1997, the Italian Embassy in Ukraine received 47 applications for Italian citizenship, of which only two had a positive outcome. Very few members of the Italian community in Crimea today have proper documentation, as their belongings and their passports were confiscated at the time of deportation.

    After returning to Crimea, many hid their ethnic origins and received the Russification of their names. Today most of the Italians (more than 300) live in Kerch. Last names like Bianchi, Fabiano, Giacchetti, Pergalo, Petroni and others are reminiscent of their origins.

    (July 28, 2008, the club CERKIO was chaired by Giulia Giacchetti Boico C omunità degli E migrati in R egione di K Ñrimea - I taliani di O emigrants in region Crimea community - - rigine Italian origin) was founded.

    Every year on January 29th, the survivors and descendants of the Italian community gather on the pier of Kerch, where a ceremony commemorates the dead of the mass deportation of Italians in 1942.

    In 2016, the rehabilitation of the Italian minority was finally assured and thus the permission for Crimean Italians still living abroad and their descendants to return to their historical homeland. This was preceded by the decree signed in 2014 by Russian President Vladimir Putin, which initially only allowed the deported ethnic minorities of Armenians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Crimean Tatars and Crimean Germans to rehabilitate and return.

    See also

    literature

    Web links

    Individual evidence

    1. ^ Wilhelm Heyd: The Italian trading colonies on the Black Sea (1st article) in: Journal for the entire political science, Vol. 18 (p. 655)
    2. ↑ Sophus Ruge: History of the Age of Discovery , Salzwasser-Verlag GmbH, Paderborn (p. 53)
    3. ↑ a b Wilhelm Heyd: The Italian trading colonies on the Black Sea, (2nd article) in: Journal for the entire political science, Vol. 19 (p. 163)
    4. ^ Wilhelm Heyd: The Italian trading colonies on the Black Sea, (1st article) in: Journal for the entire political science, Vol. 18, 1862 (p. 662)
    5. ^ Wilhelm Heyd: The Italian trade colonies on the Black Sea, (1st article) in: Journal for the entire political science, Vol. 18, 1862 (p. 677)
    6. ↑ a b Wilhelm Heyd: The Italian commercial colonies on the Black Sea, (2nd article) in: Journal for the entire political science Vol. 19, 1863 (p. 184)
    7. ^ Wilhelm Heyd: The Italian commercial colonies on the Black Sea, (2nd article) in: Journal for the entire political science, Vol. 19, 1863 (p. 208)
    8. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (pg. 188)
    9. ↑ Stefano Mensurati, Giulia Giacchetti Boico, Il genocidio Dimenticato. Gli italiani di Crimea , Libreria Editrice Goriziana (p. 4)
    10. ↑ As early as 1797 there were about 800 Italians in Odessa, which corresponded to 10% of the total population.
    11. ↑ Codice Civile del Regno d'Italia, Libro Primo delle Persone, Titolo I, Della cittadinanza e del godimento e dei diritti civili , Torino, 1865 (p. 17)
    12. ^ Translated report by Salvatore Castiglia, Consul in Odessa from 1864-1891, to the Minister, No. 1065 of July 5, 1884 (Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri (ASMAE), Archivio Personale, Series III, Agenzie Consolari Odessa, Kerch b. 28)
    13. ^ Translated report by Salvatore Castiglia to the Minister, No. 1084 of September 24, 1884 (Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri (ASMAE), Archivio Personale, Series III, Agenzie Consolari Odessa, Kerch b.28)
    14. ↑ Extra sheet for Rigaschen Zeitung No. 123 of June 1, 1855 (p. 6)
    15. ^ Silvano Gallon - Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Edoardo Canetta - Tito Manlio Altomare, Stefano Mensurati: Gli Italiani di Crimea. Nuovi documenti e testimonianze sulla deportazione e lo sterminio (a cura di Giulio Vignoli), Edizioni Settimo Sigillo (p. 39)
    16. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (p. 187)
    17. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan, 2004 (p. 186)
    18. ↑ Marco Simone, who emigrated to Kerch in 1870, was indicted in 1938 together with Angelo Cassanelli, Paolo Zingarelli and Luigi Montagna (all of whom worked in the Sacco and Vanzetti collective farm) for establishing a comprehensive espionage organization. Its alleged goals were to carry out acts of sabotage in the factories, to form groups of saboteurs, to gather information about the Black Sea Fleet and to obtain perks for returning Italian emigrants. Marco Simone was sentenced to three years in a camp as a socially dangerous element. He was rehabilitated in 1958.
    19. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (p. 185)
    20. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (p. 188)
    21. ↑ I renounce my parents ..., in: Der Kompass ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (German daily newspaper in Brazil), Volume 29, No. 42 from April 14, 1930 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.amigbrasil.org.br
    22. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (p. 186)
    23. ^ Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli: L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea , Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 10)
    24. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (pg. 206)
    25. ↑ Elena Dundovich, Francesca Gori, Emanuela Guercetti: Gulag. Storia e memoria, Feltrinelli, Milan (p. 178)
    26. ^ Dante Corneli: Elenco delle vittime italiane dello stalinismo (dalla lettera A alla L), Tipografia Ferrante, Tivoli, 1981
    27. ^ Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 10)
    28. ↑ Wladimir Schischmareff: La lingua dei pugliesi in Crimea (1930-1940), Congedo Editore, Galatina, 1978, ISBN 88-7786-117-7
    29. ^ Silvano Gallon - Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Edoardo Canetta - Tito Manlio Altomare, Stefano Mensurati: Gli Italiani di Crimea. Nuovi documenti e testimonianze sulla deportazione e lo sterminio (a cura di Giulio Vignoli), Edizioni Settimo Sigillo (p. 71).
    30. ^ Karl Stumpp: Die Russlanddeutsche. Two hundred years on the way. Publishing house Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russia, Stuttgart 1965 (34)
    31. ↑ Stefano Mensurati, Giulia Giacchetti Boico, Il genocidio Dimenticato. Gli italiani di Crimea , Libreria Editrice Goriziana (p. 9)
    32. ^ Eyewitness report by Polina De Lerno in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 28)
    33. ↑ a b c Memories of Maria Bjeloserzeva geb. Nominal in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 51)
    34. ^ Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 22)
    35. ^ Eyewitness report by Paola Evangelista in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 26)
    36. ^ Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 13)
    37. ↑ Paola Evangelista reports in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 26)
    38. ↑ Bartolomeo Evangelista: Ferie sotto la bandiera rossa o le disavventure degli Italiani in Russia (Holiday under the red flag or the misfortune of the Russian-Italians) in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea, Edizioni Settimo Sigillo, Roma, 2008 (p. 23)
    39. ↑ The camp was located in the steppe 37.5 km south-southeast of Karaganda.
    40. ↑ Paola Evangelista reports in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea (p. 54)
    41. ↑ Memories of Maria Bjeloserzeva geb. Nominal in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea (p. 55)
    42. ^ Silvano Gallon - Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Edoardo Canetta - Tito Manlio Altomare, Stefano Mensurati Gli Italiani di Crimea. Nuovi documenti e testimonianze sulla deportazione e lo sterminio (a cura di Giulio Vignoli) (p. 85)
    43. ↑ Memories of Speranza Denisova geb. Giacchetti in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea (p. 35)
    44. ↑ Paola Evangelista reports in: Giulia Giacchetti Boico - Giulio Vignoli, L'olocausto sconosciuto. Lo sterminio degli Italiani di Crimea p. 54
    45. ^ Dopo Milano anche in Puglia un monumento per le mille vittime dello stalinismo (After Milan, also in Apulia a memorial for the thousand victims of Stalinism) in: Corriere del Mezzogiorno of November 11, 2005