Northern convoys

British Propaganda Drawing of the Northern Sea Convoys (1940s)

The northern sea convoys were cargo ship convoys with strong military security , which brought militarily important goods from Great Britain and the United States to the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1945 . The Western Allied aid deliveries were related to the beginning of the German-Soviet War , in which the Soviet Union was now an ally of Great Britain and, from late 1941, the USA.

The convoys were mostly collected in the Icelandic bay near Hvalfjörður or a British port such as Loch Ewe in Scotland . The cargo was destined for Arkhangelsk or Murmansk on the Barents Sea in the north of the Soviet Union. From 1942 in particular, German-occupied Norway began to fight the convoys to a greater extent. The Wehrmacht used airplanes , submarines and the strongest surface forces of the navy , including the battleships Tirpitz and Scharnhorst .

The convoys, which are also very important politically, received special attention in the press on both sides, so that in 1942 in particular contemporaries got the impression that the northern sea escort route was the most dangerous of the Second World War .

A total of 811 shiploads were put on the way, 720 of which arrived in Soviet ports. As a result, the Western Allies brought four million tons of cargo, including 5,000 tanks and 7,000 airplanes, to the Soviet Union via the northern sea escort route. They lost 13 war and 89 merchant ships. The Germans lost the Scharnhorst , three destroyers , 43 submarines and numerous aircraft.

Starting position

When the National Socialist German Reich attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 , Great Britain and the USA undertook to provide military assistance. The US President Franklin D. Roosevelt , although the US was not yet at war, had the option of delivering military goods directly to the Soviet Union due to the lending and leasing law . Of the three available transport routes, ship transport through the European North Sea and the Barents Sea was the shortest and fastest compared to the routes through Eastern Siberia or the Persian Gulf . Since the convoys passed close to the German-occupied northern Norway, it was also the most dangerous route. In view of the rapid German advance in the Soviet Union, however , Stalin pressed for quick help, so that the British decided, for political reasons, to conduct the northern sea convoys.

Geographical space

European North Sea and Barents Sea

The Northern European Sea occupies the southeastern deep sea basin in the marine area between Greenland and Scandinavia , the northwestern part is the Greenland Sea . In the northwest, a line from Gerpir , Iceland's most easterly point, over the Faroe Islands to 61 degrees north 0.53 degrees west limits the sea to the open North Atlantic. There the border follows the 61st degree of latitude to the Norwegian coast. This line forms the border to the North Sea . In the southeast, the Norwegian coast borders the North Sea between 61 degrees latitude and the North Cape . Traditionally, the border to the Barents Sea is defined by a line from the North Cape to Bear Island and from there to Sørkapp , the southernmost point of Spitsbergen . The slope that separates the deep-sea basin from the shelf of the Barents Sea, however, runs along approximately 16 degrees east to the north until it meets Spitsbergen. So it is located in its southern part many kilometers southeast of the traditional border. In the north, finally, it runs from Spitzbergen via Jan Mayen to Gerpir, following the deep-sea threshold that separates the Norwegian and Greenlandic deep-sea basins. The Barents Sea lies between the archipelagos Spitzbergen in the north-west, Franz-Josef-Land (Russia) in the north, Novaya Zemlya in the east and the mainland of north-west Russia and Scandinavia in the south.

Climatic conditions

Battleship Anson in the North Sea (approx. 1942/1943)

The climatic conditions in the European Arctic Ocean and the Barents Sea presented both attackers and defenders with major problems. In autumn and winter, the weather in the North Sea was determined by frequent storms combined with snow and rain, which resulted in severe visual impairment. The extreme cold caused ice on ships, which resulted in stability problems. There were long polar nights with only short phases of brightness. Furthermore, the Arctic pack ice border shifted further south, so that the convoys had to pass German-occupied Norway at distances of 250 to 200  nautical miles . In summer, the pack ice border shifted further north, but there were now long phases of brightness on the polar day . From July onwards, shallow sea mists increased. The destination port of Murmansk was ice-free all year round, but was close to the German bases. The more distant Arkhangelsk could only be approached in the ice-free period from July to September.

Convoy system

The northern sea convoys consisted of up to 49 merchant ships, which were secured by warships. Escort groups with destroyers, corvettes , minesweepers and other smaller warships were available for local security . These formed a ring around the convoy and were supposed to repel attacks from smaller surface warships and submarines. Air strikes could also be repulsed with the flak . A group of cruisers drove outside the convoy against attacks by larger warships . From 1942, when the Tirpitz was stationed in northern Norway, battleships were also allowed in remote security groups. Furthermore, so-called escort carriers with airplanes were used to take over the air security.

The route of convoy PQ 18 with losses on both sides

When Convoy PQ 18 with 39 merchant ships, for example, three destroyers, two anti-aircraft ships, four corvettes, four armed were trawlers , three minesweepers and two submarines as Escorts Group divided the Nahsicherung. In addition, an escort carrier and two destroyers to protect him drove with the convoy. As a fighting escort, a light cruiser and 16 destroyers formed a ring around the convoy. The remote security formed two groups with a total of two battleships, three heavy cruisers , one light cruiser and eight destroyers. A reserve group consisting of a heavy and a light cruiser with six destroyers was on standby near Spitsbergen. A submarine group with eight submarines was on the approach of German heavy surface forces. In addition, for the final phase of the escort, the Soviet Navy parked four destroyers and five submarines. A total of 77 warships stood ready to protect the 39 merchant ships. Some of the northern sea convoys were the most heavily secured convoys of World War II.

From the second onwards, all convoys were given a designation made up of a 2-letter code and a subordinate number, sometimes increasing chronologically with departure, ranging from 1 to a maximum of 66. From 1941 to November 1942 the code "PQ" was used for convoys going east and in reverse order "QP" for those going west.

The abbreviation "PQ" is derived from the initials of an officer in the Admiralty's Operations Department, the frigate captain Philip Quellyn Roberts. From December 1942 to 1945 the corresponding abbreviations were JW (eastward) and RA (westward). The numbering was roughly consecutive. PQ 1 to PQ 17 drove eastwards at an average interval of 17 days, QP 1 to QP 12 westwards at an interval of 22 days.

Convoys

A Heinkel He 111 H6 dropping an air torpedo (October 1941)

The first convoys (Dervish, PQ 1 to PQ 6) reached the Soviet Union without losses. With them 44 shiploads with 800 fighters, 750 tanks, 1,400 trucks, 100,000 tons of ammunition and other important goods were brought to their ports of destination. In order to be able to fight the convoys more effectively, a change in the command structure began on the German side. With its seat in Kirkenes , the Navy created the office of Admiral Nordmeer ( Vice Admiral Hubert Schmundt ). On the side of the Air Force , the command of the Fliegerführer Nord (East) ( Colonel Alexander Holle ) was created under Air Fleet 5, which is responsible for Scandinavia and Finland . In the spring of 1942 the Luftwaffe massively increased its attack forces. In May 1942 a total of 103 Junkers Ju 88 , 57 Heinkel He 111 and He 115 and 30 Junkers Ju 87 were ready. In addition there were 74 aircraft for sea reconnaissance. Their main bases were in Bardufoss ( Lage ), Banak ( Lage ) and Tromsø ( Lage ). The navy also moved heavy units, including the battleships Tirpitz and Scharnhorst , to northern Norway. Thereupon the commander of the Home Fleet , Admiral John Tovey , wanted to cancel further northern sea convoys. However, he could not prevail. Tovey then said:

"If they must continue for political reasons, very serious losses must be expected."

"If they have to be continued for political reasons, very high losses must be expected."

- John Tovey

On the orders of the US-American President Roosevelt, the northern sea convoys were to be specially exposed to the public in order to document the solidarity with the Soviet Union. Because of this, the loss of 43 ships of the convoys PQ 17, PQ 18 and QP 14 within two and a half months was particularly noticed in the Allied press. This created the impression among contemporaries that the northern sea convoys were particularly dangerous.

After the great losses in the summer of 1942, all convoys were stopped and instead individual merchant ships were allowed to sail without safety. Of 13 ships, however, only five made it to their destination port. Then, after a two-month break, they went back to the convoy system.

designation	Departure	commercial ships	Arrivals	Allied losses	German losses	Illustration	comment
Dervish	August 21, 1941 in Hvalfjörður (Iceland)	7th	August 31, 1941 in Arkhangelsk (Soviet Union)	no	no
QP 1	September 28, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	14th	October 10, 1941 in Scapa Flow (Great Britain)	no	?
PQ 1	September 29, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	10	October 11, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	no	no		HMS Suffolk , 1941
PQ 2	October 13, 1941 in Liverpool (Great Britain)	7th	October 30, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	no	no		Empire Baffin freighter
QP 2	November 3, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	12	November 17, 1941 in Kirkwall (Great Britain)	no	?
PQ 3	November 9, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	8th	November 22, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	no	no		Freighter El Capitan
PQ 4	November 17, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	8th	November 28, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	no	no		The cruiser HMS Berwick was part of the escort
QP 3	November 27, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	10	December 3, 1941 in Seyðisfjörður	no	no		Cruiser HMS Kenya
PQ 5	November 27, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	7th	December 13, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	no	no		The minesweeper HMS Hebe
PQ 6	December 8, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	8th	December 20, 1941 in Murmansk	no	no		Cruiser HMS Edinburgh
PQ 7A	December 26, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	2	January 12, 1942 in Murmansk	1 merchant ship (5,135  GRT ) by U 134	no		Hvalfjördur in winter (1973)
QP 4	December 20, 1941 in Arkhangelsk	13	January 16, 1942 in the Seidisfjord	no	?
PQ 7B	December 31, 1941 in Hvalfjörður	9	January 11, 1942 in Murmansk	no	no
designation	Departure	commercial ships	Arrivals	Allied losses	German losses	Illustration	comment
PQ 8	January 8, 1942 in Hvalfjörður	8th	January 17, 1942 in Murmansk	Escort destroyer HMS Matabele by U 454 ( location )	no		The Matabele sank after the submarine attack on convoy PQ 8
QP 5	January 13, 1942 in Murmansk	5	January 19, 1942	no	?
QP 6	January 24, 1942 in Murmansk	6th	January 28, 1942	no	?
PQ 9 and PQ 10	February 1, 1942 in Reykjavík (Iceland)	10	February 10, 1942 in Murmansk	no	no
PQ 11	February 7, 1942 in Loch Ewe (Great Britain)	13	February 22, 1942 in Murmansk	no	no
QP 7	February 12, 1942 in Murmansk	8th	February 22, 1942 in the Seidisfjord	no	?
PQ 12	March 1, 1942 in Reykjavík	17th	March 12, 1942 in Murmansk	no	no		The Tirpitz tried unsuccessfully to PQ 12
QP 8	March 1, 1942 in Murmansk	15th	March 11, 1942 in Reykjavík	1 merchant ship (2815 GRT) by destroyer Z 14 Friedrich Ihn	?		Crew of the destroyer "Friedrich Ihn"
PQ 13	March 20, 1942 in Reykjavík	19th	March 31, 1942 in Murmansk	2 merchant ships (11,507 GRT) by submarines 2 merchant ships (11,823 GRT) by aircraft 1 merchant ship (4,687 GRT) by destroyer Z 26 1 escort ship (252 t) due to ice damage	Destroyer Z 26 self- sunk after severe damage		Freighter Raceland (here still as SS Howick Hall )
QP 9	March 21, 1942 in Kola Bay (Soviet Union)	19th	April 3, 1942 in Reykjavík	no	no		View of the Kola Bay (2007)
PQ 14	March 26, 1942 in Oban (Great Britain)	24	April 19, 1942 in Murmansk	1 merchant ship (6,985 GRT) by U 403	no		Cruiser HMS Edinburgh
PQ 15	April 10, 1942 in Oban	25th	May 5, 1942 in Murmansk	2 merchant ships by aircraft 1 merchant ship by U 251 destroyer HMS Punjabi sunk after collision with HMS King George V ( location )	2 planes		The Punjabi sank after colliding with the King George V at PQ 15
							The King George V with collision damage at the bow
QP 10	April 10, 1942 in Kola Bay	16	April 21, 1942 in Reykjavík	2 merchant ships (12,650 GRT) by aircraft 2 merchant ships (11,831 GRT) by U 435	no		The El Occidente sank at QP 10 by a torpedo from U 435 ( Lage )
QP 11	April 28, 1942 in Murmansk	13	May 7, 1942 in Reykjavík	1 merchant ship (2847 BRT) by destroyer Z 7 Hermann Schoemann , Z 24 , Z 25 HMS Edinburgh by U 456 and destroyer Z 25 ( location )	Destroyer Z 7 Hermann Schoemann ( location )		The Edinburgh sank after the submarine and destroyer attack with convoy QP 11
PQ 16	May 21, 1942 in Reykjavík	35	May 30, 1942 in Murmansk	1 merchant ship (6,191 GRT) by U 703 6 merchant ships (36,987 GRT) by aircraft 1 merchant ship by mine	3 planes		PQ 16 gathers near Reykjavík
QP 12	May 21, 1942 in Kola Bay	15th	May 29, 1942 in Reykjavík	no	?
QP 13	June 26, 1942 in Arkhangelsk	35	July 7, 1942 in Reykjavík	6 merchant ships (38,306 GRT) and a minesweeper sunk in their own minefield	no		The HMS Intrepid was part of the Ocean Escort
PQ 17	June 27, 1942 in Reykjavík	35	4th July 1942	15 merchant ships (102,311 GRT) by submarines 8 merchant ships (40,384 GRT) by aircraft	5 planes		PQ 17 gathers near Iceland
							The El Capitan sank at PQ 17 by a torpedo from U 251 ( Lage )
							U 255 after the attack on PQ 17
PQ 18	September 2, 1942 in Loch Ewe	40	September 21, 1942 in Arkhangelsk	3 merchant ships (19,742 GRT) by submarines 10 merchant ships (54,725 GRT) by airplanes	U 88 ( location ) U 589 U 457 ( location ) 33 aircraft		The Avenger drove for the first time in PQ 18
							Torpedo explosion in PQ 18
QP 14	September 13, 1942 in Arkhangelsk	15th	September 26, 1942 in Loch Ewe	4 merchant ships (20,762 GRT) by submarines Minesweeper HMS Leda by U 435 destroyer HMS Somali by U 703 ( location )	no		The Somali sank after a submarine attack at QP 14
							The Rathlin acted as a rescue ship in some northern sea convoys
							The Empire Tide , here equipped with a catapult aircraft , took part in a number of standard convoys
QP 15	November 17, 1942 in Kola Bay	28	November 30, 1942 in Loch Ewe	2 merchant ships (9,800 GRT) by U 601 and U 625 destroyer Sokrushitelny by storm	no		The HMS Suffolk was part of the local security group
JW 51A	December 15, 1942 in Liverpool	16	December 25, 1942 in Kola Bay	no	no
JW 51B	December 22, 1942 in Liverpool	15th	January 4, 1943 in Kola Bay	Destroyer HMS Achates by Admiral Hipper ( location ) Minesweeper HMS Bramble by destroyer Z 16 Friedrich Eckoldt ( location )	Destroyer Z 16 Friedrich Eckoldt ( location )		The Achates was sunk at the JW 51B by the Admiral Hipper
RA 51	December 30, 1942 in Kola Bay	14th	January 11, 1943 in Loch Ewe	no	?
designation	Departure	commercial ships	Arrivals	Allied losses	German losses	Illustration	comment
JW 52	January 17, 1943 in Liverpool	15th	January 27, 1943 in Kola Bay	no	no
RA 52	January 29, 1943 in Kola Bay	10	February 9, 1943 in Loch Ewe	1 merchant ship (7460 GRT) by U 255	no		The HMS Anson was part of the remote backup group
JW 53	February 15, 1943 in Liverpool	29	February 27, 1943 in Kola Bay	no	no		Convoy JW 53 in the pack ice
RA 53	March 1, 1943 in Kola Bay	30th	March 14, 1943 in Loch Ewe	3 merchant ships (18,245 GRT) by U 255 and U 586 1 merchant ship (6,800 GRT) by storm	no		The HMS Northern Pride
RA 54A	November 1, 1943 in Kola Bay	13	November 14, 1943 in Loch Ewe	no	no
JW 54A	November 15, 1943 in Liverpool	18th	November 24, 1943 in Kola Bay	no	no
JW 54B	November 22, 1943 in Liverpool	14th	December 3, 1943 in Arkhangelsk	no	no
RA 54B	November 26, 1943 in Arkhangelsk	8th	December 9, 1943 in Loch Ewe	no	no
JW 55A	December 12, 1943 in Liverpool	19th	December 22, 1943 in Arkhangelsk	no	no
JW 55B	December 20, 1943 in Loch Ewe	19th	December 30, 1943 in Murmansk	no	Battleship Scharnhorst ( location )		The Norfolk is off the Soviet coast with a Northern Convoy
							The British sank the battleship Scharnhorst near the JW 55B
RA 55A	December 22, 1943 in Kola Bay	22nd	January 1, 1944 in Loch Ewe	no	no
RA 55B	December 31, 1943 in Kola Bay	8th	January 8, 1944 in Loch Ewe	no	no
designation	Departure	Merchant ships	Arrivals	Allied losses	German losses	Illustration	comment
JW 56A	January 12, 1944 in Loch Ewe	20th	January 28 in Arkhangelsk	1 merchant ship (7,133 GRT) by U 957 1 merchant ship (7,177 GRT) by U 278 1 merchant ship (7,200 GRT) by U 716	no		HMS Belfast
JW 56B	January 22, 1944 in Loch Ewe	17th	February 1, 1944 in Kola Bay	Destroyer HMS Hardy II by U 278	U 314 ( location )		HMS Venus
RA 56	February 3, 1944 in Kola Bay	37	February 11, 1944 in Loch Ewe	no	no
JW 57	February 20, 1944 in Liverpool	42	February 28th in Kola Bay	Destroyer HMS Mahratta by U 990 ( location )	U 713 U 601 ( location )		Escort carrier HMS Chaser
RA 57	March 2, 1944 in Kola Bay	31	March 10, 1944 in Loch Ewe	1 merchant ship (7,200 GRT) by U 703	U 472 ( location ) U 366 ( location ) U 973 ( location )		The sister boat HMS Westcott
JW 58	March 27, 1944 in Loch Ewe	50	April 4, 1944 in Kola Bay	1 plane	U 961 ( location ) U 360 ( location ) U 288 ( location ) U 355 ( location )6 aircraft		An aircraft of the escort carrier Tracker sank U 288 near JW 58
RA 58	April 7, 1944 in Kola Bay	36	April 14, 1944 in Loch Ewe	no	no
RA 59	April 28, 1944 in Kola Bay	45	May 6, 1944 in Loch Ewe	1 merchant ship (7,176 GRT) by U 711	U 277 ( location ) U 674 ( location ) U 959 ( location )		Escort carrier HMS Fencer
JW 59	August 15, 1944 in Loch Ewe	35	August 25, 1944 in Kola Bay	Sloop HMS Kite through U 344 ( location )	U 344 ( location ) U 354 ( location )		The kite sank after the submarine attack at JW 59
RA 59A	August 28, 1944 in Kola Bay	9	September 5, 1944 in Loch Ewe	no	U 394 ( location )		Escort carrier HMS Vindex
							Missile- carrying Fairey Swordfish
JW 60	September 15, 1944 in Loch Ewe	30th	September 23, 1944 in Kola Bay	no	no
RA 60	September 28, 1944 in Kola Bay	32	October 5, 1944 in Clyde	2 merchant ships (14,395 GRT) by U 310	no		Escort Carrier HMS Striker
JW 61	October 20, 1944 in Loch Ewe	30th	October 28, 1944 in Kola Bay	no	no
RA 61	November 2, 1944 in Kola Bay	33	November 9, 1944 in Loch Ewe	no	no
JW 62	November 29, 1944 in Loch Ewe	30th	December 7, 1944 in Kola Bay	no	no
RA 62	December 10, 1944 in Kola Bay	29	December 19, 1944 in Loch Ewe	Corvette Tunsberg Castle through mine ( location )	U 387 ( location ) U 365 ( location )2 planes		HMS Nairana
designation	Departure	commercial ships	Arrivals	Allied losses	German losses	Illustration	comment
JW 63	January 1, 1945 in Loch Ewe	35	January 8, 1945 in Murmansk	no	no
RA 63	January 11, 1945 in Kola Bay	30th	January 21, 1945 in Loch Ewe	no	no
JW 64	February 2, 1945 in Clyde (Great Britain)	26th	February 15, 1945 in the Kola Bay	Corvette HMS Denbigh Castle by U 992 ( location )	12 planes		The corvette HMS Denbigh Castle
RA 64	February 17, 1945 in the Kola Bay	33	February 28, 1944 in Loch Ewe	1 merchant ship (7,176 GRT) by aircraft 1 merchant ship (7176 GRT) by U 986 Sloop HMS Lark by U 986 ( location ) Corvette HMS Bluebell by U 711 ( location )	6 planes		The Bluebell sank after the submarine attack at RA 64
JW 65	March 11, 1945 in Clyde	26th	March 21, 1945 in Kola Bay	1 merchant ship (7,176 GRT) by U 995 1 merchant ship (7,210 GRT) by U 968 Sloop HMS Lapwing by U 968	no		HMS diadem
RA 65	March 21, 1945 in Kola Bay	26th	April 1, 1945 in Clyde	no	no
JW 66	April 6, 1945 in Clyde	26th	April 29, 1945 in the Kola Bay	no	no
RA 66	April 29, 1945 in the Kola Bay	27	May 8, 1945 in Clyde	Frigate HMS Goodall by U 986	U 307 ( location )		Escort carrier HMS Premier

Conclusion

Reverse side of a Russian 3 ruble commemorative coin from 1992 in memory of the northern sea convoys

811 shiploads were organized in 40 convoy trains going east. 58 ships were sunk, while 33 times a ship had to turn back for various reasons. A total of 720 shiploads reached their destination port. In the 37 returning convoy trains with a total of 715 merchant ships (multiple counting), 29 merchant ships were lost. In addition, 13 British warships were sunk. The British sank the battleship Scharnhorst , three destroyers and 43 submarines.

The Allies brought a total of four million tons of cargo, including 5,000 tanks and 7,000 aircraft, to the Soviet Union via the northern sea escort route. That was almost 23 percent of all goods delivered to the Soviet Union at that time. Larger proportions ran on the other two less lossy routes ( Persian Corridor , Pacific Route ), which could not be disturbed by the Germans.

See also

• EN convoys
• HX convoys
• WS convoys
• List of allied convoy routes in World War II

Individual evidence

1. ^ Johan Blindheim: Ecological Features of the Norwegian Sea. In: Louis René Rey et al. (Ed.): Marine Living Systems of the Far North. 6th Conference. Papers. Brill Archive, 1989, ISBN 90-04-08281-6 , p. 366.
2. ↑ ^{a b c} Werner Rahn : The German Empire and the Second World War . Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt , Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , p. 407.
3. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 51 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
4. ^ Richard Woodman The Arctic Convoys 1941–1945. John Murray Ltd., London 1995, ISBN 0719550793 , p. 42.
5. ↑ Clay Blair: The U-Boat War, The Jäger 1939-1942. Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-453-12345-X , p. 425.
6. ↑ Gerd R. Ueberschär : The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 4, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1983, ISBN 3-421-06098-3 , pp. 824-825.
7. ↑ ^{a b} Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , p. 412.
8. ↑ Clay Blair: The U-Boat War, The Jäger 1939-1942. Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-453-12345-X , p. 741.
9. ^ ^{A b} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 54 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
10. ↑ Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , p. 418.
11. ↑ Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , p. 405.
12. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Brian Betham Schofield : Convoy battles. Köhlers Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Herford (1983), ISBN 3-453-01759-5 , p. 175.
13. ↑ The battleship Tirpitz with three destroyers could not find the convoy.
14. ↑ Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , p. 409.
15. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Brian Betham Schofield : Convoy battles. Köhlers Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Herford (1983), ISBN 3-453-01759-5 , p. 176.
16. ↑ Eric Grove: Sea Battles in Close-Up: World War II. Volume Two, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland 1993, ISBN 1-55750-758-9 , pp. 117-121.
17. ↑ ^{a b} Percy E. Schramm : War Diary of the High Command of the Wehrmacht 1942. Part 2, Bernard & Graefe Verlag, Bonn, ISBN 3-7637-5933-6 , p. 1409.
18. ↑ ^{a b c} Percy E. Schramm: War Diary of the High Command of the Wehrmacht 1942. Volume 2, Bernard & Graefe Verlag, Bonn, ISBN 3-7637-5933-6 , p. 1411.
19. ^ Jürgen Rohwer , Gerhard Hümmelchen : Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland 1992, ISBN 1-55750-105-X , p. 137.
20. ^ Percy E. Schramm: War Diary of the High Command of the Wehrmacht 1942. Part 2, Bernard & Graefe Verlag, Bonn, ISBN 3-7637-5933-6 , p. 1413.
21. ↑ Percy E. Schramm: War Diary of the High Command of the Wehrmacht 1942. Part 2, Bernard & Graefe Verlag, Bonn, ISBN 3-7637-5933-6 , p. 1417.
22. ↑ Convoy PQ 17 was the allied convoy with the greatest losses in World War II in terms of the number of ships sunk and the tonnage.
23. ↑ Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , pp. 413-417.
24. ↑ For the first time, an escort carrier (HMS Avenger ) accompanied twelve fighters and three bombers in the convoy.
25. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 50–54 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
26. ↑ Jürgen Rohwer, Gerhard Hümmelchen: Chronik des Maritime War 1939–1945, September 1942 , accessed on July 27, 2013.
27. ↑ Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , p. 419.
28. ↑ Werner Rahn: The German Empire and the Second World War. Volume 6, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-421-06233-1 , pp. 419-422.
29. ↑ Jürgen Rohwer, Gerhard Hümmelchen: Chronik des Maritime War 1939–1945, February 1943 , accessed on August 8, 2013.
30. ↑ Jürgen Rohwer , Gerhard Hümmelchen: Chronik des Maritime War 1939–1945, March 1943 , accessed on July 26, 2013.
31. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 553 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
32. ^ ^{A b} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 553–555 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
33. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 603–604 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
34. ^ ^{A b} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 604 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
35. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 604–605 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
36. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 605 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
37. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 606–607 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
38. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 607 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
39. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 607–608 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
40. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 699–700 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
41. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 701 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
42. ↑ ^{a b c d} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 787 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
43. ↑ Jürgen Rohwer, Gerhard Hümmelchen: Chronik des Maritime War 1939–1945, February 1945 , accessed on August 11, 2013.
44. ↑ Jürgen Rohwer, Gerhard Hümmelchen: Chronicle of the Sea War 1939–1945, February 1942 , accessed on August 13, 2013.
45. ^ ^{A b} Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 789 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
46. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 789–790 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
47. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 790 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
48. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 791 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).
49. ↑ Edward L. Killham: The Nordic Way. A Path to Baltic Equilibrium. Howells House, 1993, ISBN 0-929590-12-0 , p. 106.
50. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War . tape 2 : The hunted 1942–1945 . Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 , p. 792 (English: Hitler's U-boat war. The hunted 1942–1945 . Translated by Helmut Dierlamm).

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