Victoria Woodhull

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Victoria Woodhull, between 1866 and 1873

Victoria Claflin Woodhull Martin , also Victoria Woodhull Martin , (born September 23, 1838 in Homer , Licking County , Ohio , † June 9, 1927 in Tewkesbury , England ) was an American journalist , newspaper publisher , financial broker , spiritualist and a well-known women's rights activist 19th century. She also campaigned for social reform and equality for African Americans . She was also the first woman to run for the US presidency . The convincing speaker was well paid for her presentations in front of a large audience. Fiercely controversial during her lifetime - especially as a supporter of free love - after her death she was largely forgotten or was rated negatively. While it has attracted renewed attention in the United States, especially since the end of the 20th century, there have been few publications in German-speaking countries. The media coverage increased significantly in 2016 with Hillary Clinton's application as US presidential candidate.

Live and act

childhood

Victoria California Claflin was the seventh of ten children of Reuben Buckman Claflin and his wife Roxanna Claflin, nee Hummel. The socially marginalized parents, who lived on paid fortune-telling , sometimes combined with blackmail, were repeatedly police and a. Wanted for extortion, quackery or running a brothel. They therefore often changed their place of residence, they only stayed in Homer until Victoria's eight year old. The children grew up in an environment that was shaped by the violence of the father and the ecstatic supernatural experiences of the self-confident mother, far removed from social facts, for example with regard to the subordinate position of women in society. Victoria only went to school for about three years, until she was 11, with interruptions. She had to work as a clairvoyant and fortune teller from an early age and contributed greatly to the family's livelihood.

Again and again she showed herself - together with her sister Tennessee Celeste Claflin , born in 1846 - responsible for the extended family. She believed in spiritism, believed to have visions about the future, and traced her political and social ideas back to the spirit world. For many years she claimed that the ghost of the ancient Greek orator and statesman Demosthenes had repeatedly appeared to her and given instructions for her life.

Departure

In order to escape the circumstances, she married the doctor Canning H. Woodhull in 1853 at the age of 15, whom she had previously met as a customer. The couple had two children, their mentally disabled son Byron, b. Late 1854, and the daughter Zulu Maud, b. in April 1861. Since Woodhull was an alcoholic, she was the only one who provided for the livelihood of her family, initially as an actress in the gold rush town of San Francisco , a trade that was little recognized in the USA at the time and often with sexually stimulating performances for women and sometimes with Prostitution was linked. After the young family returned to Victoria's parents, she worked as a spiritual healer . Victoria divorced in 1864 at the age of 26, but retained the Woodhull name.

Victoria Woodhull, around 1860

As a magnetic healer and fortune teller, she started her own business in St. Louis in 1864 and met the married, educated and formerly well-off citizen Colonel James Harvey Blood, who had turned to spiritualism and became indebted due to experiences in the American Civil War . The couple set out on a journey in a covered wagon in 1866 and lived off Victoria's profitable occupation. Back in St. Louis, Blood paid off his debt, transferred remaining property to his wife and children, and obtained a divorce. In the summer of the same year Victoria Woodhull married James Blood, five years her senior, in Dayton , because divorced people were allowed to be married there. After this second marriage, Victoria continued to call herself Woodhull, possibly because the name Blood could have awakened unfavorable associations for her activities as a healer and spiritual counselor. The two pretended that their marriage had been divorced two years later for ideological reasons, namely because of their ideal of free love . However, Victoria only got divorced in 1876. Her younger sister Tennessee, who had become the main breadwinner of the family through shady spiritualist offers and prostitution, repeatedly came into conflict with the police. She moved in with her sister and became part of the living and working community, which, committed to free love, lasted a total of ten years.

With Blood, Victoria Woodhull first met an intellectual who she u. a. introduced political, anti-racist and social reform movements, socialist and anarchist ideas and approaches to overcoming discrimination against women, including radical ideas. He spoke out not only in favor of women's suffrage, but also in favor of the so-called free lovers' way of life - originating from early European socialism - which Victoria was already practicing, far from any theory. Woodhull biographer Antje Schrupp (2016) writes about this connection:

“You can imagine what inspiration James Blood and Victoria Woodhull must have been for each other. He offered her the opportunity to rediscover her views and experiences in a "theory" and gave her the confidence to face people from the middle class with her beliefs and way of life. And it enabled him to break out of bourgeois relationships, to put his theories into practice; "

new York

Encounter with Cornelius Vanderbilt

In 1868 Victoria Woodhull moved to New York City with her sister Tennessee Claflin and James Blood . While Blood was working as a newspaper editor, the sisters made contact with the prostitution scene and offered their spiritualistic services there, but also vinegar sponges for contraception. Woodhull met the operator of a noble brothel for top politicians and leading entrepreneurs. At the time, women were forbidden to trade on the stock exchange. The finance brokers openly discussed their affairs in front of the prostitutes or their lovers, some of whom allegedly passed their knowledge on to Woodhull for payment. In the meantime the family had followed and the household later consisted of 16 people at times.

In the same year the sisters met the railroad entrepreneur Cornelius Vanderbilt , who had risen from the underclass to become a multimillionaire and who was also inclined to spiritualism. Vanderbilt made Claflin his healer and lover and Woodhull his clairvoyant financial advisor. With the information the sisters gathered, Blood was able to successfully speculate on the stock market. Vanderbilt had given Woodhull a percentage of his profits on the stock market since November 1868 and generously rewarded Tennessee Claflin. After particularly lucrative stock market deals, which Vanderbilt attributed to Woodhull's clairvoyant abilities, the sisters' fortunes increased enormously and they led a luxury life. When Vanderbilt responded to Woodhull's advice given in " trance " during the great financial crash of September 1869 , wealth increased immensely. According to Schrupp (2002), Victoria's tips were based on information from a friend, the lover of competitor Vanderbilts James Fisk , Josie Mansfield. 50 percent of the profits, about $ 650,000, went to Woodhull.

Stockbroker on Wall Street

In January 1870, the sisters opened the first women-run real estate agency on Wall Street under the name Woodhull, Claflin & Co. The two women entrepreneurs were very successful and made substantial profits. In addition to men, well-to-do women were the main target group. Blood was an employee and served as an intermediary for customers on the stock exchange. The press coverage, especially in the New York Herald , and the reactions from financial circles were mostly positive, although the newspapers viewed the new company as rather strange and reported tabloid-esque reports, to which the sisters contributed with great pomp. Victoria Woodhull and Tennessee Claflin made their mark with short hair and masculine clothing and professional statements on the stock market.

According to the sociologist Urs Stähelin (2007), Woodhull was aware of her provocation when she and her sister founded a brokerage company under female leadership. She wanted to demonstrate the absolute equality of the sexes. At the opening, crowds of onlookers came together under police protection. Her masculine posture and clothing as a "carnival-like game with gender identities" is interpreted as a double provocation, as an increase in the scandalous:

“On the one hand, the office reminds of the non-economic origins of financial speculation - for example the close connection between stockpicking and spiritualism or the criminal origins of some speculators' fortunes. On the other hand, this classic strategy critical of ideals is complemented by a politics of parody. The Claflin sisters constructed a hybrid figure of the broker who submits to the male rules of business, but at the same time openly mixes these rules with the semantics of female seductiveness and sexuality. "

The sisters ran a kind of weekly political salon in their offices. a. numerous journalists, a few business people and politicians as well as supporters of various reform movements frequented, including women’s rights activists.

The high income was offset by even higher expenses. The sisters bought an expensive house in which the extended family, mother, father and many of the descendants - looked after by service staff - lived beyond their means. After Vanderbilt ended his relationship with the sisters because of a ransom note from his mother in mid-1871, they no longer got the information they needed for profitable stock market deals and lost capital and influence on Wall Street. They had to leave their luxurious home and later their offices. In addition, the press releases were increasingly negative. From mid-1872 onwards, they were largely ignored or viewed in a derogatory way. Because of their lower-class background, despite their affluence, they had little private access to financial circles or the educated middle class and were treated rather condescendingly by intellectuals and journalists.

Attitude to the women's movement

In parallel with her public ventures, Woodhull continues to deal with women's issues and other social and political developments. Together with Blood, she found access to feminist , socialist and free-thinking personalities and their visions. According to a report in the New York newspaper The Evening Star , in which she was named as a possible future leader of the movement, she first attended a congress of the women's movement in Washington in January 1869 , where she met well-known women's rights activists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone , Lucretia Mott , Paulina Wright Davis, and Julia Ward Howe .

While the American women's movement primarily wanted to win women's suffrage , Victoria Woodhull argued that it was a matter of using the available opportunities. The American constitution only contains statements about civil rights , but not about men's or women's rights. Accordingly, women’s right to vote is already provided. Against this background, she considered all recent restrictions to be meaningless. Woodhull pointed out her entrepreneurial success as a role model for other women, to whom she advised not to wait for changes in the law in their favor, but to take action independently. Women have all rights, they just have to implement them. This is what Woodhull said in an interview she and her sister Susan B. Anthony , founder of the radical women's magazine The Revolution , gave shortly after the company opened.

She compared marriages based not on love but on “sexual trafficking” with prostitution. There could be prostitution in marriage and fair trade in the brothel. Free love shows the way out. Woodhull felt more drawn to the smaller, radical wing of the women's movement than to the moderate, more virtuous and moral wing. She stuck to her socially unaccepted ideas for improving the world and often acted in an individualistic and eccentric manner. In their opinion, women's suffrage was overestimated, because violent and irresponsible husbands, alcoholism and poverty were major problems. Economic independence and sexual equality for women were to be achieved.

Abortion, according to Woodhull, is mostly based on society's double standards and is an expression of its depravity. The abortion is publicly rejected. But powerful perpetrators of pregnancies urged their loved ones to abort and were responsible for the unworthy conditions. If free, economically independent, educated individuals live together, taking into account modern medical knowledge on contraception and hygiene, a woman can give birth to numerous children without harming her health. The women - "often exhausted, sick and exploited" - see no way out under the given circumstances other than the illegal abortion in order to preserve their good reputation. In a society of free personalities who “improve” themselves and their offspring, they believe there is no need for abortion.

Acquainted with Andrews and Butler, announced their candidacy

In early 1870, Woodhull met the early individualistic anarchist and political philosopher Stephen Pearl Andrews . He had founded a league for free love in New York and had good contacts with the labor movement . His goal was the cooperation of self-determined individuals as a basis for communities and a world government . During this time, Woodhull also met Republican House MP Benjamin Franklin Butler , a supporter of women's suffrage and an advocate of the eight-hour day. Both men visited their political salon and demanded that individuals should take responsibility, for which the state should guarantee freedom. Woodhull stressed that what matters is not the demand for rights, but the political will and deeds to change. Women and men have no fixed characteristics, and it is an individual decision whether a person wants to be politically active.

She herself now wanted to exercise her political rights and wrote weekly between June and November 1870 in the New York Herald about her social and political views under the heading Theses on Labor and Capitalism. In April 1870 she announced her candidacy for President of the United States in 1872 there. In their ad it said u. a .:

I am aware that by applying for this position I will arouse more scorn than enthusiasm. But this is an era of sudden changes and surprises. What seems absurd today will be serious tomorrow.

Publication of Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly magazine

Victoria Woodhull, around 1870

In May 1870, the two sisters founded the weekly Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly , also to support Woodhull's presidential candidacy. Questions about equal rights for women, abortion, the legalization of prostitution, the role of men in this trade and free love were dealt with . But also socialist ideas, demands of the American trade unionists and other political, economic, social, educational and cultural topics found place in the organ. The editors disapproved of child labor and called for a public school system for all children, with sexual education as a subject. They advocated prison reform and spoke out against the death penalty. There were also articles on vegetarianism and the benefits of appropriate reform clothing for self-confident women. They also published financial analyzes and gave stock market tips. There were also articles on spiritualism and diverse entertainment, often with an ironic undertone. The range of topics of this women's magazine was therefore wide.

The sisters were the first to print the English language version of the Communist Manifesto in the United States in December 1871 . Only Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly made positive reports about the Paris Commune , particularly the women of the Commune. The paper temporarily became the central information medium of the American branch of the First International . From Karl Marx's address to the IAA at the end of May 1871. The civil war in France and the class struggle of the Paris Commune caused Woodhull and Claflin to circulate 1,000 copies in the USA.

Although the magazine discussed corruption, stock fraud and insurance fraud, reputable banks and stockbrokers placed advertisements in the early days. According to their own information, the sisters sold up to 20,000 copies per issue. The two main authors, alongside Woodhull, were Blood and Andrews. Woodhull claimed that the articles published under her name were dictated by the spirit of Demosthenes in a trance. Schrupp (2002) sees Blood and Butler as the authors of the linguistically polished form, but not the content-related statement of the contributions published under Woodhull's name. The contributions contained examples resulting from their life experience. She signed articles as Victoria C. Woodhull and represented her texts publicly in interviews and lectures. Woodhull unsuccessfully claimed her admission as a journalist to Congress . Due to the growing financial, political and personal problems, the magazine could no longer appear regularly from June 28, 1872; the last issue came on the market in mid-1876.

Lectures

In addition to her journalistic activities, Woodhull gave public lectures on these topics, sometimes in front of several thousand people. In her speeches, she drew on experiences from her time as a spiritualist healer. B. had reported violence by their husbands, alcoholism and great poverty.

Woodhull tried to combine feminist, socialist or social reform, free-thinking and anti-racist ideas, an approach that most suffragettes did not like. At the same time she continued to advocate spiritism and explained her “visions”. In doing so, she made herself vulnerable, even though spiritualism was widespread. She was convinced that her own life and that of those around her were controlled from the hereafter.

Their actions and thoughts are viewed as fearless and headstrong. She did not accept any social barriers and did not want to join existing groups without influencing the program, but rather to take on an effective public leadership role. She understood her teaching as her “gospel”, based on the “truth” from the spirit world. She had taken the term from the suffragette Elizabeth Cady Stanton , who had spoken of a "gospel of femininity". Rhetorically gifted, with a charismatic charisma and a missionary spirit, Woodhull was able to sweep her audience away.

Book publications

Since mid-1870 Woodhull worked for a balance of opposing social and personal interests and dealt with the role of the state. In 1871 she published her book The Origin, Tendencies and Principles of Government, or, A Review of the Rise and Fall of Nations from Early Historic Time to the Present , or a treatise on the rise and fall of the nations of the early to the present), which she probably co-authored with Andrews. In this pamphlet she set out the ideological backgrounds of her political statements. Like Andrews, she wanted to bring about a reconciliation through self-determination for the benefit of all: The aim was to peacefully overcome the differences between the sexes, based on skin color and between the haves and the dispossessed. The government should only protect the freedom of individuals. As a result, every person can live according to their own style and make agreements for society with others. In particular, she condemned the marriage laws, called for unrestricted free trade , technical modernization, the enforcement of workers' rights and an equalization of property for the benefit of the poor, e.g. B. by banning any kind of inheritance.

She assigned the concrete form of her social project to the philosophers rather than the politicians. Regarding the relationship between individual and community interests, it says:

A perfect system of freedom is one of the first foundations, and this has to be regulated by exact justice (...). No part of the community, male or female, can be ignored. The organization must recognize every member of society, and they in turn must recognize the organization, which becomes the basis of government.

A second font by the sisters, probably with the support of Blood and Andrews, was also self-published under the name Tennessee Claflins in the same year. The treatise is entitled: Equality Before the Constitution. A right of women. Problems such as corruption can only be solved if both genders are represented throughout society. Equal rights and duties, especially with regard to legislation, opposed men because of their privileges, which strengthened egoism. Women, on the other hand, stuck to the traditions because they did not learn to act as responsible individuals and to take responsibility.

Her lectures, publications and actions should therefore not only contribute to the liberation of women, but rather promote the change in society as a whole.

First International

From March 1871, Victoria Woodhull became involved in the American branch of the International Workers 'Association (IAA), also known as the First International, an umbrella organization of the workers' movement that included socialist and anarchist currents. The US IAA had around 50,000 members organized in local sections.

Woodhull also wanted to promote your ideas in the First International. In the movement, which has hitherto been dominated mainly by German and other European immigrants, she introduced women's issues, the ideas of free love and social reform projects. Like almost all other “progressive” native Americans, she - unlike the members of the European IAA - did not fundamentally question the market economy, but primarily wanted to motivate the hitherto uninfluenced to exercise their rights and implement social reforms, e. B. A reorganization of the corrupt administrative structures, a limitation of the influence of the monopolies, a reduction of working hours, the fair distribution of all goods and the fight against alcoholism.

She founded Section 12 as an English-speaking group of the American Workers' Association. In early November 1871, Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly published a "Manifesto" with its program. There were disputes in which Karl Marx took part, Woodhull first at the end of 1871 in a letter to the leader of the German-American section Friedrich Sorge and again in May 1872 as a banker and supporter of the Free Lovers, as a " Shaker Spiritist" as well The advocate of an imminent world government criticized her and counted her among the American " humbug people " from the " bourgeoisie ". He had previously mentioned her women's magazine in a letter to the editors. Her and her sister, who headed a section, were accused of using the American IAA primarily to establish the presidential candidacy. The US IAA split at the end of 1871 when the global Central Committee had excluded some more “native” anarchist or independent sections, including Section 12. Woodhull and Claflin belonged to the so-called Prince Street Council, the Marxists to the Ward Council.

A common funeral parade announced for December 10, 1871 because of the execution of protagonists of the Paris Commune, to which the entire American IAA had called, was banned. Only the members of the Prince Street Council wanted to hold the demonstration anyway. There were several arrests. According to press reports questioning the legality of these decisions, the Prince Street Council organized a legal manifestation on December 17th with nearly 10,000 participants, including the sisters. According to Victor Grossman (2012), the parade, co-organized by Woodhull, took place on the anniversary of the crackdown on the Paris Commune in the spring of 1872 in front of around 250,000 spectators. A few months before the Congress in The Hague in September 1872, the American governing body of the First International separated from Section 12. After a speech by Marx, supported by Sorge, the congress was finally, almost unanimously expelled. One accusation was that the role of women's emancipation was overrated. In addition, Section 12 is not a workers' organization, but largely a network of intellectuals.

Presidential campaign

Victoria Woodhull recites her memorial

On December 19, 1870, about eight months after the announcement of her presidential candidacy, Woodhull published a “memorial” to the House of Representatives in Washington with a copy to the Senate to implement what they saw as constitutional women's suffrage. She again stated that the memorial goes back to Demosthenes . Her friend, MP Butler, developed an argumentation strategy and made it possible for her to petition the Memorial in the House Legal Committee on January 11, 1871, in front of eight committee members in the presence of a number of women's rights activists such as Susan B. Anthony and Isabella Beecher Hooker, as well as journalists. A woman's first appearance before a parliamentary committee attracted public attention. As expected, the petition was rejected by a majority in the Legal Affairs Committee. Woodhull had recently been received by Republican President Grant , who was running for a second term.

Woodhull was able to present her memorial on January 11, 1871 at the meeting of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in Washington, which was postponed by one day because of her , whose goal was women's suffrage after African American men had received the right to vote. The response was benevolent from Paulina Wright Davis, Anthony, Beecher Hooker, Cady Stantons , Lucretia Mott and other suffragettes. Back in New York, they confirmed their collaboration at a meeting. Woodhull donated the women the very high sum of 10,000 dollars at the time. a. for the election campaign. For a short time, Woodhull became the best-known women's rights activist in the United States.

Not only had she won the trust of some of the more radical suffragettes like Anthony and Cady Stanton, but also that of a few moderate forces, including the writer Isabella Beecher Hooker . Beecher Hooker came from the reform-oriented, liberal Beecher family, whose members, with their views based on Christian moral values, had great weight in the USA and were against Woodhull. While Cady Stanton, like her, advocated fundamental reform of marriage law and showed a rather cautious understanding of her idea of ​​free love, many suffragettes broke away from her when her moral integrity was challenged. She met with constant rejection from the influential suffragette Lucy Stone , who led the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) as a rather conservative majority suffragette organization in support of the right to vote. Mary Livermore also condemned her lack of morality.

Mainly wives of members of parliament published a counter-declaration to the memorial with 1000 signatures. According to the prevailing public opinion, women are morally superior to men and are dishonored by political activity. The press coverage became increasingly critical with regard to her activities in the financial market, her magazine and rumors of prostitution, quackery and charlatanry, as well as press reports about her domestic life together with her husband Blood, her former husband Woodhull and a lover. There is no clear evidence that she ever worked as a prostitute.

Woodhull responded to press reports of her moral depravity with an open letter that appeared in the New York Times and New York World . She complained that she was reviled and ridiculed as a woman and a fighter against the established forces. She believes in spiritism and advocates free love as "the only cure for immorality". She also accused her accusers of hypocrisy. What they publicly rejected, they themselves did in secret. With a hint, she was referring to the adultery of an influential public figure with the wife of another well-known figure.

According to Schrupp, the journalist Theodore Tilton understood the allusion to himself and his wife and contacted Woodhull. This led to a relationship between the two, and Tilton supported them in the election campaign. Tilton's Woodhull biography (1871), based on her own statements and those of her husband James Blood and her confidante Pearl Andrews, was a one-sided, exaggeratedly positive, and pompous work that rather harmed him and her in the serious public.

The very influential preacher Henry Ward Beecher , who was committed to women's rights and had the affair with Tildon's wife, tried in vain with his siblings in mid-1871, including the well-known Christian author of Uncle Tom's hut , Harriet Beecher Stowe , his sister Isabella Beecher Hooker from continuing to support Woodhull. Beecher Hooker stood by Woodhull despite his doubts. Again Woodhull picked up the matter unnamed in her weekly magazine.

On November 20, 1871, Woodhull delivered a speech on Free Love to an audience of 3,000, including representatives from the major newspapers. Tilton spoke the opening words. She had actually intended Henry Beecher for this, but he refused after a few meetings with her. She had tried unsuccessfully to get him to publicly acknowledge the previously secret free love. With her provocative demeanor, she wanted to ensure that autonomous, liberal and progressive women and men should defend their views aggressively, regardless of restrictive laws and prevailing morals. Among other things, she said:

“I have the inalienable, constitutional and natural right to love whoever I want, for as long or briefly as I can, (...) and none of you and no law has the right to forbid me from doing so. What can be more terrible for a fragile, sensitive woman than to be forced to endure the presence of a monster in male form who knows nothing but blind greed, to which often the delirium of drunkenness is added? "

With this lecture - including answering questions - she caused a great, but almost entirely negative, sensation because she confessed to not only supporting free love, but also practicing it herself. Most of her previous sympathizers now turned against her. Tilton distanced himself from her.

The American Spiritist Association made Woodhull its chairman in the fall of 1871. After lectures in various cities, the organized spiritualists made her their presidential candidate.

Your attempt to participate in the New York local elections of November 1871 during the election campaign failed.

Her opponents called her "Mrs." in view of her "scandalous" behavior. Satan ". In a caricature from February 17, 1872, the famous cartoonist Thomas Nast portrayed her as Mrs. Satan .

Their justification for blackmail contributed to this. In early 1872, she referred to women who put their former rich and powerful lovers under pressure as "heroines" in some articles in her magazine. She took sides with Josie Mansfeld, who had blackmailed her former lover James Fisk . After her conviction in January 1872, her new partner shot the millionaire.

Victoria Woodhull had the formal nomination for the presidential election in November 1872 on May 10, 1872 by the Equal Rights Party, also known as the Cosmo-Political Party, which she co-founded, even though she is not yet the minimum age of 35 years required by the constitution for the presidency and women were excluded as candidates anyway. Women at the time did not even have the right to vote.

Running mate for the vice-presidency was the African-American abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass , who, however, had not attended the meeting and was more likely to support Grant. Woodhull stood up again for the equality of African Americans. Woodhull, her supporters from the First International and supporters of reform movements, had succeeded in bringing together more than 600 delegates from 22 states, half of whom were women, at the party's two-day inaugural meeting. They were representatives of spiritualism, the women's movement, the movement against slavery, the trade union movement and more utopian , anarchist or socialist individuals. At the meeting she prevailed against several opposing candidates by acclamation and acclamation as a candidate for the presidency.

The manifesto and the resolutions of the two-day founding meeting went beyond the issue of women's suffrage, but had little impact on society as a whole and met with broad rejection, especially when it came to moral standards. The program encompassed women's political and social freedoms, including the right to free love and economic independence, restricted income from capital and the nationalization of land, and demanded unrestricted freedom of expression and the press.

Susan Anthony had publicly renounced at the annual convention of radical suffragettes the day before the Woodhull party was founded and refused to found a new party. Cady Stanton, however, supported her in her nomination by the Equal Rights Party.

In the German Reich one became aware of Woodhull u. a. by the writer Otto von Corvin , who wrote the biographical article Victoria Woodhull in the spring of 1872 . America's greatest humbug published in the popular liberal illustrated weekly magazine for the family The Gazebo . In it he ironically and mostly critically described the ghostly creation of the memorial, Woodhull's appearance in front of the House of Representatives during the lecture about free love and her candidacy for the presidency. He wrote:

"Her political views are those of a radical democrat, and socially, she subscribes to principles similar to those taught by John Stuart Mill and Elisabeth Lady Stanton, those commonly referred to as" free love. " It was only recently, that is, a few months ago, that she pronounced them in a speech with wonderful clarity, and the German papers reported on it with indignation. She declares marriage when mutual love ceases, for prostitution and morally dissolved, and claims the right to enter into new relationships as soon as she closes her heart. "

While Woodhull still found support from some non-Marxist sections of the American First International in the presidential candidacy in May 1872, it lost their support in the summer of 1872.

In the late summer of 1872, the few remaining suffragettes turned against her, including her main ally Cady Stanton. The main reason for this was probably Woodhull's dubious moral concepts, with which it even legitimized blackmail and its declining importance. Most suffragettes supported Grant in his second candidacy.

At the annual meeting of the American Spiritists' Association in September 1872, Woodhull reported for the first time details regarding the affairs of Reverend Henry Beecher's affairs with women of his congregation and especially with Tilton's wife as well as infidelities of suffragettes and their spouses. She had previously received this information privately from Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan Anthony. She tried to refute the allegations that she wanted to enrich herself through blackmail attempts by arguing that she was primarily concerned with double standards and hypocrisy. She received support from the spiritualists; her presidential candidacy was confirmed.

Woodhull was not allowed to vote on November 5, 1872 and could not achieve their intention to demonstratively participate in the vote. Several lawsuits were filed against her, T. Claflin, and Blood during the campaign.

Multiple arrests and acquittal

Victoria Woodhull was jailed for posting a sexually objectionable article on election day. That went back to the head of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) Anthony Comstock , the self-appointed guardian of morals. She had reported in the election edition of Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly of November 2, 1872 with a very high circulation of 100,000 copies, once again, this time by name, on the extramarital relationship between Henry Beecher and Elizabeth Tilton. Because of the freedom of the press, there was no criminal prosecution.

In order to prevent the distribution, Beecher had bought up a large part of the first edition, which increased the price to over two dollars. The sisters had 150,000 magazines reprinted and distributed them themselves. Still, the copies were sold for up to $ 40 or loaned for a dollar.

Another report in the same issue on child prostitution had legal ramifications by the United States Marshals Service (USMS) for it was illegal to post obscene writing. The day before the election, Woodhull and her two comrades-in-arms were arrested and released on bail four weeks later.

Then another number of the paper came out, which Comstock used as an opportunity to obtain a new arrest warrant. Woodhull managed to go into hiding and on January 9, 1873, she gave her promised speech at the Cooper Institute in New York on freedom of expression and freedom of the press, where she sharply attacked her opponents. Disguised as a Quaker , she had entered the guarded, crowded room, shown and spoken as Victoria Woodhull, before being arrested by the police present. She was arrested several times, including on charges of defamation. Eventually, like her sister Tennessee Claflin and James Blood, she was acquitted by federal court in mid-1873. Public opinion had turned in their favor. Numerous newspapers reported this, and witnesses confirmed Woodhull's allegations against Beecher.

The Henry Beecher affair remained in the headlines until the final judicial settlement in his favor in 1875. Tilton had sued him for adultery. Both the plaintiff and the defendant accused Woodhull. Only Cady Stanton took a stand in their favor outside the process.

More years in New York

After their release from prison, the sisters' financial resources, mainly fines and non-refundable bail, were exhausted due to a lack of new income. Woodhull lived mainly from her speeches, which she gave not only in New York, but also on lecture tours organized by Blood, in which Tennessee Claflin and sometimes Zulu Maud Woodhull were involved. Their topics, which were perceived as scandalous, generated high revenues. They addressed a wide audience, although they were particularly opposed by religious groups and the press. Woodhull now placed an emphasis on the free "pure" sexual love of men and women as a means of attaining "immortality". With the 19-year-old later well-known anarchist Benjamin Tucker , she had a love bond for almost a year since October 1873.

Woodhull turned more and more to Christianity, especially to Catholicism, which was marginal in the USA and which met with rejection , and from spiritualism. In their “visions” the appearance of Jesus replaced the spirit of Demosthenes. She explained some of her teachings with reference to the Bible. She followed up on the veneration of the blood of Christ in parts of Catholicism and traced her view of menstrual blood and her conception of the body as a “holy temple” or “paradise” of free sexuality for the birth of “perfect” offspring back to religious origins. She associated the "fall of man" with forced sexuality. In Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly corresponding thereto interpretations of the Bible now appeared. This new perspective repelled a number of remaining prospects and previous authors of the journal. Andrews ended the collaboration.

Woodhull separated from her spouse James H. Blood in 1875; in the summer of 1876 she filed for divorce. Blood was divorced guilty after her adultery lawsuit. During another lecture tour, supported by her mother and sister, she again speculated about the human body, which could develop until immortality was achieved on earth. The last issue of their magazine appeared on June 10, 1876.

At the beginning of 1877 her former sponsor Cornelius Vanderbilt died. In the course of the year a legal dispute arose over his inheritance, in which V. Woodhull and T. Claflin were supposed to give information as witnesses about his spiritualistic attitude. Woodhull agreed with the principal heir, William Henry Vanderbilt, to pay a larger sum if they stayed away, left the United States and settled in England . Thus the deceased very richly deceased was not subsequently declared insane. His wills could not be challenged by his daughters or his sick son.

Great Britain

Victoria C. Woodhull, around 1880

In the same year Victoria Woodhull settled with her adult children as well as Tennessee Claflin and her mother in London and gave lectures there. Her new, central topic was birth control, her theoretical basis was early sociology . Towards the end of the New York period it had moved closer to Christianity, but in later years it still referred to belief in spirits.

In his third marriage, Woodhull married in late October 1883, after several years of marriage, the graduate of Oxford University and banker John Biddulph Martin in a Presbyterian church . Before the marriage she had publicly renounced the idea of ​​free love and put the responsibility for related publications in the USA on Andrews and Blood. In addition, she tried her origins u. a. through an invented family tree that traced their family roots back to the pilgrim father Alexander Hamilton . In addition, she had some etchings from the American press changed so that her clothes appeared more feminine and her facial expression friendlier. Martin's respected and wealthy family was concerned about their past press coverage, as well as their older age and the two divorces, and did not accept the marriage. Since the marriage she has been called Victoria Woodhull Martin. She was also called Mrs. John Biddulph Martin. With Martin, she led the life of a well-off English woman for several years.

In 1884 and 1888, with little noticed lectures in the United States, she sought in vain for another presidential candidacy. The book The Human Body, God's Temple was published in London in 1890 . A philosophy of sociology that she wrote together with her sister. One of her lectures was entitled "The Scientific Propagation of the Human Race."

From 1892 to 1901, Woodhull and her daughter Zulu Maud Woodhull, supported by her husband, published a monthly sociological magazine The Humanitarian . With sociology she wanted to give her ideas about women's liberation, social innovations and, above all, birth planning a scientific basis.

The “Humanitarian” also published articles on the emerging eugenics . Woodhull wanted to present the laws of heredity in order to obtain targeted birth forecasts, and also to contribute to the "improvement" of humanity through medical, social and educational measures. Disabled people should not be allowed to have children, future parents should choose a suitable “healthy” partner on the basis of family trees and economic independence. She held on to the possibility of being able to change lovers. As before in New York, the spectrum of her interests was broad. It ranged from improving British-American relations to the reprint of the memorial on women's suffrage to medical issues. Different positions, including those of church representatives, were given the floor. In London she associated with intellectuals, artists and theologians.

After Martin's early death, she inherited a large fortune in 1897. She began to study deadly health risks, published texts on the spread of infectious diseases, warned of germs lurking everywhere, and practiced a strange cult of health. From late 1901 she lived with Zula, as they were called, and Byron on the inherited estate in Bredon's Norton, a village five kilometers from Tewkesbury . She set up an agricultural and horticultural school for young women on the property. In addition, she and Zula set up an elementary school in the village based on Froebel's pedagogy . The school replaced the previous village school and was closed by the school inspectorate after two years. She promoted her environment with technical innovations and charity, not always to the delight of authorities and residents, who she did not include in her plans. In addition, it created opportunities for relaxation, debate and further training for interested guests. Already old, she made herself familiar with the emerging psychology around 1910 and joined the Society for Psychology. In 1922 she participated in the purchase of an old mansion for the benefit of the Sulgrave Institution, an organization promoting British-American friendship. Later she donated a second country house to her.

She died in 1927 at the age of 88. Her heiress was Zula Woodhull.

Aftermath

The New York Times published an obituary focusing on her contributions to US-British relations. The estate is in the Southern Illinois University Carbondale and the Boston Public Library.

In their History of Woman Suffrage, a history of the American women's movement, Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage hardly mentioned Gage Woodhull, not at all in the register. Emanie Sachs' efficacious for many years disparaging Biography The Terrible Siren (The terrible siren ) appeared in 1928 in New York. On the question of whether Woodhull tended to use or harm the cause of the American women's movement, Silke Kinzig (2007) writes:

“Radical in her views on international socialism and free love, Woodhull addressed the sexual revolution in her presidential campaign. Some historians believe that Woodhull, as a scandalous and thus polarizing personality, has some responsibility for ensuring that women's suffrage was not introduced in her day. Amanda Frisken, on the other hand, emphasizes Woodhull's pioneering role and her contribution to the public discussion about women in politics. "

souvenir

Awarded by the Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance, September 2010

A Victoria Woodhull-Martin cenotaph is in Tewkesbury Abbey . There is a plaque in front of the public library in Homer. The Broadway musical Onward Victoria (1980) was inspired by Woodhull's life. The Woodhull Institute for Ethical Leadership was founded by Naomi Wolf and Margot Magowan in 1997. In 2001 Victoria Woodhull was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame .

The Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance was founded in 2003 and named after Victoria Woodhull. She advocates education and women's rights. She was honored by the Manhattan Borough President's office in 2008. Victoria Bond composed the opera Mrs. President about Woodhull. The world premiere took place in 2012 in Anchorage (Alaska). On October 28, 2016, the entire opera was performed for the first time in New York at the National Opera Center.

Own writings

  • Selected Writings of Victoria Woodhull. Suffrage, Free Love, and Eugenics. Editor and introduction: Cari M. Carpenter. Series: Legacies of Nineteenth-Century American Women Writers. University of Nebraska Press; Lincoln and London 2010

literature

  • Antje Schrupp : “Vote for Victoria!”: The wild life of America's first presidential candidate Victoria Woodhull (1838–1927). Ulrike Helmer Verlag , Sulzbach am Taunus 2016, ISBN 978-3-89741-393-1 . Revision.
  • Antje Schrupp: The sensational life of Victoria Woodhull . Ulrike Helmer Verlag, Königstein im Taunus 2002, ISBN 3-89741-105-9 . (Longer original version). New edition of this version: Buch & Netz, Zurich 2015. Book ISBN 978-3-03805-040-7 . E-book ISBN 978-3-03805-105-3 .
  • Antje Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. Ulrike Helmer Verlag, Königstein im Taunus 1999, ISBN 3-89741-022-2 . (Dissertation University of Frankfurt am Main. , 1999).
  • Victor Grossman : Just scandalous noodles? Victoria Woodhull (1838-1927). Tennessee Claflin (1844-1923). In: Rebel Girls. 34 American women portrait. Papyrossa , Cologne 2012, pp. 111–124.
  • Urs Stähelin: Spectacular speculation. The popular of the economy. Suhrkamp TB Wissenschaft, Frankfurt 2007, ISBN 978-3-518-29410-9 , Phenomenology of the Impossible: Woodhull, Claflin & Co. pp. 279–287; 299f.
  • Otto von Corvin : Victoria Woodhull, America’s greatest humbug . In: The Gazebo . Issue 14, 1872, pp. 223-227 ( full text [ Wikisource ]). .
  • Amanda Frisken: Victoria Woodhull's Sexual Revolution. Political Theater and the Popular Press in Nineteenth-Century America. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2004, ISBN 0-8122-3798-6 .

Media coverage in German-speaking countries

Hollywood movie

Web links

Commons : Victoria Woodhull  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Footnotes

  1. ↑ see: Homer in the English language Wikipedia.
  2. ↑ in London according to Women Working, 1800–1930: Victoria Woodhull (1838–1927) ; on harvard.edu. Harvard University Library Open Collections Program, accessed October 1, 2016.
  3. ↑ As recently as 1988 an article appeared in the USA about her activities, in which it is emphasized that not even her name is known to the general public, although she was one of the most famous women of the 19th century. See: Susan Kullmann: Legal Contender. Victoria C. Woodhull. First Woman to Run for President . The Women's Quarterly, Fall 1988, pp. 16-17, online 1997, accessed October 9, 2016.
  4. ↑ see also: Christliche Awakening Movement , Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 147.
  5. ↑ see: Tennessee Celeste Claflin in the English language Wikipedia.
  6. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: New edition 2015, pp. 4 f, 10 ff, 25 f, 34 f, 37. Schrupp (2016), p. 9 ff, 64 f.
  7. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 112.
  8. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 21ff. Schrupp (2002), here: new edition 2015, p. 27ff.
  9. ↑ see: James Blood in the English language Wikipedia.
  10. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: New edition 2015, p. 159.
  11. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: New edition 2015, p. 254.
  12. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 28ff. Schrupp (2002), here: New edition 2015, pp. 37 ff. 43, 45.
  13. ↑ Schrupp (2016) p. 98.
  14. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 31, 34.
  15. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 32; also Schrupp (2002), here: new edition 2015, p. 43.
  16. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 51. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 50f.
  17. ↑ This statement comes from the historian Barbara Goldsmith (1998), Auszüge im Buchhandel . Compare: Susan Zahabzadeh: Victoria Woodhull. The first woman who wanted to be US President . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung online, July 28, 2016.
  18. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 38f. Schrupp (2002), here 2015, p. 80.
  19. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 46–50.
  20. ↑ See Josie Mansfield in the English language Wikipedia.
  21. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 51–54. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 65ff.
  22. ↑ Stähelin (2007), p. 282.
  23. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 77.
  24. ↑ Stähelin (2007), p. 280.
  25. ↑ Stähelin (2007), p. 299.
  26. ↑ Stähelin (2007), p. 287.
  27. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 55–57, 59, 61. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 26f.
  28. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 92. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 156f.
  29. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 86f. Grossman (2012), p. 118.
  30. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 111.
  31. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 63. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 83.
  32. ↑ see: Paulina Wright Davis in the English language Wikipedia.
  33. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 42f.
  34. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 46, 80f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 142.
  35. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 64.
  36. ↑ cit. according to: Schrupp (2016), p. 41.
  37. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 100f.
  38. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 122.
  39. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 45, p. 70. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 82ff.
  40. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 183f.
  41. ↑ see: Stephen Pearl Andrews in the English language Wikipedia.
  42. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 131f.
  43. ^ Translation by Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 101.
  44. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 67–71. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 89–98, 100.
  45. ↑ Quoted from: Jasmin Lörchner: First US presidential candidate. Vote for Victoria! Spiegel Online , November 6, 2016 (entered in the search engine).
  46. ↑ Silke Kinzig: On the way to power? On the underrepresentation of women in the German and US government systems. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2007, p. 134.
  47. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 114.
  48. ^ Women Working, 1800-1930: Victoria Woodhull (1838-1927) ; on harvard.edu. Harvard University Library Open Collections Program, accessed October 1, 2016.
  49. ↑ Uwe Schmitt (Die Welt): Hillary's wild sister . Tages-Anzeiger (Switzerland), July 26, 2016.
  50. ↑ Susan Zahabzadeh: Victoria Woodhull. The first woman who wanted to be US President . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung online, July 28, 2016.
  51. ^ Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. (1999), p. 212.
  52. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 113.
  53. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 45, p. 91. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 152f.
  54. ↑ Karl Marx: The Civil War in France . Address of the General Council of the International Workers' Association, May 30, 1871.
  55. ^ Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. (1999), pp. 206, 225.
  56. ^ Susan Kullmann: Legal Contender. Victoria C. Woodhull. First Woman to Run for President . The Women's Quarterly, Fall 1988, pp. 16-17, online 1997, accessed October 9, 2016.
  57. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 74ff.
  58. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 111f.
  59. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 84. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 126.
  60. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 102f.
  61. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 105ff.
  62. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 42.
  63. ↑ Annika Glunz: Feminism. Strategy against Exclusion. In: Die Tageszeitung, 13./14. August 2016, p. 16; (on-line)
  64. ^ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, 153.
  65. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 124.
  66. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 46, p. 77f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 102.
  67. ↑ National Women's Hall of Fame: Victoria Woodhull , accessed October 2, 2016.
  68. ↑ published by Woodhull, Claflin & Company in New York.
  69. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 126–131.
  70. ^ Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. (1999), p. 220.
  71. ↑ Victoria Woodhull (1871), p. 154, cited above. According to Schrupp: not a Marxist and also not an anarchist. Women in the First International. (1999), p. 220. Translation by A. Schrupp.
  72. ^ Title translated by Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 131. On the content of the book, p. 131ff.
  73. ^ Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. (1999), pp. 211f.
  74. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 121.
  75. ↑ Schrupp (2016), 96ff.
  76. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 102, 153.
  77. ↑ Grossman (2012), p. 121. Schrupp (2002), here 2015, p. 307.
  78. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 109.
  79. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 103f, Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, 195.
  80. ↑ Schrupp (2016) p. 104. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 196f.
  81. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 122.
  82. ^ Julia Roth: Victoria for President . In: taz-online, February 23, 2008 (for a fee).
  83. ^ Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. (1999), pp. 195, 229f, 235f.
  84. ↑ Schrupp uses the term congress for the House of Representatives, since in German-speaking countries, as in Anglophone, this usage occurs frequently.
  85. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 121ff.
  86. ↑ According to other sources, this was the second time a woman had been heard by the House Legal Committee.
  87. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 125.
  88. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 119.
  89. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 114.
  90. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 144.
  91. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 115, 154.
  92. ^ Sally G. McMillen: Lucy Stone. To Anapologetic Live . Extract online. Oxford University Press, Oxford New York 2015, pp. 200, 202.
  93. ↑ see: Mary Livermore in the English language Wikipedia.
  94. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 79–87. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 137.
  95. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 139f, 161.
  96. ↑ see: Free love in the English language Wikipedia.
  97. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 163f.
  98. ↑ see: Theodore Tilton in the English language Wikipedia.
  99. ^ Theodore Tilton: Victoria C. Woodhull. A Biographical Scetch . The Golden Age. New York 1871 (discontinued by the University of Michigan).
  100. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 92f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 170f.
  101. ↑ Contemporary caricatures about Tilton and Woodhull in Amanda Frisken: Victoria Woodhull's Sexual Revolution. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2004, ISBN 0-8122-3798-6 , p. 36.
  102. ↑ see: Henry Ward Beecher in the English language Wikipedia. He became president of the American Woman Suffrage Association in 1869.
  103. ↑ In her novel My Wife and I , published in 1871, Woodhull was the model for the obnoxious character of Audacia Dangereyes, who also aspired to the presidency and used methods as immoral as men. See: Eileen Horne: Notorious Victoria: the first woman to run for president . The Guardian, July 20, 2016.
  104. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 88f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 149, 151, 162.
  105. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 179f.
  106. ^ Schrupp: Not a Marxist and not an anarchist either. Women in the First International. (1999), p. 212f.
  107. ↑ Quoted from: Schrupp (2016), p. 100.
  108. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 99-102. Grossman (2012), p. 115f.
  109. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 200–202.
  110. ↑ She held this office until her resignation in early 1876. Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, p. 254.
  111. ↑ Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, p. 199.
  112. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 97.
  113. ↑ Get Thee Behind Me, (Mrs.) Satan! Retrieved June 12, 2016 .
  114. ↑ Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, pp. 199, 203.
  115. ^ According to Grossman (2012), pp. 16f, on May 11th.
  116. ↑ see: Equal Rights Party in the English language Wikipedia and Cosmopolitanism .
  117. ↑ The swearing-in took place in March 1873. She only reached the required minimum age in September.
  118. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 109.
  119. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 209ff.
  120. ^ After Kullmann (1988): Legal Contender. Victoria C. Woodhull. First Woman to Run for President attended the founding meeting of 1500 people.
  121. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 106-109.
  122. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 117.
  123. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 106.
  124. ↑ Silke Kinzig: On the way to power? On the underrepresentation of women in the German and US government systems. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2007, p. 134.
  125. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 118.
  126. ↑ Otto von Corvin: Victoria Woodhull, America’s greatest humbug . In: The Gazebo . Issue 14, 1872, pp. 223-227 ( full text [ Wikisource ]).
  127. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 217.
  128. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 221f.
  129. ^ Schrupp (2002), here 2005, p. 163.
  130. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 223.
  131. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 118.
  132. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 111.
  133. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 224.
  134. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 226.
  135. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 227f.
  136. ↑ Schrupp (2016), p. 112f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 229, 234.
  137. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 233f.
  138. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 237.
  139. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 114f, 119f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 238.
  140. ↑ Grossman (2002), pp. 119f.
  141. ↑ Frisken (2004), p IX.
  142. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 245ff.
  143. ↑ Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, p. 242.
  144. ^ Grossman (2012), p. 123.
  145. ↑ Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, p. 239f.
  146. ↑ Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, p. 244ff.
  147. ↑ Schrupp 2002, here: 2015, pp. 248ff, 251f.
  148. ↑ Schrupp (2016), pp. 118f. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 253ff.
  149. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 289.
  150. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 269.
  151. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 262, 264.
  152. ↑ Frisken (2004), p. 148.
  153. ↑ Frisken (2004), pp. 149ff.
  154. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 270.
  155. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 275f. With a program. Grossman (2012), p. 123.
  156. ↑ Title Translations Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 274.
  157. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 280.
  158. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, pp. 274, 277ff.
  159. ↑ see: Bredon in the English language Wikipedia.
  160. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 294f.
  161. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 292.
  162. ↑ Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 299.
  163. ↑ Obituary. Victoria Martin, Suffragist, Dies . New York Times, June 11, 1927.
  164. ↑ To the entire section: Schrupp (2016), pp. 121–136. Schrupp (2002), here 2015, pp. 257–303.
  165. ↑ Obituary. Victoria Martin, Suffragist, Dies . New York Times, June 11, 1927.
  166. ↑ Victoria Woodhull-Martin papers, 1870–1962. Southern Illinois University Special Collections Research Center, accessed October 6, 2016.
  167. ↑ Frisken (2004), p. 196.
  168. ↑ Joslyn Gage also briefly supported her in her candidacy for president.
  169. ↑ six volumes, published from 1881 and continued with other authors until 1922. Schrupp (2002), here: 2015, p. 306.
  170. ↑ at Harper & Brothers .
  171. ↑ Amanda Frisken: Victoria Woodhull's Sexual Revolution. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2004, ISBN 0-8122-3798-6 . Excerpts can be viewed online in stores.
  172. ↑ Silke Kinzig: On the way to power? On the underrepresentation of women in the German and US government systems. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2007, p. 134 f.
  173. ↑ Victoria Claflin Woodhull in the database of: Find A Grave online, April 9, 2004.
  174. ↑ Bari Oyler Stith: Victoria Claflin Woodhull . on ursulinemagazine.com, November 5, 2013.
  175. ^ The Performing Arts: A Guide to the Reference Literature . Libraries Unlimited, 1994, ISBN 0-87287-982-8 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  176. ↑ Woodhull Institute ( Memento of the original from March 17, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ; accessed on September 30, 2016. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / woodhull.tv
  177. ↑ National Women's Hall of Fame: Victoria Woodhull , accessed October 2, 2016.
  178. ↑ see: Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance , accessed October 5, 2016.
  179. ^ Homepage of the Woodhull Freedom Foundation , accessed September 8, 2016.
  180. ^ Women's Rights, Historic Sites Location List. ( Memento November 13, 2013 on the Internet Archive ) Office of Manhattan Borough President Scott M. Stringer
  181. ^ Mike Dunham: Review: Opera about first woman to run for president debuts in Anchorage. In: Anchorage Daily News . October 6, 2012. (online) , accessed September 8, 2016.
  182. ↑ Liane Curtis: Mrs. President, the Original “Nasty Woman” . The Boston Musical Intelligence, October 27, 2016.
  183. ↑ Review: Annika Glunz: Feminismus. Strategy against Exclusion. In: Die Tageszeitung, 13./14. August 2016, p. 16; (on-line)
  184. ↑ Book & Network, Authors ; accessed on September 8, 2016; excerpts can be viewed online in stores.
  185. ↑ About Woodhull as a speculator and her inner motives; available online in stores.
  186. ^ Information from Ulrike Helmer Verlag on the film, March 2017.
  187. ↑ Manuel Berger: Victoria Woodhull: Brie Larson is running in the biopic as the first woman for the US presidency . Kino-News, March 23, 2017.
personal data
SURNAME Woodhull, Victoria
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Martin, Victoria Claflin Woodhull (full name); Woodhull Martin, Victoria (full name)
BRIEF DESCRIPTION American finance broker, journalist and suffragette
DATE OF BIRTH September 23, 1838
PLACE OF BIRTH Homer , Ohio
DATE OF DEATH June 9, 1927
Place of death Tewkesbury , England