European Union

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"EU" redirects here. For other uses, see EU (disambiguation).
European Union
Motto: [In varietate concordia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)  (Latin)
"United in diversity"
Anthem: Ode to Joy  (orchestral)
Commission seatBrussels
Official languages
Member states
GovernmentSui generis supranationalism
José Manuel Barroso
Hans-Gert Pöttering
• Council
Portugal
José Sócrates
Formation
25 March 1957
7 February 1992
• Water (%)
3,08
Population
• 2007 estimate
494,070,000 (3rd2)
GDP (PPP)2006 (IMF) estimate
• Total
$13,881 billion (1st2)
• Per capita
$42,213 (14th2)
GDP (nominal)2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total
$15,849 billion (1st2)
• Per capita
$31,173 (13th2)
Currency
Time zoneUTC0 to +2
• Summer (DST)
UTC+1 to +3
Internet TLD.eu
  1. See the name in other official EU languages.
  2. If considered as a single entity.

The European Union (EU) is a sui generis political body, made up of twenty-seven member states. It was established in 1993 by the Treaty on European Union (The Maastricht Treaty) and is the de facto successor to the six-member European Economic Community founded in 1957. Since the establishment in 1993, new accessions have raised its number of member states, and competences have expanded. As a result, the EU can be described as both a supranational and intergovernmental body.

The EU is the largest economy in the world with a combined nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of €11.6 (US$15.7) trillion in 2007.[1] The Union is a single market with a common trade policy,[2] a Common Agricultural/Fisheries Policy, and a Regional policy to assist underdeveloped regions.[3] It introduced its own currency, the euro, which has been adopted by thirteen of the member states. The EU initiated limited Common Foreign and Security Policy, and limited Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters.

Important EU institutions and bodies include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Central Bank, the European Court of Justice and the European Parliament. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens. EU citizens directly elect the European Parliament, once every five years. EU citizens can invest, live, travel, and work in other member states (with some temporary restrictions on new member states[4]). Passport control and customs checks at most internal borders were abolished in the Schengen Agreement.[5]

History

Main article: History of the European Union

In 1945, at the end of the Second World War, Europe was marked by unprecedented devastation and human sufferring. At the same time it had to face new political challenges, in particular reconciliation among the peoples of Europe and the growing political division between the USA and the USSR; two ideologically opposed superpowers. This situation favoured a long held idea of European unification through the creation of European institutions. In a famous speech at the University of Zurich in 1946, Winston Churchill called for a United States of Europe and the creation of a Council of Europe. The latter was established in Strasbourg on 5 May 1949 as the first European institution. The Schuman Declaration, based on a plan by Jean Monnet and signed 9 May 1950, gave rise to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The aim of the ECSC was to integrate the markets for the industrial resources necessary for reconstruction of Europe, and the production of weapons of war. The founding members of the community who signed the Treaty of Paris (1951) were France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg (who already co-operated as the Benelux countries) and West Germany.[6][7]

File:Rometreaty.jpg
The founding nations signing the Treaty of Rome in 1957

Two additional communities were created by the Treaties of Rome in 1957; the European Economic Community (EEC), dealting with the development of aCustoms Union and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), regarding use of cooperation in nuclear energy. All three communities were eventually merged in 1967 to form the European Communities; consisting of a combined set of treaties and institutions; and requiring only a single membership to cooperate in all these.[8][9][10]

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.[11] In 1979 the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.[12] Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.[13] In 1985 the Schengen Agreement was developed among European states to allow for the abolition of systematic border controls between the participating countries. It also includes provisions on common policy on the temporary entry of persons (including the Schengen Visa), the harmonisation of external border controls, and cross-border police co-operation. The agreed has been subsequently signed by 30 states, including most EU states and three non-EU members Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland. Fifteen member states have implemented the agreement so far. The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom only take part in the police co-operation measures and not the common border control and visa provisions.[14] In 1986 the European flag was adopted and leaders signed the Single European Act. In 1989, Germany reunified with the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the former Eastern Germany became automatic member of the EU. With enlargement to eastern Europe now on the agenda, the Copenhagen Criteria were created and the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union on 1 November 1993.[15][16]

An open Schengen border near Kufstein, Austria

In 1994 the European Economic Area was established allowing the non-members Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway access to the Union's single market. In 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the EU. The Amsterdam Treaty was signed in 1999, although the signing was in the wake of the resignation of the Santer Commission. In the same year the euro was introduced for bank transfers, and Euro coins and banknotes replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states in 2002. In 2003 the Nice Treaty came into force, followed a year later by the accession of a total of 10 countries (8 central and easern European countries and Malta and Cyprus). Later that year the European Constitution was signed, however it was never fully ratified after rejections by French and Dutch voters in referenda. In 2007, it was agreed to introduce a new Reform Treaty replacing the constitution.[16][17]

Geography and members

22 member countries are influenced by extensive coastlines and oceanic climate, (Mediterranean, Greece)
Main articles: European Union member states and Geography of the European Union

The territory of the European Union consists of the combined territories of its twenty-seven member states. Hence the territory of the EU is not that of Europe as significant parts of the continent (e.g. Switzerland, Norway, European Russia) are outside of the Union, while some overseas territories are part of the EU, while not being geographically inside Europe. The Union currently consists of 27 members, covering an area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi).[18] extending north-east to Finland, north west to Ireland, south-east to Cyprus and south-west to Portugal. The EU's total territory is the seventh largest territory in the world by area. The EU landscape, climate and economy is heavily influenced its long coastline. It is estimated that the coastline of the European Union is over 150,000 km long. The combined member states of the EU share land borders with 21 nations that are not members of the EU.[19]

Depending on national legislation, certain areas of member countries are not part of the EU although they are inside the European continents. Example are the Channel Islands and the Faroe Islands. Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (e.g. Greenland, the Faroe Islands, most territories associated to the United Kingdom, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles or New Caledonia). The Treaty of Amsterdam, defining certain rights within the EU, may not apply to all these remote territories.[20][21] On the other hand, several overseas territories and dependencies are formally part of the EU even if they are geographically not part of Europe (e.g. the Azores, Madeira, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, or the Canary Islands). These territories use the euro.[7]

Including overseas territories of member states, the EU includes most types of climate from Arctic to tropical. It is therefore not meaningful to provide meteorological averages for the EU as a whole. The majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (southern Europe), or in areas with a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or in areas with a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (in eastern member states).[22]

The member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Only territories in and around Europe are shown.
This box:
Year History of European Union membership Total
1957  Belgium
 France
 Germanya 		 Italy
 Luxembourg
 Netherlands 		6
1973  Denmarkb
 Ireland 		 United Kingdom 9
1981  Greece 10
1986  Portugal  Spain 12
1995  Austria
 Finland 		 Sweden 15
2004  Cyprus
 Czech Republic
 Estonia
 Hungary
 Latvia 		 Lithuania
 Malta
 Poland
 Slovakia
 Slovenia 		25
2007  Bulgaria  Romania 27

a On 3 October 1990, the constituent Länder of the former German Democratic Republic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, automatically becoming part of the EU.
b In 1985, following a referendum, Greenland, which was granted home rule by Denmark in 1979, left the European Economic Community.

See also: Geography of Europe and Special member state territories and their relations with the EU

Politics

President-in-Office of the European Council, José Sócrates
Main article: Politics of the European Union

The politics of the Union primarily cover the economy, which is reminsicant of its history originating in a series of economic communities after the Second World War. When the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union, the scope was expanded to the pillar system whereby foreign and home affairs were added to the intergovernmental domain of the EU.[23]

The expansion of the Union has been seen as a means for promoting and reinforcing peace and democracy on the European continent following the Second World War and later after the decline of the Soviet Union. Another aim of the Union has always been to increase its economic prosperity.[24] Accession to the European treaties necessarily means to give over some powers from the national government to an international organisation (as is the case for all international treaties). The powers passed from national goverments to the EU, are larger compared to most international treates. The ongoing integration of Europe is becoming contested on the grounds that it reduces a member's national sovereignty to a too large degree.[25] Enlargement together with integration (new treaties) are seen by some as parallel processes, vital to the Union or it will fail: this is know as the "Bicycle theory".[26]

To govern and guide the ongoing integration and the larger number of members states the European Constitution was proposed. However ratification of this treaty was rejected by Dutch and French voters.[27] In 2007 a new Reform Treaty is agreed upon by the leaders. This treaty is aimed to replace the constitution and will povide a number of changes to the existing treaties which form the basis of the Union.

One of the most important political issues concerns the EU budget. The Financial Perspective for 2007–2013 was defined in 2005 when EU members agreed to fix the common budget to 1.045% of the European GDP.[28] However there are long running disputes over the Common Agricultural Policy and the UK rebate. The UK rebate is a special discount on the UK contributions to the EU budget. The rebate was allowed as the UK was receiving few agricutlural support compared to other countries. The agricultural policy has historically dominated much of the Union's spending. Reduction of the agricultural spending and abolishment of the UK rebate are listed as important reforms of the system by various groups. This is however problematic as unanimity is required to change these agreement, meaning that both the gross receiver from agriculutral policies and the UK have to give up a privileged position. So far no agreement has been reached.[29]

European Community

Commission President José Manuel Barroso.
Main article: European Community

The European Community is the oldest supranational element of the Union. The community is the direct successor of the European Economic Community, and is now the first pillar of the European Union. It is within this pillar where certain elements of sovereignty are pooled and controlled by supranational institutions such as the Commission and Parliament. For example, within matters where sovereignty is given to the Community, the Commission has the sole right to initiate legislation. Other matters, such a home affairs, fall within the responsibility of an intergovernmental agreement between the members. The principle of subsidiarity in this pillar is designed to ensure that decisions are taken at the lowest level of government.[30] In the Amsterdam Treaty, some powers were moved from the third pillar to the Community[23] and in 2007, the Court of Justice ruled that the Community has powers to propose legislation for criminal law.[31]

A prominent political goal of the European Union is the development and maintenance of an effective single market, ensuring free movement of people, goods, services and capital.[32] Legislation over the years has harmonised standards and liberalised markets. However, not all changes have been equally welcomed, for example the Bolkestein directive faced protests over its liberalisation of services.[19] The single market is extended to non EU members through the European Economic Area (EEA) treaties. Through this treaty Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway accept certain elements of EU law.[33]

In addition to EU commission policies such as the agricultural policy, and the Common Fisheries Policy, there are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds aimed at promotion of the development of poorer, underdeveloped, regions across the Union. Currently these regions are primairly located in the new member states of eastern Europe.[34] The EU is sponsoring research through its Framework Programmes dealing with research and technological development working towards a European Research Area.[35] Other funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to EU standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), support to the commonwealth of independent states (TACIS).

With regard to the powers of the European Commission, there has been a desire to address the democratic deficit in the European Union through the development of the citizenship of the European Union. Citizens have a number or rights including the right to vote and to stand as candidates in local government and European Parliament elections in any member state.[36] However there has been falling turnout at elections, with few political structures at EU level and no cohesive European civil society. Commissioner for Communication Strategy, Margot Wallström, has been one notable figure attempting to correct this situation.[37] Her plans allow European political parties (instead of national parties running for EU parliament) would be allowed to campaign in the different countries and thus give these supranational parties greater ability for them to run with candidates for Commission President.[38]

Foreign Policy

CFSP High Representative Javier Solana with US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.
Main articles: Common Foreign and Security Policy and Foreign relations

Defence and security are traditionally matters of national sovereignty. EU policies in this area were established as the second of the three pillars in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. The Common Foreign and Security Policy or CFSP were further defined and broadened in the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997. The Amsterdam treaty defined five objectives for the CFSP: to safeguard the common values, fundamental interests, independence and integrity of the European Union in conformity with the principles of the United Nations Charter; to strengthen the security of the Union in all ways; to preserve peace and strengthen international security, in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter, as well as the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the objectives of the Paris Charter, including those on external borders; to promote international co-operation; to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; the foreign and security policy is coordinated by the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, currently Javier Solana.[39]

Foreign policy is agreed upon on an inter-governmental basis. This can lead to differing national policies which happened for example regarding Iraq.[40] Besides emerging international policy, the international effect of the Union is felt through Enlargement. The potential benefits of becoming member is considered a major factor contributing to reform and stabilisation of former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.[24] The Union is also the largest contributor of humanitarian aid in the world. In 2005 the Commission's aid agency (ECHO), together with additional support by the individual member states, contributed €43 billion in aid.[41] These factors influencing other countries are generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[42]

File:Eufor222.jpg
European Union peace-keeping mission in the Balkans

While NATO is responsible for the territorial defence of its European memberstates, the EU as a body adopted the Petersberg tasks of peacekeeping and humanitarian missions. The European Security and Defence Policy, with its European Security Strategy, deals with such capabilities.[43] The EU's military mainly consists of the souvereign military of its member states. The EU specific military includes a 60,000-member European Rapid Reaction Force and EU Battlegroups of 15,000 men.[44] These are supported by bodies such as the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.[45] The European Council have deployed various missions to Africa, the former Yugoslavia and the middle east.[46]

Along side its foreign and security policy, the Commission is gaining greater representation in international bodies such as the United Nations, where it has influence over areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field,[38] and the G8, in which the Commission and Council Presidents have non-voting representation.[47] Generic representation is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works along side the High Representative. However in the World Trade Organization (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.[48]

Enlargement

EU enlargement 1952–2007.
Main articles: Enlargement of the European Union and European Union membership criteria

The European Coal and Steel Community was founded in 1952 by six countries. Between 1973 and 2007 there have been six waves on enlargement bringing the membership up to 27. The single largest being the 10 members who joined in 2004.[49] In order for a country to join the Union, they must meet the Copenhagen criteria (defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council). These are the requirement of stable democracy respecting human rights and the rule of law, a functioning market economy capable of competition within the Union and the acceptance of the obligations of membership including law. Interpretation of this criteria rests with the European Council.[50] Enlargement has been seen as a positive force by many, for example in democratising Eastern Europe[24] and ensuring war crimes suspects in the former Yugoslavia are brought to the ICTY.[51]

There are currently three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. In addition the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.[52] However the Copenhagen criteria (above) allows any European country to apply. While Croatia's accession has been relatively smooth, Turkey has faced strong opposition from such quarters, notably from the new French President, Nicolas Sarkozy.[53] The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia officially states that it expects to join in just a few years, but a number of obstacles have to first be overcome, including the dispute over its name.[54]

Police and Judicial Co-operation

Main article: Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters

The third of the three pillars of the European Union is focusing on cooperation in criminal matters, including sharing of intelligence (through Europol and the Schengen Information System), agreement on common definition of criminal offences and expedited extradition procedures. It is the EU instrument of law enforcement and combating racism. Eurojust is a mirror organisation to Europol, dealing the judicial matters. The pillar was created as the Justice and Home Affairs pillar in the Treaty of Maastricht; subsequently the Amsterdam Treaty transferred the areas of illegal immigration, visas, asylum, and judicial co-operation to the integrated first (European Community) pillar. The term Justice and Home Affairs now covers these integrated fields as well as the intergovernmental third pillar.[55][56][23]

Institutions and bodies

File:Europarliament.jpg
The Brussels seat of Parliament
Main article: Institutions of the European Union

The European Union is governed by a number of institutions, these primarily being the Commission, Council and Parliament. The European Commission acts as the executive branch. It is currently composed of one member from each state (currently 27) and is responsible for drafting all proposed law, a duty on which it maintains a monopoly in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and the day-to-day running of the Union. Its president is nominated by the European Council then elected by the Parliament.[57]

The Council of the European Union (aka the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the Union's legislative branch (the other being the Parliament). It is composed of the national ministers responsible for the area of EU law being addressed, for example a law regarding agriculture would go to a Council composed of national agriculture ministers. This body should not be confused with the European Council below or the non-EU body, the Council of Europe. The body's presidency rotates between the member states every 6 months, though the current president member state co-operates with the previous and future president member state, to provide continuity.[58] The European Parliament is the only Union body composed of officials directly elected by the citizens of the EU member states. Every 5 years citizens in all member states vote across a few days for 785 "MEPs" who form the second half of the Union's legislative branch. Its members sit according to political groups rather than nationality and its president is elected by its members.[59]

Headquaters of the Central Bank, Frankfurt am Main

The Judicial branch of the Union consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of one judge nominated by each member-state with the president elected from among those nominees. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to lift some of the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors which monitors the Union's accounts.[60][61]

Another major body, though not an official institution, is the European Council, composed of the heads of government (along with the President of the European Commission) meeting 4 times a year. It shares its presidency with that of the Council of the European Union.[62] The European Central Bank controls the monetary policy within the Eurozone, consisting of 13 member states. The ECB was established in 1998 and its headquarters is located in Frankfurt, Germany.[63] There are also the two advisory committees; the Committee of the Regions and the Economic and Social Committee.[64][65]

There is no official European capital, with the location of European Union institutions spread across a number of cities. However, Brussels is often considered the de facto capital as it hosts most of the primary institutions, including the Commission and the Council. The Parliament also has its second seat in the city. Strasbourg is the official seat of the European Parliament, meeting there for twelve week-long plenary sessions each year. Luxembourg City plays host to the Secretariat of the European Parliament as well as the European Court of Justice, the Court of First Instance and the European Court of Auditors.[66][67]

Law

Further information: European Union law, Treaties of the European Union, Reform Treaty, and Citizenship of the European Union
File:EUCoJ.jpg
The European Court of Justice has the last word on Union law

European Union law is the first and only example of a supranational legal framework. According to the European Court of Justice, in one of its earliest cases, it constitutes "a new legal order of international law".[68] Sovereign nation states, by becoming EU members, pool their authority for the mutual social and economic benefit of their peoples.[69] The principle of subsidiarity means that laws are passed at the regional level where they are more effective when member states take action by themselves[70], while EU law is supreme in its own fields (which extended to criminal law in 2005).[71]

The two main treaties which form the basis of EU law are the Treaty of the European Community, or the Treaty of Rome from 1957, and the Treaty of the European Union, or the Maastricht treaty of 1992. The Treaty of Rome is the so called "first pillar" of the EU. The "European Community" refers to the competence of the EU to act in the social and economic arena. The Maastricht treaty formed the new European Union, and added two further "pillars". These are a common foreign and security policy and justice and home affairs. In both these fields a consensus among member states is needed to act. [72]

The EU standard format/colour for passports (Netherlands)

EU law covers a range as broad as many member states themselves.[21] Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence, so that the law of a member state must be disapplied.[73][71] Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have "direct effect" horizontally. This means private citizens can rely on the rights granted to them (and the duties created for them) against one another. For instance, an air hostess may sue her employer for sexual discrimination.[74] The other main legal instrument of the EU, "directives", have direct effect, but only "vertically". Private citizens may not sue one another on the basis of an EU directive, since these are meant to be addressed to the member state.[75] Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on the law that has been implemented. They may sue the government "vertically" for failing to implement a directive correctly.[75][76] An example of a directive is the EU Copyright directive (2001/29/EC), which harmonises copyright law across the market.

Economy

File:655px-European Union GDP per capita w text.png
GDP (PPP) per capita 2006
  >$30,000   >$25,000   >$20,000   >$15,000   >$10,000
Main article: Economy of the European Union

Taken as a single entity, the European Union has the largest economy in the world, with an estimated nominal GDP of €11.6 ($14.5) trillion in 2006 accounting for 35% of world GDP (the second largest economy is the USA, with a GDP of $13.2 trillion).[77] The OECD has projected that in 2007 the Eurozone will take over from the US as the driver of world economic growth with its 2.7% GDP growth compared to 2.1 percent in the US.[78] In 2006, the EU claimed it is estimated 3.5 million jobs were created in the Eurozone. Germany, the largest economy within the EU, grew 2.7% in 2006 and is expected to grow at around 2.8% in 2007. After growing almost 3% as a whole in 2006 the EU economy is predicted to stay robust well into 2008 with average growth over those two years averaging over 2.5% growth. Many economists agree the EU has attained the capacity for higher growth than historically due to the EU's new member states potential to expand at a higher rate than traditional industrial powers of Europe. [citation needed]

There are great national and intra-national economic disparities across the European Union, reflecting the different economies of its member states. Even corrected for purchasing power, there is a 12-fold difference between the richest NUTS-2 & 3 regions, Frankfurt (€68,751 PPP per capita),[79] Paris (€67,980 PPP per capita),[79] and Inner London (€65,138 PPP per capita),[80] and the poorest, Romania's Nord-Est (€5,070 PPP per capita)[80] and Bulgaria's Severozapaden (€5,502 PPP per capita).[80] Commuter effects distort GDP figures for urban areas with large commuting flows, but even when measured at a scale where such distortion does not apply (e.g. Ostösterreich compared to Romania Nord-Est), there is still a 5-to-1 difference between average Western European levels and the poorest regions of new member states.[citation needed]

The euro is adopted by 13 countries and is used by 315 million people.

Differences between member states are also significant. GDP per capita is often 10% to 25% higher than the EU average in the "older" western member states, but only comprises one-third to two-thirds of the EU average in most eastern member states, as well as in potential membership candidates such as Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey. By comparison, United States GDP per capita is 35% higher than the EU average: Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.[81]

The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and the second largest importer.[82] Internal trade between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to trade such as tariffs and border controls. In the eurozone, trade is aided by adoption of an uniform currency. The European Union Association Agreement extends such similar economic policies to a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those countries.[citation needed]

Infrastructure

File:Windkraftanlagen Dänemark.jpg
Wind turbines in Denmark
See also: Energy policy of the European Union and Renewable energy in the European Union

The EU has a policy to improve cross-border infrastructure, see Trans-European Networks. The European Union has legislated in the area of energy policy for many years, and evolved out of the European Coal and Steel Community. The concept of introducing a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.[83] The EU currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas, making it the world's leading importer of these fuels.[84]

The EU has enacted a series of directives concerning waste water treatment, drinking water and water resources management that have a profound impact on water and sanitation infrastructure investments in EU member countries (see EU water policy).[citation needed] In particular the waste water directive is considered by the European Commission the most cost intensive European legislation in the environmental sector. The EU directives related to waste management, such as the Landfill Directive and Waste Incineration Directive have also had a significant effect on practices in its member states.[citation needed] These relate to the improved use of resources by improving waste treatment according to the waste hierarchy, reducing landfilling of biodegradable waste and increasing recycling rates.

Member states have legally bound the EU to use 20 percent renewable energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20 percent from 1990 levels, by 2020.[85] Within the same year, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 shall be running on biofuels made from plants. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves among world powers to fight global warming.[86]

Demographics

The fall of the Iron Curtain marked a new era in Eastern Europe and further enlargement
Main article: Demographics of the European Union

The population of the European Union is that of its member states, and changes with each accession (or, more rarely, secession). Each change in membership also affects demographic averages such as life expectancy and fertility rate. The total population of all 27 member countries is approximately 492.9 million inhabitants (in 2006).[87] Most expected accessions, such as Croatia, would not substantially increase this figure. Population would rise by just 0.9%. However upon the accession of Turkey, population would rise by 14.7%.[88] Between 2004 and 2025 the population of the EU 25 is expected increase by over 13 million. However this be will primarily due to net migration, which is present in most European countries. In 2005 natural population increase was only 0.7 and from 2010 deaths would outnumber births and the population would fall to 449.8 million by 2050.[89][90]

Largest cities

Further information: Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits, Largest urban areas of the European Union, and Larger Urban Zones (LUZ) in the European Union

The European Union is home to more global cities than any other region in the world,[91] and 16 cities with populations over one million inhabitants, counted in their cities proper. However, different countries deal differently with large cities. The Greek city Athens, for example, has about 4 million inhabitants, but it has been divided into many municipalities making the city proper of Athens one of the smaller European capitals with about 800,000 inhabitants. Densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine Main Area approx. 4 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.) and the Upper Silesian Industry Area approx. 3.5 million. (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.).[92]

City proper
(2005)
mill. 		Urban area
(2005)
mill. 		LUZ
(2001)
mill.
London 7.5 Paris 10.1 London 11.6
Berlin 3.4 London 8.5 Paris 11.0
Madrid 3.1 Madrid 5.5 Madrid 5.6
Rome 2.5 Ruhr 5.3 Ruhr 5.4 Barcelona Berlin London
Paris 2.2 Barcelona 4.5 Berlin 4.9
Bucharest 1.9 Milan 3.8 Barcelona 4.8
Hamburg 1.8 Berlin 3.7 Milan 3.9
Warsaw 1.7 Randstad 3.3 Athens 3.9
Budapest 1.7 Athens 3.2 Rome 3.7
Vienna 1.7 Naples 2.9 Hamburg 3.1 Madrid Milan Paris

Languages

Further information: [[:Languages of the European Union]]

The European Union has 23 official and working languages:[93] Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 100 million people) followed by English, French, and Italian. English is by far the most spoken foreign language. German and French follow next. 56% of EU citizens are able to hold a conversation in one language apart from their mother tongue.[94] Most EU official languages belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. Nearly all EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet, except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.[95]

Translation booths in the EU Parliament are on the front-side walls

The EU provides interpretation, translation and publication services in its official languages, but only legislation and important documents are produced in all 23 official languages; other documents are translated only into the languages needed. For internal purposes the EU institutions make their own language arrangements. The European Commission, for example, conducts its internal business in English, French and German, and goes fully multilingual only for public information and communication purposes. The European Parliament, on the other hand, has members who need working documents in their own languages, so its document flow is fully multilingual from the outset.[96] In the EU, language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions, based on the "principle of subsidiarity", promote the teaching and dissemination of the languages of the member states,[97][98] through a number of programmes, most prominently Lifelong learning Programme 2007-2013.

There are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.[95] Catalan, Galician, and Basque, though not official languages, can be used in the communication of the citizens with the Council of the European Union, the Commission, the Economic and Social Committee, the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman, as well as in the workings of the Committee of the Regions.[99] Though regional and minorities languages can benefit from EU programmes, protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the member states.

A wide variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in EU countries. Turkish, Maghreb Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual in the local language and in that of their community. Migrant languages are not given formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries and they are not covered by EU language teaching programmes.[95]

Religion

Predominant religious heritage in European countries
  Protestantism
  Roman Catholicism
  Orthodox Christianity
Further information: [[:Religion in Europe]]

The EU is officially a secular institution, hence neither God, nor Christianity was mentioned in its proposed constitution, in spite of pressure from churches. Most of the member states are secular states, although a small minority are not (the United Kingdom, Denmark, Greece and Finland) and others have references to Christianity in their own constitutions while officially remaining secular (e.g. Ireland). Germany's Chancellor Angela Merkel has promised the Pope that she will use her influence during Germany's EU presidency to try to include a reference to Christianity and God in a revived constitution. However, this has provoked opposition, not least in the German press.[100]

A significant religious diversity exists among the populations of EU member states, reflecting their diverse history and culture. Nowadays, religion is on the decline in Europe, and not all populations have religious majorities. In the Czech Republic and Estonia, for example, a majority has no religious affiliation. The most common belief in the EU is Christianity, which can be roughly divided into Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches and Eastern Orthodoxy. The Christian churches have historically wielded much power in Europe. As a reaction during the enlightenment, secularism was developed as a political system, allowing for a rise in atheism and agnosticism.

Judaism has had a long history in Europe. As of 2002, the European Union had an estimated Jewish population of something over a million, including about 519,000 in France and about 273,500 in the United Kingdom. This compares with about 5 million Jews in Israel.[101] In view of the history of persecution of Jews in Europe, antisemitism remains a matter of concern within the EU.[102] For instance, a British parliamentary enquiry into antisemitism found that, though the prevailing opinion within and outside the Jewish community had, until recently, been that antisemitism existed only on the margins of society, there was evidence that this may have changed since 2000.[103]

The recent influx of immigrants to the EU nations has brought in various religions of their native homelands, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, the Bahá'í Faith and Sikhism.

Education and science

The ERASMUS programme finances academic mobility in Europe (Lund University, Sweden)
Main article: Education in the European Union

The European Commission initiated the ERASMUS programme for higher education. It was established in 1987 and forms a major part of the EU Socrates II programme. Its name is an abbreviation of "European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students" and has been styled after the life of Desiderius Erasmus. It was incorporated into the Socrates programme when that programme was established in 1995. The Socrates programme ended in 1999 and was replaced with the Socrates II programme in 2000. Other educational programmes include Leonardo (secondary schools), Grundtvig (adult learning) and Arion (teaching decision-makers).

The stated aim of ERASMUS is to encourage and support academic mobility of higher education students and teachers within the European Union, the European Economic Area countries of Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein as well as the candidate country Turkey. 2,199 higher education institutions are participating in ERASMUS across the 31 countries involved in the Socrates programme. 1.4 million students have already taken part.[104]

File:GalileoPS.jpg
Galileo positioning system has been initiated by the EU and ESA

Member states of the EU are, along with other European nations and several international NGOs, signatories to the Bologna process. This is an attempt to create a European higher education area, by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe. It is named after the place it was proposed, the University of Bologna with the signing, in 1999, of the Bologna declaration by ministers of education from 29 European countries in the Italian city of Bologna. Governmental meetings have been held in Prague (2001), Berlin (2003), Bergen (2005) and London (2007).

The Galileo positioning system (or simply 'Galileo'), is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the European Union and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The current project plan has the system as operational by 2010. Several other nations are joining the project co financing the development such as China, Israel, India, Morocco or South Korea. ESA is a non-EU organisation and its membership includes non-EU countries such as Switzerland and Norway (although both countries are within the EFTA, and are within Europe). There are ties between those organisations, with various agreements in place and being worked on, to establish the legal status of ESA with regard to the EU.[105] There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has an EU liaison office in Brussels.

The EU is also sponsoring a large number of research projects aimed at academics and institutes, organised in frameworks of calls. From 2007 the EU has opened its 7th framework for grant applications.[106]

Culture

Luxembourg, one of the two European Capitals of Culture for 2007
Main article: Cultural policies of the European Union

Supporters of European integration often appeal to a European historical narrative, typically including Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the feudalism of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, 19th century Liberalism and (sometimes) negative elements such as the World Wars. This history is assumed to be the source of European values. The status of Christianity as 'European heritage' is controversial, and has consequences for the accession of the secular, but largely Muslim, Turkey to the European Union. People in favour of Turkish accession argue that it would remove the impression of the EU being a 'Christian club'.[107]

Attitudes and values of the EU population are diverse, influenced by social class, religion, level of education, and ethnicity, and they are not necessarily either European or national in character. The interests of member states are mainly economic and political in nature. The EU territory itself has little common culture, other than what is common also for the rest of Europe or beyond; such as (to a large extent) Christian traditions and football interests. However, in a sense the EU system itself is waxing a common cultural identity for the EU, in other words 'a common future'.

Sibiu (Romania), the second Capital of Culture for 2007

Cultural cooperation between member states has become a community competency since its inclusion in 1992 in the Maastricht Treaty.[108] Actions taken in the cultural area by the European Union include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,[108] the European Cultural Month event,[109] the Media Plus programme,[110] and the European Capital of Culture programme — a city from within the EU, and one from outside, are selected for one year periods to assist and showcase the city.[111] In addition, the Union gave grants to 233 cultural projects in 2004 and launched a webportal dedicated to Europe and Culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means."[112]

Sport

Football is the most popular sport in the EU (Camp Nou in Barcelona, Spain)
Main article: Sport policies of the European Union

Sports, including spectator sports, are popular in EU countries, the most popular being football. Cycling, golf, and tennis are also widely watched and played in the EU. Other sports are favourites in fewer countries, such as basketball, ice hockey, rugby, handball, and motorsports; and several sports are only played to a significant extent in one or a few countries (e.g. cricket in England, hurling, Gaelic handball and Gaelic football in Ireland, and korfball in the Netherlands and Belgium).

Although it recently launched an anti-doping convention, the European Union plays a minor and mostly indirect role in sport policy. Sports are normally considered to be outside the competences conferred by the member states to the European Union. Sports are also organised nationally, on a European continental level (which is not the same as the level of the European Union), or globally. The European Union does not have specific sports policies. The role of the EU could increase in the future, if (for example) the Reform Treaty were to be ratified by all member states.[113]

Yet other policies of the EU can have an impact on sports, as famously exemplified by the Bosman ruling, which, among other things, prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players from other EU states. This ruling subsequently forced UEFA to modify the rules for all its European members. The Bosman ruling also gave all EU players the right of free transfer after expiration of their contracts.[114]

See also

Template:European Union-related topics

Footnotes

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  101. ^ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. These estimates are taken from Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population (2002)". American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  102. ^ EUMC (2006). "Anti-Semitism Summary overview of the situation in the European Union" (PDF). EUMC. Retrieved 2007-05-04. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  103. ^ All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism (2006). "Report of the All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry into Antisemitism" (PDF). The Stationery Office, London. Retrieved 2007-05-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  104. ^ "Table 8: Actual Number of ERASMUS Students by Country of Home institution 1987/88-2004/05" (PDF). Accessed January 24, 2007
  105. ^ ESA information on its relationship to the EU. [1]
  106. ^ "Cordis EU research framework 7 homepage" (HTML). Accessed July 3, 2007
  107. ^ Kepel, Gilles (2004-12-14). "Turkey's European problem" (PDF). Open Democracy. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  108. ^ a b Bozoki, Andras. "Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  109. ^ "European Culture Month". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  110. ^ "Media programme". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  111. ^ Bozoki, Andras. "European Capitals of Culture". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  112. ^ "Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  113. ^ Goldirova, Renata (2007-07-11). "Brussels' first-ever move into sport area set to spark controversy". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  114. ^ Fordyce, Tom (2007-07-11). "10 years since Bosman". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

References

  • EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials, by Paul Craig and Grainne De Burca, 3rd ed., (Oxford University Press 2003) ISBN 0198765096
  • The Economist Guide to the European Union (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 978-1-86197-930-8
  • Access to European Union: law, economics, policies by Nicholas Moussis (European Study Service, 2007 — 16th ed.) ISBN 978-2-930119-43-4
  • Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6
  • Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1
  • The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0198700520
  • The Government and Politics of the European Union by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 978-0-333-98461-1
  • The European Union: A Very Short Introduction by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN 978-0-19-285375-2
  • The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 978-1-59420-033-5
  • This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair by Hugo Young (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 978-0-333-57992-3
  • The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3
  • The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group — Academi, 2003) ISBN 978-0-8264-7105-5
  • Template:PDFlink by Hans Köchler, Singapore Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 9 (2005), Accessed January 25, 2007

External links

Column-generating template families

The templates listed here are not interchangeable. For example, using {{col-float}} with {{col-end}} instead of {{col-float-end}} would leave a <div>...</div> open, potentially harming any subsequent formatting.

Column templates
Type Family
Handles wiki
 table code?†
 Responsive/
Mobile suited 		Start template Column divider End template
Float "col-float" Yes Yes {{col-float}} {{col-float-break}} {{col-float-end}}
"columns-start" Yes Yes {{columns-start}} {{column}} {{columns-end}}
Columns "div col" Yes Yes {{div col}} – {{div col end}}
"columns-list" No Yes {{columns-list}} (wraps div col) – –
Flexbox "flex columns" No Yes {{flex columns}} – –
Table "col" Yes No {{col-begin}},
{{col-begin-fixed}} or
{{col-begin-small}} 		{{col-break}} or
{{col-2}} .. {{col-5}} 		{{col-end}}

† Can template handle the basic wiki markup {| | || |- |} used to create tables? If not, special templates that produce these elements (such as {{(!}}, {{!}}, {{!!}}, {{!-}}, {{!)}})—or HTML tags (<table>...</table>, <tr>...</tr>, etc.)—need to be used instead.

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA

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