Low energy vehicle

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The term low-energy vehicle ( NEF ) describes vehicles that achieve a significantly reduced energy consumption compared to the current average fleet consumption or, based on a defined benefit, enable significantly increased energy efficiency . The term is based on the low-energy house , but there is no uniform definition.

In models with a combustion engine, terms that are based on the fuel consumption per 100 kilometers, such as a three-liter car or a one-liter car, are also used for such vehicles . With the designation environmental car , it was also named Word of the Year in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1984 .

General

A uniform technical standard for the categorization of vehicles as NEF does not yet exist, but an NEF should have an energy consumption that is clearly below the current standard energy consumption. In this respect, according to general understanding, an NEF should be significantly below the fleet emissions of 120 g CO 2 / km, which are binding for the European Union for 2015 at the latest . This value corresponds to a fuel consumption of around 5 liters of petrol or 4.5 liters of diesel per 100 kilometers or an energy consumption of around 44  kilowatt hours (kWh) or 158  megajoules (MJ) per 100 kilometers.

In addition to low vehicle mass and a streamlined exterior shape, the design principles for realizing a NEF include the choice of an efficient drive system . According to the laws of physics, additional mass to be moved increases the energy consumption linearly, especially depending on the acceleration and braking profile without regenerative braking , in which part of the acceleration energy can be recovered through recuperation . Higher speeds mean a quadratic increase in driving resistance and thus a cubic increase in energy consumption.

When considering the total primary energy consumption , which is becoming more and more common ( well-to-wheel ), the provisioning effort ( well-to-tank ) for the drive energy is included instead of just the final energy consumption in operation ( tank-to-wheel ). A comprehensive life cycle analysis that includes not only the total operating costs but also the energy consumption for manufacturing and recycling the vehicles is part of the ecological footprint .

In relation to the overall car market, many NEF currently exist (2012) mainly as prototypes, test cars and small series cars. In many countries there are various discounts for the purchase of fuel-efficient vehicles . In Germany, for example, there is a temporary exemption for three-liter cars from vehicle tax .

motivation

economics

The need to produce and operate vehicles with the lowest possible consumption arises from the need to save energy . In addition to the sustainable use of limited energy supplies, the most important thing is the economical operation of the vehicles. In addition to the acquisition costs, the constant increase in fuel prices and the political, i.e. tax-related subsidies for low-consumption vehicles against the background of the increase in vehicle registrations around the world have a major impact on profitability.

A major boost for the construction of low-energy vehicles was the announcement by the Californian government that, from a (repeatedly postponed) start date, all manufacturers who do not have a certain proportion of their vehicles according to the ULEV (Ultra Low Emission Vehicle) or ZEV (Zero Emission Vehicle) principle. ZEV means that the vehicle must be able to cover a certain distance without any emissions. Practically only electrically powered vehicles can do this today - the ZEV requirement (along with the EU's 120 g CO 2 / km requirement) is the main driving force behind the hybrid efforts of the major car manufacturers. In Europe, the EEV ( Enhanced Environmentally Friendly Vehicle ) standard is a motivation.

In 1996, the German manufacturer Audi presented an Audi A4 Avant Duo, which was soon discontinued due to lack of demand (and because of the simple and inefficient technology).

Even the German three-liter models Audi A2  TDI 3 l and VW Lupo TDI 3 l did not bring an economic return - despite tax incentives for sales and subsidies for development - whereupon the VW group stopped production (the Lupo 3L was up to May 2005 can be ordered; only 6500 copies of the A2 3L were purchased).

environmental Protection

3-liter vehicle (VW Lupo)

Internal combustion engines of automobiles are about 20 percent of the worldwide volume of CO 2 involved, an essential part of the global warming contributes. In addition, the oil reserves , which are used by most of today's motor vehicles as a source of energy , will in all probability become increasingly scarce in the next few decades (see global oil production maximum ). The motivation is the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably Acceptable - as low as reasonably acceptable ) or generally ethical behavior. This ethical behavior can at least be attributed to some so-called "garage companies" who - often with roots in the environmental movement - produce small series of vehicles based on bicycle technology and, for example, also think about the environmentally friendly generation of the energy required for propulsion.

A reduction in CO 2 emissions is the basic goal of an energy transition in transport . The Verkehrsclub Deutschland publishes the so-called car environmental list , which is based, among other things, on energy consumption. Another rating is the FIA EcoTest .

Indication of energy consumption

The fuel consumption for vehicles in Europe is usually given in liters of fuel per 100 km of driving distance (distance consumption). In order to get comparable figures, the energy content of different fuels has to be taken into account. Diesel fuel, for example, has an energy density of 42.5 MJ / kg, petrol 43.5 MJ / kg. Corresponding conversions and multiplication with the density of the respective fuels result in a volumetric energy content of approx. 9 kWh / l for premium gasoline and approx. 10 kWh / l for diesel fuel.

Another way of determining energy consumption is to specify the amount of energy per transported payload and route. This is the distance consumption per weight [l / (100 km × 100 kg)]. When comparing a truck that transports 20 t of freight with 35 liters of diesel consumption over 100 km with a fully occupied diesel car that transports 7.5 l of 500 kg of freight (passengers and luggage), the energy consumption of the truck is 0.175 l / 100 km per 100 kg, the car needs 8.5 times as much, namely 1.5 l for 100 kg per 100 km.

The Energy Consumption Labeling Ordinance , or CO 2 labeling for short , does not deal with the energy consumption per km in joules or kWh.

Constructive measures to save fuel

The energy consumption of a vehicle depends not only on its structural features but also on the type of use. In this way, consumption can be reduced even further through an energy-saving driving style . The distance consumption [l / 100 km] of a car is primarily determined by (1) the driving resistance and (2) the efficiency.

  • Driving resistance: The driving resistance determines the necessary drive power [kW] to achieve the desired driving performance (acceleration, maximum speed). During constant travel at low speeds, the rolling resistance, which is directly proportional to the speed, predominates; with increasing speed, the flow resistance (air resistance), which is quadratically proportional to the speed, predominates. The acceleration resistance is v. a. important in city traffic.
    • Acceleration resistance : The acceleration resistance occurs when the speed changes. It is directly proportional to the vehicle mass. Light cars allow the use of smaller motors with the same acceleration, which work at a more efficient operating point when driving at constant speed (where rolling and air resistance are important). A negative acceleration resistance (when braking) can be used for energy recovery ( recuperation ).
    • Rolling resistance : low rolling resistance coefficient thanks to tires with low rolling resistance, low vehicle weight, low-friction wheel bearings.
    • Aerodynamic drag (flow resistance ): The aerodynamic drag coefficient can be reduced by using an aerodynamically favorable body shape, lined wheel arches and smooth surfaces (no door buckles, camera instead of side mirrors) and narrow tires up to a value of around C w 0.16. A reduction in the cross-sectional area (vehicle projection area) of the vehicle exposed to the air flow by means of seats located one behind the other or at least offset (two-seater with approx. 1 m² vehicle projection area), or a lower seating position and little overhead space also contributes to optimization.
    • Internal resistance : Low internal friction losses, in the case of combustion engines mainly due to low-viscosity oil and lower friction losses due to low cylinder deformation and better sealing of the piston raceway. Efficient gears, low friction bearings. Freewheel and, if necessary, starter-generator systems , with no losses when idling (description, inlet and outlet resistance, bearings and shafts as well as auxiliary motor drives and their control). Due to the concept, the electric drive (motor usually only has two bearing points, simple reduction gears with few bearing points and gear pairings) basically has lower internal losses.
  • The efficiency describes the efficiency of the conversion of z. B. chemical or electrical power into mechanical power: The main problem of the internal combustion engine is that its efficiency is highest at full load and decreases at low loads. The specific consumption [g / kWh] therefore increases sharply with decreasing engine load. There are two approaches to solving this problem:
    • Efficiency-optimized gear ratio: Power is the product of speed and torque. In order to generate a certain power, the most efficient operating point is that at which this power is achieved with maximum load and the lowest possible speed.
      • With manual transmissions, “long” gear ratios are a simple means. However, the low acceleration reserve (“elasticity”) in such a gear reduces acceptance.
      • CVT transmissions are an alternative to always driving the engine with high loads, but they are less efficient than manual transmissions and are not particularly accepted. (There is no direct relationship between speed and engine speed).
    • Improvement of the engine efficiency of combustion engines in the partial load range (electric motors have a very high efficiency in the partial load range):
      • Use of diesel engines which, due to the lack of throttle losses in the partial load range, have a better degree of efficiency than gasoline engines and can be highly charged due to the low tendency to knock.
      • The lean operation of internal combustion engines improves the efficiency in the partial load range, but this is problematic in terms of pollutant emissions (NO x ). Lean-burn engines , e.g. B. Otto direct injection with stratified charge operation , therefore require a complex exhaust gas treatment, such as NO x storage catalytic converters.
      • The hybrid drive reduces the problem of high specific consumption of the internal combustion engines in the partial load range, since an additional electric motor works at low loads, while the internal combustion engine is only used at higher loads.
      • Also by charging, e.g. B. turbocharging or compressors , the efficiency of an engine can be increased significantly in the partial load range. The liter output (= output per liter of cubic capacity) is increased significantly so that the desired nominal output can be achieved with lower cubic capacities . The engine works in the partial load range at higher - and therefore more efficient - load points ( downsizing ).
      • The efficiency of combustion engines can also be increased in the partial load range by cylinder deactivation (ZAS). At low loads, cylinders are switched off, which results in a higher and thus efficiency-optimized load point for the working cylinders. In the case of small engines, however, the ZAS leads to a deteriorated level of noise comfort, which is not accepted.
The Twike , optionally available as a passenger-electric hybrid vehicle or as a purely electric vehicle

Vehicle design

First of all, it is important to keep the driving resistance as low as possible according to the intended use.

In the second step, the motor should be designed in such a way that it has the highest possible efficiency in all typical operating states.

  • The efficiency of the electric motor is largely independent of the operating state.
  • When driving at constant speed with combustion engines, the gear that enables the lowest, smooth engine speed should be used. When accelerating, the engine should, if possible, be operated in the vicinity of its lowest, specific fuel consumption. In a modern Otto engine, this range is around 3/4 of the maximum load and around 3000 rpm. Oversized internal combustion engines are inherently more problematic from the point of view of the most favorable operating point, as they often work at low - and therefore inefficient - load points in everyday operation. The solution to this problem is approached with smaller engines ( downsizing ) and continuously variable transmissions or those with a higher number of steps (gears).

Classification by NEF

In Germany, some vehicles with particularly low consumption values ​​enjoyed tax breaks. Vehicles are not classified according to their energy consumption, but according to their carbon dioxide emissions , measured in accordance with Directive 93/116 / EC .

According to German tax law, a five-liter car emits less than 120 g CO 2 / km. This corresponds to a distance consumption of 5.06 l / 100 km petrol or 4.53 l / 100 km diesel . If registered before January 1, 2000 , these vehicles were exempt from vehicle tax. For tax purposes, the term three-liter car is associated with carbon dioxide emissions of 90 g CO 2 / km. This corresponds to a distance consumption of around 3.4 l / 100 km diesel or 3.8 l / 100 km petrol . The same rules apply to alternative fuels in internal combustion engines; electric vehicles are taxed according to vehicle mass.

The term one-liter car describes vehicles with a consumption of less than 1.5 l / 100 km, whereby for marketing reasons, vehicles with a consumption of 1.5-1.99 l / 100 km are often classified in this category.

For further classifications see: emission-free vehicle ; Emission standard .

Models

Ultimately, the permanent introduction of such vehicles has so far failed on a broad front. However, some of the technology found its way into the series production of “normal” cars (electrohydraulic clutch, covered hubcaps).

Models like the Smart show that small vehicles are also accepted by buyers. Some manufacturers' mid- range vehicles have a fleet consumption of 7.5 liters, which is why some legal measures by the state are recommended (as in California) to demand a reduction in these values.

Series models

The table lists a selection of series models with low energy consumption. The "3-liter car", which can be realized with a conventional drive, is seen as the upper limit. 3 liters per 100km correspond to 26.7kW. There is no evaluation of the energy consumption according to seats or payload.

model Consumption in kWh / 100 km * Consumption u. fuel specified CO 2 emissions engine comment
CityEL Fact Four 3.5-5.5 electricity 0 g / km 2.5 or 3.5 kW electric motor (until February 2012) single seat (additional child seat possible) throttled 45 km / h; open 63 km / h
Renault Twizy 9 (depending on driving behavior and temperature between 6 and 12 kWh / 100 km 6.1 kWh LiIon battery) electricity 0 g / km 8 (short-term max approx 13 kW) electric motor two-seater 80 km / h closed at the top, open at the sides, series-built, 10,000 vehicles in 2012
Secma Fun ELEC 7.4 (own measurements with LiFePO 4 battery) electricity 0 g / km 2 kW electric motor (until 2009) two-seater 45 km / h removable hood
FINE Mobile TWIKE <8 (in practical operation) electricity 0 g / km 5 kW electric motor two-seater, built in small series
Jetcar electric 10.7 (in practical operation) electricity 0 g / km 60 kW permanent magnet synchronous motor is built in individual production
Tazzari Zero 10 Electricity (no standard consumption) 0 g / km 15 kW two-seater coupé with an empty weight of 550 kg including LiFePO 4 batteries
Mia (car model) 10 electricity 0 g / km ? 1–4 depending on the model, special features: minibus with plastic body, sliding doors and central driver's seat, selectable battery capacity
Hyundai Ioniq Electric 11.5 electricity 0 g / km 88 kW (since 2016) 165 km / h, 280 km range
Hotzenblitz 12-15 electricity 0 g / km 12 kW (1993–1996) 2 (+2) seats, special features: tubular steel frame with plastic body, aluminum sandwich floor pan to accommodate the battery, empty weight with lithium battery <700 kg, range up to 350 km
BMW i3 12.9 electricity - 75 kW (since 2013) 150 km / h, 200 km range
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 13.5 electricity - 49 kW (since 2009) 130 km / h, 150 km range
Renault ZOE 14.6 electricity - 65 kW (since 2012) 135 km / h, 210 km range
Tesla Model 3 14.1-16 electricity - 190-339 kW (since July 2017) Mid-size sedan with (depending on the model) acceleration (0 to 100 km / h): 5.9–3.4 s, over 209 km / h, EPA range 354–538 km
Smart Fortwo Electric Drive 15.1 Electricity (no standard consumption) 0 g / km 55 kW 2012-2015
Tesla Roadster 18th Electricity (no standard consumption) 0 g / km 185 kW (until 2012) two-seater convertible accelerating from 0 to 96 km / h (60 mph) in about 4 seconds
VW XL1 19.01 1.94 l / 100 km diesel 50.6 g / km 800 cm³ 35 kW diesel + 20 kW electric (2014–2016) Manufactory small series production, 200 pieces
Tesla Model S 20th Electricity (no standard consumption) 0 g / km up to 310 kW (performance version) 5-door limousine with 5 seats for adults + 2 seats for children. Up to 480 km range, acceleration 0-100 km / h in 4.4sec. Special features: battery in the underbody, motor between the rear wheels, trunk both under the front hood and in the rear area, lightweight aluminum body.
Jetcar 2.5 24.5 2.5 l / 100 km diesel 66 g / km 800 cc, 30 kW is built in individual production
* Conversion factors: Diesel = 9.8 kWh / l; Petrol = 8.9 kWh / l

Series models in preparation

  • The Aptera 2 Series was a series of three-wheeled vehicle models with petrol (consumption 0.78 liters of petrol / 100 km) or with an electric motor. Aptera Motors went bankrupt in December 2011. In April 2012, the Zhejiang Jonway Group purchased parts of the intellectual property belonging to the Aptera 2 series. Aptera Motors was re-established as ApteraUSA after Zhejiang Jonway bought the company shares together with smaller American investors. ApteraUSA is to produce the gasoline version Aptera 2g and the electric version 2e in smaller series in the USA. The Zaptera , which has been operating independently since June 2013, is to build the electric version Aptera 2e in larger series in China as soon as the market allows it. According to the will of its boss, Richard Deringer, ApteraUSA should focus on production in Detroit and Santa Rosa. Deringer does not want to wait for any developments in China. Due to the exclusive production in the USA by ApteraUSA , a significant price increase is expected. While the originally planned Chinese-American manufacturing variant of the Aptera 2e was estimated at around $ 30,000, prices between 80,000 and 100,000 dollars are now expected for the purely American manufacturing variant. According to previous plans, one or more models should be launched in the first quarter of 2013. When the Zhejiang Jonway Group changed plans, that didn't work out for now. Deringer now hopes to be ready to start production in the first quarter of 2014 [obsolete] .

Studies

  • The Citroën ECO 2000 SL 10, developed between 1981 and 1984, achieved a total consumption of 3.5 liters of petrol per 100 km. Features of the study were used in the development of the Citroën AX .
  • In 1996, the Twingo Smile from Greenpeace consumed around 3.5 liters of petrol (RL93 / 116 / EEC) under practical conditions.
  • The Mitsubishi "i" concept achieved only 3.8 l / 100 km in the FIA EcoTest 2003, albeit under practical conditions such as operation on the motorway and with air conditioning. The most economical competitors in the test (Audi A2 1.4 TDI, Mini One 1.6, Suzuki Ignis 1.3 DDiS) achieved 4.5 l / 100 km under these conditions. The Opel Corsa ECO 3 l consumed 4.3–4.7 l / 100 km in practice.
  • The Mercedes-Benz bionic car is a concept study presented by Mercedes-Benz in 2005. The boxfish served as the aerodynamic template for the development of the vehicle . The fuel consumption of the diesel-powered four-seater with a C w value of 0.19 should be 4.3 l / 100 km.
  • The concept study of the Toyota ES3 with diesel hybrid drive came to 2.7 l / 100 km (87  mpg ).
  • The Daihatsu UFE III has a combined consumption of 2.1 l / 100 km.
  • OScar (OpenSourceCar): Development of a 2-person electric car by students at TU Darmstadt, 6 kWh / 100 km, range 300 km, top speed 130 km / h
  • In 1973, Shell Oil converted the 1959 Opel P1 into a test vehicle. The vehicle was designed for competition and achieved a consumption of 159 km / liter (376.59 mpg). In 1975 the vehicle made it into the Guinness Book of Records. In 1976 a small, light special vehicle was used to achieve 403 km / liter (1141 mpg) for one person. These tests were carried out at very low powers and speeds.
  • The Loremo , a design by Loremo AG that has been continuously developed since 1995, consumes 1.5–2 liters of diesel per 100 km. Due to a lack of solvent investors, there was no series production.
  • The vehicle tuner 9ff converted a VW Golf V 1.9 TDI by saving approx. 400 kg of the vehicle weight in order to achieve consumption of 3 l / 100 km. The project was not completed despite media support (VOX, stern.tv, ams.tv).

Electric vehicles

In addition to vehicles with combustion engines, electric vehicles also achieve final energy consumption values ​​that correspond to one liter of diesel per 100 km (that is approx. 10 kWh / 100 km), sometimes even less. These are, for example, vehicles with lightweight bodies such as the Hotzenblitz , whose production has now been discontinued, and the Kewet from Norway. The two-seater TWIKE should be the most economical, as it regularly consumes less than 5 kWh per 100 km from the grid (measured). That corresponds roughly to a 0.5-liter car. The “only” single-seat CityEl needs just as little. Even vehicles with a normal small car body like the Citroën AX Electrique consume significantly less than 2 l / 100 km. After many years of consumption measurements, the Citroën AX electrique drives with around 15 kWh per 100 km, measured from the socket, i.e. including all charging and battery losses. Based on just under 500 g CO 2 per kWh in the German electricity mix in 2010, this results in a CO 2 load of around 75 g CO 2 per km well-to-wheel when supplied with the normal electricity mix . However, the line losses from the power station to the socket and transformer losses were not taken into account in this calculation, nor were the losses during fuel production in the information on vehicles with internal combustion engines.

If you recharge the batteries with CO 2 -free solar, wind or hydroelectric power, the CO 2 load per km is even lower and tends towards zero.

Other vehicles: CityEl , TWIKE , these vehicles consume less than 1 l / 100 km. The Tesla Roadster from Tesla Motors (California) with a purely electric drive and driving values ​​(and price) of a sports car has an energy consumption of 11 kWh / 100 km with a range of 400 km on one battery charge (manufacturer's information). The Tesla Roadster uses commercially available lithium-ion batteries which, thanks to their design measures and a good battery management system, have a good charge-discharge efficiency.

The consumption and CO 2 values given above for the Citroën AX also apply in principle to many five-door and four-seater French electric cars (Peugeot 106 éléctrique, Renault Clio éléctrique, Citroën AX éléctrique), which are almost one-liter with an optimized load and driving style -Cars can be operated.

Even older vehicles can be technically upgraded, as demonstrated by the Hotzenblitz , which was converted in 2007 and has a practical range of more than 350 km. If batteries are installed that do not take up too much space and are not too heavy, you have to make several recharging stops for longer distances. With today's traction batteries, the charging time depends less on the accumulator than on the available charging infrastructure (strength of the charger, load capacity of the power connection). A recharge of 80% in 30 minutes, as with the CHAdeMO DC charging, is technically feasible without any problems.

Low prevalence of low-energy vehicles

Although the series production of the three-liter car was welcomed in principle, it was discontinued because the low demand was uneconomical for the manufacturer due to the high acquisition costs compared to conventional models. The development of successor models of the VW Lupo 3L TDI (e.g. on the platform of the VW Fox ) has been discontinued. Production of the Audi A2 3L TDI was discontinued in mid-2005 without a successor. The smart cdi is gaining popularity because of its low CO 2 emissions - in principle, however, vehicle production has often been questioned and the original concept of the electric vehicle has not yet been offered in series. The Opel Astra Eco4 with a modified body has disappeared in the new model series.

The following points out some of the points that often arise in the discussion about low-energy vehicles:

  • It is often assumed that fuel costs are too low and fixed costs are too high. Only 1 l / 100 km additional consumption causes over 100,000 km at 1.60 € / l fuel costs but additional costs of 1,600 €.
  • The product advertising of many automobile manufacturers continues to rely on high-powered, sporty vehicles.
  • The customer requests for high-performance cars formed by advertising counteract efforts to reduce fuel consumption.
  • Body shapes that favor flow are unfamiliar and so far have mostly been rejected as unaesthetic. Vehicle design has been identified as a key success factor for the marketability of cars, so there is a trade-off between customer needs (aesthetics) and efficiency.
  • Modern vehicles weigh significantly more than their predecessors, have more electrical consumers, and accordingly have a higher performance requirement. Modern engines can only compensate for these disadvantages to a limited extent.
  • Existing models (e.g. VW Lupo ) are said to have negative properties (high purchase price, susceptibility to defects, high maintenance costs), which make them appear uninteresting to potential customers. The additional price for an Audi A2 3L compared to the simple diesel version (4.3 l / 100 km) was e.g. B. however only 300 €. According to ADAC breakdown statistics, the A2 achieved first place in its class from 2003 to 2006. The aluminum vehicle also took first place in the TÜV statistics in 2004 because it was free from defects.
  • The problem of the cost of energy storage for electric vehicles has so far been insufficiently solved due to a lack of mass production. The practical value has so far been partially limited by the limited range.
  • Driving behavior that takes getting used to, which appears uncomfortable to untrained customers and sometimes unsettles them, as the VW Golf Ecomatic with engine shutdown, built in the early 1990s, showed.
  • The automotive industry is accused of using the three-liter cars only as alibi projects. This allegation is questionable in view of the development costs.
  • The purchase price, the resulting long amortization period and the limited practical value of some models (Smart, Lupo) have so far prevented the three-liter vehicles from establishing themselves on the market. Buying incentives such as the tax exemption of € 511 also did not contribute to the success.
  • Advantages such as the higher top speed of the Eco variants due to the lower air resistance and a greater range were not mentioned. Overall, the vehicles were not advertised enough.
  • The CO 2 emissions and consumption are shown very discreetly and have no effect on purchasing decisions . The (legally required) specification of fuel consumption at vehicle dealerships was implemented only hesitantly and after various fines.
  • The automotive industry promotes alternative fuels with partially uncertain ecological balance and availability in order to avoid a fundamental reorientation. However, low-energy vehicles can increase the proportion of alternative fuels with limited resources. This can be used to counter objections that bio-fuels are nowhere near enough to meet demand.
  • The development of appropriate technologies and the use of lightweight materials increase the costs per vehicle. However, since most customers are not prepared to pay more for an efficient car than for a conventional one, there is (still) no significant market for these vehicles.
  • In some auto- and technology-savvy countries, efficient cars are wrongly associated with small cars (e.g. Smart), which at best can be used as a second or third car and there, without changing habits, do not contribute to a reduction in energy consumption in traffic.
  • Optimization with regard to consumption does not automatically result in a lower overall environmental impact. Most fuel-efficient vehicles have a diesel engine . However, this generates soot particles without complex filter technology ( see also: fine dust ).
  • Many end-of-life vehicles can also reduce their CO 2 contribution with biofuels . Savings in the consumption of fossil energy carriers can also be achieved by using alternative energy carriers such as biodiesel or ethanol. The consumption of motor vehicles in Germany accounts for approx. 12% of the total demand for (petroleum) oil. However, this alternative is controversial with regard to food prices, since raw materials such as corn are no longer available as food after the ethanol has been produced.
  • Various measures to reduce consumption cause increased energy consumption in production. The production of aluminum and magnesium is very energy-intensive. If you add the energies for smelting and production to the consumption per km and equate the resulting systems of equations for otherwise identical vehicles made of aluminum and steel in the size of an Audi A2, the intersection is around 12,000 km - below that the steel vehicle has the better environmental balance, above that the aluminum car. The annual mileage is more easily achieved by fleet vehicles, so it is beneficial if rental systems and participatory ownership models (e.g. car sharing ) are further developed. Vehicles with expensive alternative drives will then also be easier to finance for the general public.

Compared to previous years, however, the first signs of a change or even a trend reversal are visible: While in Germany the number of new registrations fell in the vehicle classes from small cars to luxury cars in the first five months of 2012 compared to the same period of the previous year, there were in the Vehicle class of the " small car " an increase of 16.2 percent. Many low-energy vehicle models fall into this vehicle class.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ VDI-Nachrichten.com: EU is tightening thumbscrews for car manufacturers  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , January 16, 2009. Retrieved May 11, 2010.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.vdi-nachrichten.com  
  2. ↑ Renault ZOE: Zero Emission in the Compact Class (Part 1/2) | GreenGear.de. Retrieved on August 28, 2017 (German).
  3. ↑ Production of the 451 series smart fortwo electric drive discontinued - Mercedes-Benz Passion Blog / Mercedes Benz, smart, Maybach, AMG . In: Mercedes-Benz Passion Blog / Mercedes Benz, smart, Maybach, AMG . August 10, 2015 ( mercedes-benz-passion.com [accessed August 28, 2017]).
  4. ↑ Official evaluation of the Tesla Model S consumption data by the American Environmental Protection Agency [1] Rider: Midsized & large Cars
  5. ↑ Jim Motavalli: Unable to Raise Financing, Aptera Shuts Down. Retrieved August 28, 2017 .
  6. ↑ Aptera comes back from the dead design-engine.com Internet portal, "Industry News" section, June 4, 2012 (in English).
  7. ↑ Steve Hart: Futuristic electric vehicle to be built in Santa Rosa  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. The Press Democrat online, May 11, 2012 (in English)@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.pressdemocrat.com  
  8. ↑ 200 MPGe Aptera electric car saved by Chinese-American partnership ( Memento of the original dated September 6, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Fox News online May 10, 2012 (in English). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.foxnews.com
  9. ↑ Jeff Quackenbush: Santa Rosa said to be home for reborn Aptera electric roadster North Bay Business Journal online, May 7, 2012 (in English).
  10. ^ A b Ben Coxworth: New company set to resurrect the Aptera automobile www.gizmag.com Internet portal, June 10, 2013 (in English).
  11. ↑ Sebastian Blanco: Zaptera says Aptera USA will push on with gas, electric versions of three-wheel vehicle AutoblogGreen Internet portal, June 11, 2013 (in English).
  12. ↑ Jeff Quackenbush: Construction: Novato game maker builds Petaluma 'mocap' studio. In: North Bay Business Journal. May 6, 2013, accessed May 27, 2013 .
  13. ↑ Aptera Comes Back from The Dead . In: Design Engine . June 4, 2012 ( design-engine.com [accessed August 28, 2017]).
  14. ↑ MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift 59 (1998) 10; Pages 644–650 Swissauto (PDF file).
  15. ↑ Mitsubishi: "i" concept ( Memento of the original from May 6, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.mitsubishi-motors.com
  16. ↑ FIA Ecotest (PDF file).
  17. ^ ES3 - Toyota's Concept Of The Near Future. Retrieved August 28, 2017 .
  18. ↑ AKASOL: OpensourceCar
  19. ^ Fuel economy of the gasoline engine: fuel, lubricant, and other effects. DR Blackmore and A. Thomas. Wiley, 1977, p. 223.
  20. ↑ Streamline Your Gas Guzzler to 1.5 Liters - OhmyNews International. Retrieved August 28, 2017 .
  21. ↑ How do you build a 3 liter car? In: Stern-Testing . May 2, 2007 ( stern.de [accessed on August 28, 2017]).
  22. ↑ Markus Pflegerl: Conversion of a Hotzenblitz to Lithium Polymer from Kokam ( Memento of the original from December 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Watt gehtab Internet portal, November 20, 2007 (English). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.watt gehtab.com
  23. ↑ Jochen Wieler: Lean food is fashion. In: ADAC Motorwelt ISSN  0007-2842 (2nd episode) 65th year, issue 7, July 2012, pp. 26-30.