misogyny

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Misogyny (from Greek μĩσος misos “hate”, and gyne “woman”) is an abstract generic term for socio-cultural attitude patterns of the lower relevance or value of women or the higher relevance or value of men . It is internalized by both men and women themselves through psychosocial development ( socialization , habitualization ) and represents the basis of generation for the hierarchical gender habitus of masculinity and femininity . It is therefore the basis of hegemonic masculinity or patriarchal relationships . The binary mirror term is misandry for hatred of men.

Misogyny is socially regarded as a “pathological”, “abnormal feeling” that contradicts social norms or ideals , but is at the same time deeply anchored in human cultures . Because of this fundamental contradiction , misogyny is usually concealed socially and individually - for example through denial, taboos , politeness or socially desirable equality rhetoric . Then it remains individually unconscious and socially diffuse. The scientific He exploration of misogyny began in the 1950s.

Misogyny is a form of misanthropy directed at women . With the emergence of the women's movement in the 19th century, social misogyny was increasingly discussed and combated, so that in the 20th century fear and the term misandry emerged.

Manifestations

Overview of different manifestations of misogyny according to levels of visibility and severity

For a long time, only specific, extreme forms of devaluing women were considered misogyny, which veiled the extent and extent of it individually and socially. Misogyny is reflected on all levels of social relationships, from the overall social level to the personal relationship level. It can be expressed in many ways and with varying degrees of intensity:

Word origin

The word misogyny goes back to the ancient Greek personal pronoun μισόγυνος misógynos " misogynist ". It is made up of μισεῖν misein "hate" and γυνή gyné "woman". In Greek antiquity , it denoted the prevailing idea in philosophy of the ontological inferiority of women. This was expressed either directly through negative descriptions of women or indirectly through positive descriptions of the subordination of women to men.

In German , the term is often used literally as" Misogyny " or" Misogyny " understood, d. H. reduced to extreme, concrete forms. Even in German usage in medicine and psychology , it has so far been literally limited to “extreme dislike of men towards women” and “pathological hatred of men towards women”.

From English, sociology and social psychology , an expanded understanding has "recently" emerged that includes the basic habitualization and social anchoring of misogyny.

Misogyny is now less and less understood as a concrete term , i. H. for example, as misogyny of individual sick men. Rather, it can now be understood as an abstraction that is at the same time a generic term . He subsumes a variety of psychosocial phenomena producing social inequality on the category of gender and gender - both in our own society than in other societies.

Definitions

While misogyny was previously referred to primarily in an individualizing way as misogyny in the narrower sense, today in Germany too the understanding has expanded to include a societal view of " misogyny and misogyny ":

“Misogyny […] Identification of attitudes that reflect the structural disadvantage of women in society and in the private sphere. Misogynous attitudes and behaviors are expressed both openly and restrictively ( career obstacles , unequal pay, etc.) as well as through the concealed restriction of women to their traditional gender role (distortion of the woman's self-image due to specific socialization , emphasis on her weaker position through traditional forms of courtesy, etc.) .). Since misogyny is seen as hostility to emancipation in closer connection with the more comprehensive authoritarianism , its overcoming appears only possible in the overall social context. "

- Lexicon of Sociology : 2011

Internationally, this general social perspective has long been established:

“Misogyny […] is a central part of sexist prejudices and ideologies and is therefore an important basis for the oppression of women in male-dominated societies . Misogyny manifests itself in a variety of ways, from jokes to pornography to promoting a sense of self-contempt for women and their own bodies. "

- The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology : 2000

In this respect, misogyny is not limited to men, but is also widespread among women ( complicity ) and internalized by both boys and girls through socialization :

“Although misogyny is most common in men, it also exists in women, used by women against other women, or even against themselves. Misogyny functions as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied patriarchal or male-dominated societies for millennia and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision-making. [...] Aristotle claimed that women exist as natural deformations or imperfect men [...] Since then, women in western cultures have internalized their role as social scapegoats , which in the 21st century comes to light through diverse objectification of women, with their culturally sanctioned Self-loathing and their fixations on plastic surgery , anorexia and bulimia . "

- International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities : 2007

Missing terminology

A scientific discussion and systematic attempts to distinguish the term concepts misogyny , misogyny , sexism and anti-feminism , there are hardly any. Often only one of the terms is used; Occasionally, attempts are made to differentiate individual terms from one another, sometimes they are also used synonymously.

research

Scientific research into misogynous attitudes began with gender studies . Before that, however, there were already important preliminary studies and individual investigations.

Beginnings

Katharine M. Rogers

The first systematic study of misogyny was published in 1959 by the American literary scholar Katharine M. Rogers in the journal Texas Studies in Literature and Language . It deals with the misogyny in the works of Jonathan Swift .

In the next step, she expanded this analysis into a cross-epoch study of misogynous attitudes in Western literary classics. In the introduction she refers to the early foundations in antiquity. Your study examines the time from the Middle Ages to the 20th century in six sections. Their conclusion: Because misogyny is generally viewed as an "abnormal feeling" that should not be directly shown, each era creates its own types of "female villains" that should be devalued. These include, for example:

Overall, Rogers comes to the conclusion that misogyny is a culturally determined phenomenon:

"In our culture , a certain level of hostility towards women must be considered normal."

According to Rogers, the most important reason for misogyny lies in the deeply rooted, asymmetrical balance of power of the gender order , "in the patriarchal feeling and desire that women should remain inferior to men".

Kate Millett

The literary , sociological and anthropological study Sexual Politics (German: Sexus und Herrschaft ) by Kate Millett is one of the most important basic works in misogyny research . Like Rogers, she also comes from literary studies and also refers to Roger's work as a summarizing overview: “The literature of misogyny is so large that no summary of a more acceptable format could do it justice. The best source is Katharine M. Rogers. ”However, Millett expands the scientific focus beyond literary studies.

Millett's research consists of analyzing misogynist attitudes in the works of successful authors such as DH Lawrence , Henry Miller and Norman Mailer, as well as Sigmund Freud . The study shows that “sex is an often neglected political aspect” and provides “a first systematic overview of patriarchy as a political institution” in which “claims to power in sexual intercourse” play a central role. This study succeeded in demonstrating the extent of sexual claims to power in an oppressively impressive way, as the expert George Stade described:

"Reading the book is like sitting with your testicles in a nutcracker."

Despite its scientific level, the book spread quickly due to the oppressive impressiveness of the analysis. It became a bestseller and a manifesto of the new women's movement and feminism of the 1970s.

The book concentrates on the sociological concept of patriarchy and uses the term misogyny in a self-explanatory way without reflecting on or defining it itself. In contrast to the English edition, the term misogyny is completely absent from the index of the German edition.

Exploring the phenomenon

A first systematic socio-psychological study of misogyny in Germany dates back to 1973. It already pointed out that misogynous attitude patterns should not be misunderstood as 'hatred of women', but that a broader perspective is essential:

"Misogyny is (...) not to be understood as uncomplicated as xenophobia, hostility towards children, hostility towards cars, etc. Because in the present case it is not simply a question of the more or less pronounced degree of rejection of the hiring object, i.e. 'the woman'. It's not about hating women. The object of attitude in the narrower sense is rather the complete equality and equal treatment of women in social life. (...) Furthermore, (...) shows that women are often denied full equality by expressing certain, socially rather positive attitudes towards them: special courtesy, courteous behavior, forbearance, gallantry, etc. (...) Such a differentiated consideration of attitudes towards women, towards equality, towards emancipation also makes sense because misogyne attitudes can also be found where they are least expected at first glance: among those affected, that is the women themselves. In this case, the familiar picture emerges that individuals who have grown up in a very specific social system, have been 'socialized', tend to adopt attitudes that are brought to them by themselves. "

Such an expanded understanding describes misogyny with the following characteristics:

  • not just individual, but socio-cultural attitude patterns,
  • Effects: negative and positive behavior (politeness etc.),
  • Internalization not only by men, but also by women themselves.

A limitation of misogynous attitude patterns to men, to individual attitude patterns, former societies or other societies, which is sometimes stated, is scientifically not tenable.

Misogyne attitude patterns and their effects are examined in the following scientific disciplines, among others:

Root cause research

The causes of misogynous attitude patterns are researched by various scientific disciplines according to their respective priorities. Sociology primarily researches the social framework, while psychology or social psychology primarily researches the consequences of these social framework conditions for psychological development.

sociology

In sociology , the social constellations or dynamics of gender-related power or domination relationships are described as causal framework conditions. The early results include the descriptions of power structures as patriarchy . Since then, the concepts of hegemonic masculinity and gender habit have provided more detailed descriptions .

psychology

On the basis of the findings of sociology, psychology describes the psychological or psychosocial consequences as causes in the development of misogynous attitude patterns. In psychology, however, gender research was for a long time "even stronger than in other social sciences, marginalized and marginalized". Only slowly it comes here to a taboo of the topic: In the foreground is the criticism of androcentrism in knowledge production, the criticism of the ideas of psychological identity and constitution of the subject and the removal of taboos practical life conflicts , discrimination and burden of structural power dynamics .

Masculinity dilemma

The dependence-autonomy conflict in male hegemonic cultures is referred to as the masculinity dilemma. In social psychology , Rolf Pohl described the development of misogynous attitude patterns. He sees a central cause in the male subject constitution of male hegemonic cultures , the basis of which is the idea of ​​male superiority and female inferiority. As a result, men are under “more or less strong pressure not only to pose as another, but as the more important and superior gender and to prove themselves' in an emergency” ”. That is, men are compelled to establish and maintain superior masculinity, i.e. H. inscribe in the soul and body of men. This leads to a permanent "dependency-autonomy conflict", which Pohl calls the "masculinity dilemma": He describes this as a "predicament between the desire for autonomy and the fear of dependency". Because despite the compelling claim to superiority and independence, men in male hegemonic cultures are mostly dependent on women in two ways:

  • Dependence on women in childhood and adolescence: Since women and mothers are responsible for caring for children in male hegemonic cultures, men experience an existential and emotional dependence on their mother or other women throughout their childhood and adolescence.
  • Dependence of heterosexual men on the object of desire : women: When men become heterosexual in youth or adulthood , women become objects of sexual desire. Thus, through their own sexuality, they become highly and permanently dependent on women.
  • Dependence on the ability of women to give birth and breastfeed: Since only women have the ability to conceive and breastfeed, men not only develop “envy of childbirth”, but also “envy of motherhood”. The “idealization of the maternal” creates an “idea of ​​ideal motherliness”, which the father subsequently exposes as inadequate. This “idealization of the maternal with simultaneous devaluation of the woman as mother” enables the “demonstration of the superiority of the father” or the “appreciation of the father as the embodiment of a superior parental principle”.

In order to meet the demands of independence and superiority, both aspects of male dependence on women, mothers and femininity must be devalued and repressed. Since this defense mechanism of repression excludes the devaluation of women, mothers and femininity from conscious imagination , misogynous attitudes usually remain unconscious. As a result of this devaluation, women and especially mothers often become the projection screen for virulent defenses against femininity and thus a scapegoat . Defending and devaluing femininity can even lead to the annihilation of women or mothers, i. H. nullifying or declaring it to be nothing, for example through emotional or physical violence .

Historical linguistics

The Historical Linguistics long describes the linguistically observable meaning deterioration (pejoration) of Ms. names ( maid , wife , whore , lady , females , etc.). In many introductions to the history of linguistic history, it serves today as the main teaching example for the dynamic process of meaning deterioration. The deterioration in the meaning of women's designations can be observed in many languages. In a gender comparison, the historical change in the meaning of women's and men's terms turns out to be asymmetrical . While women's names are being devalued, this is not the case with men's names. Reasons for this have not been sought for a long time or have remained scientifically inconsistent. Only gradually is this systematically investigated and explicitly referred to as misogyny.

In terms of linguistic history, three paths in the quality of changes in women's designations can be identified:

  1. Social degradation or downgrading
  2. Functionalization, especially in the lower service sector
  3. Biologization and sexualization

An examination of historical dictionaries from the 15th to the 19th century shows that 72.5 percent of the names of women are described using negative qualities. In contrast, 75 percent of the men’s names are described using positive qualities.

Studies of the history of language show today that the deterioration in the meaning of women's designations “directly reflects the historically low status of women, their low social position and esteem”. Like other semantic developments, these deteriorations in meaning are “a mirror of cultural-historical realities” and the misogynous realities, values ​​and attitudes of a society embedded in them.

Examples of the historical process of the deterioration in the meaning of German women's designations
Old High German Middle High German New High German
wīb:

(Wife

wîp:

(Wife

Woman :

sloppy, dissolute woman ( swear word )

frouwa:

Mistress, noble woman

vrouwe:

married, socially superior woman

Woman :

Wife ;

woman

frouwelīn:

young mistress, mistress, lady, woman of state

vröu (we) lîn:

Girls of lower class (social devaluation); file whore, whore (sexualization)

Miss :

unmarried woman;

Also waitress / waitress / single girl

later loss of Fräulein (from around 1975 through feminist language criticism)

magad:

young, unmarried woman (Virgin Mary)

likes:

young, unmarried woman (Virgin Mary)

Maid :

Domestic / yard workers for rough, simple work

diorna:

young girl

dierne:

young servant, maid (functionalization)

Whore :

Prostitutes (from the 16th century) ( sexualization )

Mademoiselle (French):

high, venerable, young unmarried woman

Mademoiselle (early New High German):

high standing young woman

Mamsell :

1. Simple kitchen workers (cold mamella)

2. Prostitutes (sexualization)

Further examples of the asymmetry of the change in meaning between women's and men's names are secretary vs. Secretary, Governor vs. Governess , hairdresser vs. Hairdresser, masseur vs. Masseuse.

history

Already Cicero reported BC that Greek philosophy misogyny saw as the expression of a fear ( gynophobia ).

At the beginning of the 21st century, the American cultural anthropologist David D. Gilmore states that misogyny occurs in almost all cultures and epochs, and that misogyny was just as existent in the hunter-gatherer society as it was in the Middle Ages or in Europe of the 21st century.

Philosophy from Plato to Schopenhauer

The eroticization or sexualization of the logos in Greek philosophy led to a devaluation of the feminine with serious consequences. That which is not logic and matter were thought of as feminine (mater-materia). In Plato's Timaeus , the talk is of the mother as the vessel of all sense of things ; Maimonides reports that according to Plato, the idea is masculine and matter is feminine.

Middle Ages Philosophy

The monastic asceticism of the Middle Ages and medieval realism contributed to the manifestation of gender specifics within monastic culture, which shaped the medieval intellectual. The scholastic idea realism is called Alvarus Pelagius joined the 200 vices and misdeeds of women auflistete. The commissioned by Pope John XXII. The book he wrote was printed in Ulm in 1474 and became the model of the witch hammer .

The documents made accessible by Jean Delumeau's study of the history of collective fears in Europe between the 14th and 18th centuries show the connection between the sensual hostility of monastic philosophy and the undisguised misogyny of the church executors of the witch trials .

Effects

Texts like “De contemptu mundi”, the work of the monk Bernhard von Cluny , which contains apocalyptic passages against women, were authoritative for pastoral care and the conception of pastoral care through the confessional books and the judgment of theologians up to the 16th and 17th centuries the woman as the servant of Satan , as Jean Delumeau puts it, was carried into millions of families and thus found its way into morality and everyday culture .

The fight against sexual needs , speaking and writing about the mortification of the flesh , celibacy and chastity were among the defining elements of Christian culture in the Middle Ages. Economic reasons were decisive for the introduction of monastic celibacy. The people also wanted saints who could fulfill their duties as pastors without being distracted from family duties.

Nevertheless, even in the Middle Ages there were associations of mixed-sex Christian groups. These often existed as mendicant orders ; According to more recent terminology, this can be called a subculture . The biographies of aristocratic people, female and male, who joined such - often persecuted - groups are often known.

The dominant, because written, scientific culture, resulting from the institutions of knowledge , as they emerged in Europe in the Middle Ages through monasteries and universities, remained a purely male institution until the 20th century; Even in the 21st century, women are a minority in these institutions.

Male Succession and Chastity of Women

This article or the following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.

From a male perspective, paternity was not verifiable; at best, the woman herself could know which man was involved in conceiving a child. The social institution of virginity and the dogma of the immaculate conception aimed at being able to determine pregnancies in relation to the male co-causers, without leaving this determination to the pregnant women themselves. Ensuring biological paternity must be seen as an essential part of male- centered societies and male inheritance.

European masculinity designs

Vignette from: Johann Heinrich Feustking : Gynaeceum Haeretico Fanaticum, or the history and description of the false prophets, women, enthusiasts, and other sectarian and enthusiastic women, through whom the Church of God has been troubled: sambt a preliminary report and appendix, contrary to the adepts Godofredi Arnoldi, Frankfurt and Leipzig, Christian Gerdes, 1704. (Inscriptions: Taceat mulier in ecclesia / Heretic History)

The image of men, known in art history as "the new Adam", which was sought to spread under Catholic supervision from the 15th century, was intended to convey to men virtues such as fidelity in marriage, friendship between men and domesticity after marriage. Representations of this type and on the subject can be found e.g. B. Albrecht Dürer , who always tried to depict pedagogical ideals in these works.

With the broad militarization of the male population and the creation of newer, all-male rooms through barracks and schools, as it was organized almost all over Europe from the 18th century and institutionally still in the 21st century, the ideal of the man changed compared to the medieval virtues. Militarization brought with it new ideals that were compulsory for all men, regular training in the use of force, ignoring emotions, empathy or pain. The upbringing of girls , when it took place, was still centered on virtues such as modesty, chastity, compassion, and care. New was from 17./18. Century that due to state institutions almost all classes of society could be subjected to these educational programs.

The enlightener Jean-Jacques Rousseau , who wrote extensively on education in Emile or on education , was conspicuously misogynistic. The upbringing of the girl Sophie is similar in style to that of the protagonist, but very different in terms of content: She learns to sing, play the piano, sew and cook. Your job is to please your future husband and make life comfortable for him. The natural childlike curiosity of girls or young women should be killed because they are smart enough to divine secrets that are being kept from them and because they are smart enough to discover them. Rousseau calls this lovable ignorance. François Fénelon demanded: A girl should only talk when it is really necessary, with a questioning and respectful expression. She shouldn't talk about things that generally go beyond the understanding of girls, even if she knows about them [...] The girls should be taught that their gender should feel a sense of shame towards science that is just as sensitive as that from which the loathing of vice feeds. So knowing something is an offense for girls. Johann Gottfried Herder was particularly open: a hen that crows and a woman who is learned are bad harbingers: you cut off both of their necks. The philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer viewed woman as sexus sequior, "the second sex , which is in every respect backward, whose weakness should therefore be spared, but to which reverence is beyond measure ridiculous and belittles us (men) in their own eyes".

Structural misogyny

According to Seyla Benhabib , the culture of knowledge, which appears to be fundamentally detached from the monastic tradition, maintained a one-sided view that was forced by male philosophers, scientists and theorists. The term misogyny or new social sexism can now be understood as a failure to include female achievements and ways of life in theories and systems. The displacement of girls into moral role models that they theoretically have to fulfill based on their gender is just as often understood as sexist behavior.

Above all, the foundations of political philosophy and economics that were conceived by men, within which reproductive work and women's rights were not included in state and contract theories, are criticized . The concept of the “separative self”, which is an essential part of contractualist theories of the state such as that of Hobbes , Locke , Rousseau , Kant or Rawls , does not describe a way of life whose basic requirements for women up to the introduction of women's suffrage and reforms of inheritance law and the right to private property are not apply.

The maintenance of the regeneration sphere, reproductive work and the emotional and sexual satisfaction of men were seen in scientific discourse as well as in political and legal foundations as an inherently feminine domain, while said separative autonomy was largely withheld from women until the 20th century.

Feminist theories, which are based on the observation of social and intellectual habits, reject gender-specific dualisms and criticize their cultural manifestations in the form of social isolation and social rankings .

See also

literature

  • R. Howard Bloch: Medieval Misogyny and the Invention of Western Romantic Love . Chicago 1991, ISBN 0-226-05973-1 .
  • Katherine H. Burkman: Staging the Rage. The Web of Misogyny in Modern Drama . Madison 1998.
  • Diana H. Coole: Women in Political Theory: From Ancient Misogyny to Contemporary Feminism . Brighton 1988.
  • Bram Dijkstra: Evil is a woman. Male violent fantasies and the fear of female sexuality (original title: Evil Sisters , translated by Susanne Klockmann), Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-498-01305-X .
  • Mona Eltahawy : Why do you hate us so much? For the sexual revolution of women in the Islamic world. Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-492-05607-6 .
  • Andrea Geier, Ursula Kocher (Ed.): Against the woman. On the history and function of misogynist speech. Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-412-15304-5 .
  • Jack Holland : Misogyny. The story of misogyny. with an afterword by Marlene Streeruwitz . Zweiausendeins, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-86150-793-2 .
  • Emma A. Jane: Misogyny Online: A Short (and Brutish) History . Los Angeles 2017.
  • Sheila Jeffreys: Beauty and Misogyny. Harmful Cultural Practices in the West. London 2015.
  • Kate Manne: Down Girl. The Logic of Misogyny. Oxford 2018. ISBN 978-0-19-060498-1 .
  • Karla Mantilla: Gender rolling: how misogyny went viral. Santa Barbara (CA) 2015.
  • Ute Planert : Antifeminism in the Empire. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-525-35787-7 . (also dissertation at the University of Tübingen 1996)
  • Rolf Pohl : The enemy of women. Male sexuality, violence and the defense of the feminine. Offizin, Hannover 2004, ISBN 3-930345-36-6 .
  • Katharine M. Rogers: The Troublesome Helpmate. A History of Misogyny in Literature . Seattle 1966.
  • Hans-Dieter Schmidt , Christiane Schmerl, Astrid Krameyer, Angelika Wagner, Dieter Steinbach, Amélie Schmidt-Mummendey : Misogyny: Social-psychological aspects of misogyny. Juventa, Munich. ISBN 978-3-7799-0518-9 .
  • Annegret Stopczyk : muse, mother, mega-fairy What philosophers think of women. Structure, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-7466-1278-0 .

Web links

Commons : Misogyny  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Misogyny  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Misogyny. In: Duden. Retrieved March 22, 2017 .
  2. ↑ a b Gerd Wenninger: Lexicon of Psychology . Heidelberg 2003.
  3. ^ A b Arthur S. Reber, Emily Reber, Rhianon Allen: The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology . 4th edition. London 2009.
  4. ^ A b Katharine M. Rogers: The Troublesome Helpmate. A History of Misogyny in Literature . Seattle 1966, p. 265.
  5. ^ A b Katharine M. Rogers: The Troublesome Helpmate. A History of Misogyny in Literature . Seattle 1966, p. 268.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f Damaris Nübling: From the 'maiden' to the 'maid', from the 'girl' to the 'prostitute': The pejoration of women's designations as a distorting mirror of culture and as an effect of male gallantry? In: Yearbook for German Language History. 2011, pp. 344-362.
  7. ↑ a b c Jack Holland: Misogyny. The story of misogyny. (with an afterward by Marlene Streeruwitz), Zweausendeins Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-86150-793-2 .
  8. ^ A b R. Howard Bloch, Frances Ferguson: Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy . Berkeley 1989.
  9. ↑ Google Books Ngram Viewer: Dissemination of the Terms Misogyny and Misandry in Books at Google Books - 1750-2008. Retrieved March 22, 2017 .
  10. ^ A b c Hans-Dieter Schmidt , Christiane Schmerl, Astrid Krameyer, Angelika Wagner, Dieter Steinbach, Amélie Schmidt-Mummendey : Misogyny: Social-psychological aspects of misogyny. Juventa, Munich 1973, ISBN 3-7799-0518-3 .
  11. ^ The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9 , pp. 246ff.
  12. ^ Lorraine Code: Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. 1st edition. Routledge, London 2000, ISBN 0-415-13274-6 , p. 346.
  13. ↑ Cheris Kramarae: Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women. Routledge, New York 2000, ISBN 0-415-92088-4 , pp. 1374-1377.
  14. ↑ Misogyny. (as an aspect of fascism) In: Enzyclopedia Britannica.
  15. ^ The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9 , pp. 572f.
  16. ^ A b Michael Flood: International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities . 2007, ISBN 978-0-415-33343-6 , pp. 443 .
  17. ↑ Michael S. Kimmel, Jeff Hearn, Raewyn Connell: Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinities . Thousand Oaks CA 2005.
  18. ↑ a b Andrea Geier, Ursula Kocher (ed.): Against the woman: To history and function of misogynist speech . Cologne 2008, ISBN 978-3-412-15304-5 .
  19. ↑ Michael Meuser: Gender and Masculinity: Sociological Theory and Cultural Patterns of Interpretation . 3. Edition. Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-531-17169-2 .
  20. ↑ Yifat Bitton: Reclaiming power? Women victims of sexual violence and the civil legal system. In: Natti Ronel, K. Jaishankar, Moshe Bensimon (eds.): Trends and Issues in Victimology. Newcastle 2008, pp. 130-149.
  21. ↑ Inna Levy, Sarah Ben-David: Blaming victims and bystanders in the context of rape. In: Natti Ronel, K. Jaishankar, Moshe Bensimon (eds.): Trends and Issues in Victimology. Newcastle 2008, pp. 175-191.
  22. ↑ a b Rolf Pohl: Woman as enemy. Male sexuality, violence and the defense of the feminine . Hanover 2004.
  23. ↑ a b Rolf Pohl: Is there a crisis in masculinity? Defenses against femininity and anti-feminism as building blocks of hegemonic masculinity. (PDF) lecture. March 26, 2015, accessed August 3, 2017 .
  24. ↑ Betty A. Reardon: Sexism and the War System . In: Utta Isop, Viktorija Ratkovic, Werner Wintersteiner (eds.): Rules of the game of violence: cultural studies contributions to peace and gender studies . Bielefeld 2009, ISBN 978-3-8376-1175-5 , p. 93 f .
  25. ^ Katharine M. Rogers: The Troublesome Helpmate. A History of Misogyny in Literature . Seattle 1966.
  26. ↑ Ludwig August Kraus: "Kritisch-etymologisches medicinisches Lexikon", 3rd edition, Verlag der Deuerlich- und Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, Göttingen 1844, p. 628 (from misos = disgust, hatred, enmity, disgust, disgusting) .
  27. ^ Wilhelm Gemoll : Greek-German school and hand dictionary . G. Freytag Verlag / Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky, Munich / Vienna 1965.
  28. ↑ Beverley Clack: Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition: A Reader . New York 1999, ISBN 0-333-63423-3 .
  29. ↑ a b Werner Fuchs-Heinritz, Daniela Klimke, Rüdiger Lautmann, Otthein Rammstedt, Urs Staeheli, Christoph Weischer, Hanns Wienold (eds.): Lexicon for Sociology . 5th, revised edition. Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-16602-5 , pp. 447 .
  30. ^ Allan G. Johnson: The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User's Guide to Sociological Language . 2000, ISBN 978-0-631-21681-0 .
  31. ↑ Herrad Schenk: The Feminist Challenge. 150 years of the women's movement in Germany . Munich 1977, p. 162 ff .
  32. ↑ Ute Planert: Antifeminism in the Empire. Discourse, social formation and political mentality. Göttingen 1998, p. 12.
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    Paula England : A Feminist Critique of Rational-Choice Theories: Implications for Sociology. In: American Sociologist. Volume 20, 1989, pp. 14-28.
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