Linux areas of application

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Linux was originally written as a kernel for computers with a 386 processor . With the growing success of the program (system), the possible uses have been expanded by adding countless free programs. This article gives an overview of the technical uses of Linux. Both private individuals as well as companies and public institutions can use Linux.

Desktop

The PC as a desk device is a demanding computer installation. The user should be able to work with it without having to be aware of the technical background of the system. A typical installation of a Linux distribution contains an X11 graphics server as well as a desktop environment and important user programs . This includes office programs such as Libreoffice , as well as programs for image processing (often GIMP ), browsers and e-mail programs. In the case of installations for companies and offices, there are also other programs such as corporate planning. There are developer tools such as Eclipse or KDevelop for developers .

Market shares

Gnome desktop ( Ubuntu )

In practice, Linux is used rather hesitantly in the desktop area. The spread is difficult to estimate because of the free and decentralized availability. In 2002 Linux ran on 2.8% of all computers sold that year (estimate). In 2011 the value was around 1%, the source uses the “user agent information” of the web browser to determine the market share. In the case of netbook operating systems, originally a pure Linux domain, the proportion of sales with a pre-installed Linux operating system with Windows XP becoming available as an option has decreased to below 10% by 2009. From the summer of 2011 to the beginning of 2012, there was a sharp increase (approx. 40%) in the number of hits on websites by Linux desktop systems. The market share in December 2011 was 1.4%. It is unclear whether the increase is related to Chromebooks or the 20th anniversary of Linux. By 2015, there was a further increase to around 1.6%.

The actual reasons for the low prevalence are not sufficiently clarified and are discussed controversially. This is often the name given to the de facto monopoly of the Windows operating system and the need for users to get used to a new system. The reason often given is that installing software from third-party sources is often more difficult to handle than, for example, under Windows. However, this criticism does not apply at all to a large number of usage scenarios, since the common distributions usually already contain the software required for this.

Graphic interfaces

The graphical interfaces are not compulsory but usually used on one of the available window systems. Wayland is emerging as an alternative to the commonly used X Window System . The best-known Linux descendant Android has its own, non-X Window-based GUI.

Today, many common functions of the system can be accessed via intuitive graphical user interfaces . Furthermore, in the further development of the direct interface with the user, the desktop environment , more and more emphasis is placed on a user-friendly and beginner-friendly design.

The two largest desktop environments for Linux, Gnome and KDE , have drawn up guidelines for this which should be adhered to by every program and every function in order to offer the user a uniform appearance and operating concept ( look and feel ).

Because the policies of both desktops differ, programs from one environment appear inconsistent in the other. This problem is to be countered through standardization and cooperation of the projects. The best known is the initiative freedesktop.org . The Linux Standard Base also launched its own project group in the late 1990s, the LSB Workgroup. The aim is to create reliable standards for developers of application programs and Linux distributions in order to achieve more extensive compatibility between them, an aim that has not yet been achieved. Other projects also take care of individual areas. B. the Tango! Project , which tries to achieve a uniform appearance by means of design guidelines and the use of uniform icons (buttons).

Projects like Xgl or AIGLX were experimental attempts to expand X11 to bring hardware-accelerated 3D effects to the desktop with the help of composition managers .

To advance the development and the use of Linux on the desktop, has been in the Linux Foundation to The Desktop Linux Working Group formed to bundle all forces and coordinate to dealing with the issue.

multimedia

A program for playing audio files: amaroK

Multimedia support is assessed differently depending on user needs and behavior. Dealing with common music formats is not a problem. However, due to licensing reasons, some distributions do not offer the option of playing multimedia formats such as MP3. The end user must first install the corresponding decoding methods. This may change in late 2015 when an essential MP3 patent expires in the US. A number of powerful playback programs such as Amarok or Rhythmbox are available for playback .

The playback and recoding of video files and video streams for a large number of common but also unusual formats is possible under Linux with the programs MPlayer , Xine and VLC, for example . These programs can also play DVDs , but the program library libdvdcss is required to play media encrypted with CSS. Due to the unclear legal situation in many countries, the user has to install it himself. Commercial DVD player software like PowerDVD exists but has never gained much importance. Only the Fluendo DVD player can be purchased directly by end customers.

There is also no Linux version of the two widespread multimedia programs QuickTime Player and Windows Media Player , whose own video formats have now been understood through reverse engineering and support for this has been incorporated into the free playback programs and, in some cases, also into the free recoding software. It looks similar with proprietary audio formats like AC3 . On x86-based systems, the original codec libraries created by the manufacturer for MS Windows can also be used, provided that no native codec exists.

The playback of DRM-protected audio and video files is only possible in exceptional cases under Linux, as these are mostly linked to non-ported, provider-specific player applications.

The situation is clearly different in the area of ​​professional multimedia processing. With the JACK Audio Connection Kit , a special sound architecture is available under Linux that offers particularly low latency times. It is used by programs like Ardor . Linux is particularly popular in the film industry: the special effects of many films were rendered with the help of Linux computer networks. For example, the program CinePaint , which is often used under Linux, has helped with the creation of films such as the Harry Potter adaptations.

The transition between these different situations is fluid. With the increasing development of proprietary solutions, including for Linux, it can be assumed that the existing gaps will be closed in the near future. One example is the field of video editing, in which there are both proprietary solutions such as the MainActor program from MainConcept, and solutions from the free software movement such as B. the software Kino or Cinelerra , which is designed for professional hardware.

Computer games

The free game 0 AD

OpenGL is available and also suitable as a programming interface for hardware-accelerated rendering. Although the main focus in the development of OpenGL was CAD applications rather than computer games. Because of these priorities, OpenGL was and is in some circles not quite on a par with the latest versions of Direct3D. The manufacturers' proprietary Linux drivers implement the latest version and are comparable to their Windows counterparts in terms of their performance. The available free implementations of device drivers as well as OpenGL and other APIs are being developed in the Mesa 3D project and, with a few exceptions, are lagging far behind in terms of performance and the supported API versions. There are no OpenGL APIs for sound generation and an API for input devices, similar to XAudio2 , as well as available software implementations of it. The Linux kernel is very powerful, as its ubiquitous use on supercomputers, servers or mobile devices impressively underpins, and the fact that it is freely available is basically to be seen as an advantage. The low prevalence of Linux on home computers as well as the problems described, which could all be solved, especially in the affluent gaming market, are the main reasons for the neglected treatment by the gaming industry . In spite of everything, there are commercial games available for Linux and there are also a number of free games, see list of open source computer games .

Some proponents of Linux as a gaming platform are of the opinion that classic games such as Quake III Arena or Unreal Tournament are just the beginning of a rethink on the part of game manufacturers. Games like Doom 3 , Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory and others are also available as Linux versions from the start, as is the US Army 's America's Army advertising game . Announcements from various manufacturers give hope for many more ports. Some developers of the Linux distribution Gentoo have specialized in the games sector and founded a company that offers the porting of computer games. OpenGL -based games such as B. Half-Life , can often also run under Linux with the help of the Windows runtime environment Wine . Games based on the latest DirectX versions often do not run because DirectX is not available on Linux. The company TransGaming has taken care of the problem and with his Wine- Fork Cedega set the target (winex former), also produce most extensive compatibility with the latest version of DirectX, which can be already playing a lot of new games on Linux. A major disadvantage is that the program is not completely open source, the CVS version is always significantly older than the non-open source version and does not contain any support for the copy protection of the game installers or the installation manager "Point2Play".

Recently, Valve has also been using Linux with its Steam distribution platform . Steam has been officially available for the Linux distribution Ubuntu since February 2013 , and it can also run on numerous other distributions. In this context, not only have a number of independent games become available for Linux, but blockbuster games (such as Left4Dead 2 ) are being ported from Valve to Linux. Valve has also brought about the further development of SDL to version 2 and at the same time the license change from the LGPL to the zlib license . Valve's commitment also includes a collaboration with device driver developers from nvidia and Intel to optimize their Linux graphics card drivers for complex 3D games. Valve is also planning to bring its own gaming hardware onto the market based on commercially available i686 components in cooperation with various hardware manufacturers. The operating system for these “Steamboxes” should preferably be Ubuntu Linux.

Valve announced SteamOS , a Linux-based operating system for games, in September 2013 .

With Linux Game Publishing there is still at least one active company that ports games to Linux.

Available resources for computer games

Desktop migration

The migration from Microsoft Windows to the Linux operating system took place worldwide within numerous administrations and companies. That means, one of the numerous Linux distributions including window system and desktop environment or a separate fork is used. Other administrations and companies are considering converting their workstations to the Linux operating system.

Two of the better-known successful examples of a fork are the city administration of Munich, which switched many of their workstation computers to LiMux projects, and the national gendarmerie , which switched 72,000 workstations to GendBuntu .

An example from the industrial sector is the car manufacturer Citroën, which converted 20,000 desktops to Linux at the beginning of 2007.

Known difficulties are due to inadequate coordination and communication and often result in delayed acceptance of the new and unfamiliar work surface by either technically less experienced or unwilling employees. The almost limitless possible adaptation of the entire operating system and especially the work surface to the wishes of the employees can be unnecessarily protracted, cause unnecessary costs and even lead to the failure of the migration. This is particularly the case when not only the operating system but also the software used is changed. The software is usually changed for the same reason that the operating system is changed, i.e. mainly to save license costs and discontinue support for the old version. However, it is also possible that the manufacturer does not port the old software to Linux, which means that you are forced to change the software with the operating system.

The technical conversion of the additional software can be expensive, on the other hand, many users have to get used to the new desktop environment, which could be time-consuming and costly. A worthwhile time to convert the company desktops is therefore if you have to change over to a new operating system with all its innovations in the flow logic anyway , because the manufacturer has canceled its old version or the support for it. A clerk's getting used to from Windows XP to Windows 8 is roughly comparable to getting used to Windows XP on the KDE or Gnome desktop under Linux.

Since upgrading to a current Windows version often also requires the purchase of new hardware, many institutions are increasingly relying on a thin client solution with Linux, in which the computationally intensive tasks are no longer performed by the workstations but by central servers. This saves you a large part of the hardware upgrades that would otherwise be necessary. If the existing network infrastructure also allows the installation to be carried out over the network, then this circumstance considerably reduces the personnel expenditure for the installation of Linux on all work computers.

If large parts of the software are already provided via a web interface anyway, i.e. if the interaction takes place via a web browser , as is the case with the employment agencies, the hurdles for migration are particularly low.

Schools and learning

There are numerous distributions that have been specifically developed for use in schools or for learning support. The spectrum of applications included ranges from school-typical administrative tasks through learning software to age-appropriate internet filters . The filters are intended to enable children to access the Internet without exposing them to content that is harmful to minors. Many developers focus on ease of use. Distributions with a focus on school and learning are e.g. B. Open School Server , Arktur-Schulserver , KmLinux, Skolelinux , paedML and Seminarix .

However, there are also examples of the use of Linux in schools where a standard desktop installation of a distribution such as Ubuntu with a few extensions is also suitable for the use of heterogeneous networks. The age restriction is implemented directly via configurations.

Windows application support

Since Linux differs greatly from Windows in the operating system architecture , it is not possible to run Windows programs directly under Linux. In these cases there are various alternatives:

  • Many programs from the free software scene are available for more than one platform. So there are z. B. from the popular programs OpenOffice.org , Mozilla Firefox or GIMP versions for both Linux and Windows.
  • A number of proprietary programs are available on Linux. There are many programs for this platform, especially in the field of scientific software. Examples of this are programs like Matlab , Mathematica or Maple .
  • Existing Windows programs can be ported to the Linux platform . This usually only takes a little programming effort, since only the characteristics of the operating system have to be adapted. Nevertheless, this solution is often very expensive, and the possibility of porting also depends on the company policy of the respective software manufacturer. Porting is particularly useful when it comes to software that has been specially developed for corporate or administrative purposes or when there are other companies interested in porting. There are now tools from the Wine project that enable automated software porting without a great deal of programming effort, which means that you can also benefit from a native solution for Linux.
  • Wine provides a variant of the Windows API that has been translated to Linux . This means that some programs can run directly under Linux. Although these variants do not emulate an entire Windows system, this solution is sometimes slower (but sometimes also faster) and less promising than porting. With commercial software packages based on Wine, programs known from the Windows world can be used with almost no problems. CrossOver offers support for numerous office software such as Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop , while Cedega specializes in Windows games.
  • Another possibility is to use a virtual machine such as VMware , Bochs or QEMU , which emulates an entire PC and makes it possible to install Microsoft Windows on it. However, the speed suffers significantly. One of the decisive advantages of a migration, manufacturer independence, is also canceled out.
  • Linux and Windows can be installed in parallel on one computer. With a boot manager such as Grub or Lilo, a user can decide which system to start when the system is started or restarted.
  • There is also the option of starting Windows programs on a Windows server and displaying them graphically using remote desktop software such as B. NX or rdesktop (for RDP ) to output on Linux clients. This procedure requires a permanent network connection between the two computers, but also enables old hardware to be used as thin clients .
  • With the help of the .NET implementation Mono it is possible to start programs that were developed with Microsoft's latest program platform .NET directly under Linux without porting work.
The DOSBox as a way to start old DOS games under Linux
  • If the programs are still based on the DOS level, many of them can be operated with the DOSEMU program. DOSBox is also ideal for DOS games . Linux emulators are also available for other game consoles and operating systems.
  • Linux has its own programs for many functions. So if a program is not available under Linux, the function is usually available in another program. Examples are programs such as Kontact , Novell Evolution, and Konqueror .
  • At least in theory it is possible, even as a programmer to write a program that contains the required functions. Since there are many free user interface libraries available that can be used without license fees, and many software development tools are included in most Linux distributions, a programmer is offered a very programming-friendly environment. Most of the solutions listed here were created or initiated in this way.

Support of OSX applications

Apple macOS is very similar to GNU / Linux in many ways. Both have taken over large parts of the system from BSD or are based directly on BSD source code . Both systems are largely POSIX compatible, which is why they largely use the same system tools and system services . These include: rsync , NFS , Samba , Bash , vi , grep , CUPS , syslog or cron . Since native OS X applications use a programming interface specially developed for OS X by Apple , many OS X applications cannot be compiled directly for Linux . The GNUstep project is developing a programming interface that is compatible with Apple's Cocoa interface. This makes it possible to run OS X applications under Linux.

Support of applications from other operating systems

The OS2Linux project provides libraries to easily migrate OS / 2 or eComStation applications to Linux.

Support for people with disabilities

To ensure accessibility under Linux , several projects are working on the subject. While the two large desktops, Gnome and KDE , each have their own project groups that deal with the topic, there are also working groups within the distributors or groups that work across projects and companies. The best known is the FSG Accessibility Workgroup .

The work of these projects makes it possible, among other things, to use Braille displays under Linux, to have documents and written material read aloud from many programs or to navigate the screen with only the mouse or only with special keys.

Linux as a gaming platform

Linux kernel-based operating systems are suitable as a platform for computer games . Either a typical Linux on the desktop can be expanded to such an extent through the use of appropriate software that it is also suitable for developing and playing video games, or it can also be designed on its own platform that expressly serves this purpose. Examples are the operating system steamos or the operating systems of handheld consoles Pandora (console) , GP2X , Nintendo 3DS and Neo Geo X . Android runs on the Nvidia Shield .

Server systems

The LAMP software bundle (here also with Squid ). A high performance and high availability solution for the hostile internet environment

Due to the relationship between Linux and UNIX, Linux established itself particularly quickly on the server market. Since server software such as web servers , database servers and groupware that were often used and required for Linux was available free of charge and largely without restriction at an early stage, the market share there grew steadily.

Since Linux is considered stable, secure and easy to maintain, it also fulfills the special conditions that are placed on a server operating system. The modular structure of the Linux system also enables compact, dedicated servers to be operated . In addition, the porting of Linux to various hardware components has resulted in Linux supporting all known server architectures.

Market shares

In terms of sales, the market share of Linux 2005 for servers sold with an operating system was estimated at around 12%, depending on the study and counting method. The annual growth was around 35%. Measured by the number of units, the growth was 20.5%.

This growth is partly at the expense of traditional UNIX systems, which are being replaced by Linux. The companies that previously developed and sold their own UNIX are increasingly selling computers with Linux and are becoming more and more involved in the development of Linux. The biggest competitor for Linux in the server market is Microsoft Windows, which according to studies had a share of about a third of the total market in 2005.

The study counts are only representative to a limited extent, however, as many Linux distributions can be installed on any number of devices without having to pay license fees. This creates an unknown number of unreported cases on Linux servers that are not recorded by the studies.

In October 2012, at least 32% of all websites were hosted on a Linux server. Since not all Linux servers identify themselves as such, the actual share could be up to 24 percentage points higher. This means that an actual market share of up to 55% cannot be ruled out.

Application examples

The servers of the Wikimedia Foundation are a cluster LAMP system

One of the best-known examples of a Linux server configuration is LAMP . LAMP is an abbreviation for the combined use of the software products Linux, Apache , MySQL and PHP (sometimes also Perl or Python ). This combination makes it possible to operate a web server on a computer that generates dynamic content from databases when the pages are called up with the web browser , and also to write content back into this database. A well-known example of such a use is the MediaWiki software , which runs on a LAMP system.

In addition to MySQL and its fork MariaDB , almost all other currently common database systems have also been ported to Linux or developed in the Linux environment. Linux database servers are used by most of the major Internet companies.

Another common area in which Linux is used is the use of Samba , often in conjunction with an LDAP directory service. While the directory service enables Windows and Linux clients to log on centrally, the capabilities of Samba enable files to be exchanged between computers with Linux operating systems and computers with Windows operating systems. Samba enables a Linux computer to be used as a central file and printer server in mixed networks. All important files are saved at a central point and made available to several users at the same time. Since Samba, like Linux, is praised by its users for its stability, performance and scalability, the combination is very well suited for central and important nodes in large networks in which there is a heterogeneous environment.

As an example, the project can migos the German Bundestag apply. A total of over 100 servers were converted from Windows NT to Linux. The approximately 5000 workstation computers (with Windows) of the members of parliament and administrative employees were integrated via Samba and OpenLDAP .

In addition to these widespread areas of application, there is a range of other server software that is operated under Linux. The Asterisk software telephone system is often used as a central interface in company networks. Likewise, many services that are essential for networks are operated on Linux computers. This includes DNS servers as well as mail servers and database servers .

Many servers for online games, so-called game servers , are operated under Linux, even if the actual game is not available under Linux.

hardware

The hardware on which Linux can be operated as a server is diverse. Since Linux has been ported to a variety of platforms, a Linux server can be operated on standard i686 hardware as well as on classic server architectures such as Alpha or SPARC .

The IBM eServer p5 is an example of Linux support for even the most modern server hardware . This family of 64-bit servers is based on IBM Power CPUs and is one of the heavyweights of the available server hardware. Up to 256 Linux installations can be operated in parallel on this hardware.

Linux for embedded systems

The term Embedded Linux refers to the use of Linux in smaller end devices for the mass market such as in cell phones , tablet computers or PDAs , but also in small single-board computers such as the Raspberry Pi , the BeagleBone Black , the Orange Pi , the phyBoard-WEGA-AM335x , the Arduino or relative. Furthermore, the use relates to embedded hardware as it is used in industry for various purposes. The advantage here is that each manufacturer can change Linux on the one hand according to their own needs, but on the other hand there is also a very active developer community , whose resources (e.g. extensive developer programs, existing code such as the User interfaces, experience, etc.) manufacturers can fall back on.

Most manufacturers have come together for development in various groups or projects, which are usually defined by the hardware used or the purpose of the systems. The Linux distribution Android , which was largely developed by Google and has been the market leader on the smartphone market since 2010, exists on the market for mobile radio systems . For example, Google's Android had a market share of 83.1% in the 3rd quarter of 2014, followed by Apple's iOS with 12.7%, followed by Microsoft's Windows Phone with 3%, followed by Blackberry's Blackberry OS with 0.8% , followed by others with 0.4%. Positioned in the same market, but still brand new, is the Tizen operating system promoted by Samsung , which is mainly tailored to ARM microprocessor systems. According to the recent launch, Tizen has not yet appeared in the sales charts (as of January 2015).

From a technical point of view, smartphones, tablets and PDAs are usually equipped with specialized energy-saving processors and a flash memory. An adapted and compact Linux is then operated there. Examples of hardware currently running Linux are the Motorola cell phones A728, A760, A768, A780 , A910, E680, E895, the Nokia 770 Internet Tablet and the Sharp Zaurus PDA.

Further embedded hardware with an integrated Linux operating system can be found in the SOHO area , where some Linksys routers and WLAN devices such as the 4G Access Cube are equipped in this way. Hardware with an adapted Linux variant can also be found in many hard disk recorders , satellite receivers and DVD players and recording devices.

electronics

The term “ embedded system ” is very broad and encompasses a great many types of extremely different devices. In addition to the use of Linux in widespread communication devices, it is also used in electronic controls and devices in measurement and regulation technology and in the field of µC ( microcontrollers ).

In contrast to Embedded Linux, the system is used in this case for special technical applications. On the one hand, this eliminates the mass market, on the other hand, there is also less need for a user-friendly and simple interface, for example.

Smartphone and tablet system

Galaxy Nexus with Android

There are specially optimized Linux distributions for smartphones and tablets . In addition to telephony and SMS functions, they offer various PIM , navigation and multimedia functions. Typically, it is operated using multi-touch or a pen. Linux-based smartphone systems are mostly developed by a consortium of companies or a single company and in some cases differ greatly from the otherwise classic desktop, embedded and server distributions. In contrast to the embedded area, Linux-based smartphone systems are not limited to a specific device, rather they serve as an operating system for devices of very different model series and are often used by all manufacturers.

Well-known smartphone and tablet Linux distributions are, in addition to the very widespread Android , Firefox OS , Ubuntu for phones , Maemo , Tizen , Mer , Sailfish OS , MeeGo and WebOS .

Mobile Linux distributions have been market leaders in the rapidly growing smartphone market since the end of 2010. In July 2011 they had a market share of at least 45%. Mostly Android devices have successfully pushed back Apple iOS , Windows Phone and Symbian OS .

Security areas

Linux is considered to be extremely secure within networks and can be adapted to the respective conditions. It is therefore often used in security-related areas. Examples are the use of Linux as a gateway , router or firewall . Above all, the use as a firewall spread early and led to a large number of Linux distributions being developed specifically for firewall use, which are used, for example, to protect bastion host systems.

Mainframe

With the free availability of the source code and the resulting possibility to adapt the system to specific purposes, Linux has also spread to the application areas of data centers. Linux on mainframes that are optimized for reliability and high data throughput and can often be found in banks, insurance companies and large companies is increasingly competing with the special UNIX versions that were previously installed there.

Computer cluster

Another application can be found in the area of computer clusters , in which Linux, often in connection with grid computing , works on the individual computers, which are then connected to form large networks. In addition to specially adapted Linux distributions, there are also special file systems such as. B. the Global File System is available. A Linux cluster is also often used to ensure the high availability of business-critical network infrastructures.

Supercomputing

Probably the most prestigious use of Linux is in supercomputers . These computers represent the top of current high-performance computers and for this reason usually receive special attention from the press. Currently (November 2017) all of the 500 world's fastest supercomputers run on Linux. This dominance has grown steadily from 70% (June 2006) to 85% (November 2007).

Secondary operating system

Linux boots on a Dingoo A320

Resourceful inventors succeed again and again in adapting Linux for electronic devices that have proprietary firmware by default. Examples of this are Linux on the d-box 2 (digital television receiver), iPod Linux (MP3 player) and Xbox Linux (game console). In their opinion, the motivation for this is often existing inadequacies or unnecessary limitations of the original software.

attachment

supporting documents

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  33. ↑ The 500 fastest supercomputers in the world all run Linux. Retrieved November 19, 2017 .
  34. ↑ Operating system family . Archived from the original on November 30, 2006 ; accessed on May 7, 2017 . on the website top500.org. June 2006

literature

  • T. Brinker, H. Degenhardt, G. Kupris: Embedded Linux - practical implementation with uClinux. VDE VERLAG, Berlin 2007, ISBN 3-8007-3006-5
  • Leonhard Dobusch: Windows versus Linux: Market - Organization - Path. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-16242-3
  • Rob Flickenger: Linux Server Hacks. 1st edition, O'Reilly, Beijing [u. a.] 2003. ISBN 3-89721-361-3
  • Martin Fink: The Business and Economics of Linux and Open Source. Prentice Hall PTR, Upper Saddle River NJ 2003, ISBN 0-13-047677-3
  • Michael Kofler: Linux. Installation, configuration, application. 7th edition, Addison-Wesley, Munich [u. a.] 2004, ISBN 3-8273-2158-1
  • Evi Nemeth, Garth Snyder, Trent Hein: Handbook for Linux system administration. Markt + Technik, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-8272-6442-1
  • Matt Welsh, Lar Kaufman: Linux - Guide to Installation & Configuration. O'Reilly, Beijing [u. a.] 2003, ISBN 3-89721-353-2

Web links