Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists

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Coat of arms of the OUN-M
Flag of the OUN-M
Coat of arms of the OUN-B
Flag of the OUN-B

The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists ( Ukrainian Організація Українських Націоналістів ; German abbreviation: OUN ) was founded in Vienna in 1929 Ukrainian - nationalist organization. Their goal was the independence of Ukraine. It emerged from the merger of the Ukrainian Military Organization (UWO) with various smaller right-wing groups and Ukrainian nationalists such as Dmytro Donzow (1883–1973), Jewhen Konowalez (1891–1938) and Mykola Sziborskyj (1897–1941).

During the Second World War, the OUN split in 1940 into an organization led by Andrij Melnyk - called the "Melnykisten" (OUN-M) - and the "Banderists" (OUN-B) under the leadership of Stepan Bandera . OUN-B members fought in the German-Soviet war in the battalions “Nachtigall” and “Roland” on the side of the German Wehrmacht . OUN-M members provided the volunteers for the Waffen SS “Galicia” division . In 1942, the OUN-B set up the Ukrainian Insurgent Army as a partisan army , which fought against the Polish Home Army and the Soviet Union until the early 1950s. After the Second World War, the OUN existed in exile in Western countries. The Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists , founded in 1992, sees itself as the successor to the OUN.

prehistory

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The south-eastern areas of Poland after 1921: The majority of Ukrainians lived in eastern Galicia and Volhynia

In the Habsburg Monarchy , Ukrainians and other East Slavic ethnic groups were known as " Ruthenians ". In eastern Galicia a "Ruthenian" education in the 19th century was born. Ruthenian / Ukrainian popular education societies ( Proswita ), scout associations ( Sitsch , Plast ) and peasant business cooperatives were able to develop freely.

During the First World War , the Austro-Hungarian army set up groups of volunteers from "Ruthenians" who were called Sitscher riflemen . Among them was a women's company, perhaps for the first time in the 20th century. After the end of the First World War, these units formed the core of the armed forces of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic . Their territory, mainly the eastern part of Galicia , was also claimed by Poles and was militarily occupied in 1919. Colonel Jewhen Konowalez , commander of the Sitsh riflemen from Bukovina in World War I , formed the “Ukrainian Military Organization” ( Ukrajinska Wijskowa Orhanisazija , UWO) from demobilized soldiers from the West Ukrainian People's Republic , which fought underground against the Polish state in eastern Galicia. After the ideas of an independent West Ukrainian People's Republic (East Galicia, North Bukovina and Transcarpathia ) could not be implemented - in the 1921 Treaty of Riga (ending the Polish-Soviet War ) the territory of western Ukraine fell to Poland, Romania and the Czechoslovakia - the UWO tried to continue the struggle for an independent Ukraine.

The "Ruthenians" of Eastern Galicia, who made up almost two thirds of the population according to the 1910 census, mostly felt that they were part of the Ukrainian nation and felt that Polish rule was an occupation . Although the Polish Republic passed a law on the partial autonomy of Eastern Galicia in 1922, it was never implemented. Neither territorial self-government nor higher educational institutions were established. The education system was largely Polonized, the schools were organized in Polish or bilingual. Polish farmers were settled in Ukrainian populated areas. The Ukrainian parties initially reacted with an election boycott, and a Ukrainian university was established underground.

The UWO started a guerrilla war against the Polish state. They committed acts of sabotage and attacks on the post office and railways and attacks on Polish estates. An attempted assassination attempt on Józef Piłsudski in 1921 failed. The Polish state responded with “pacification actions”: Army attacks on Ukrainian villages and arrests of Ukrainian politicians and alleged UWO supporters. The 24-year-old Olha Basarab, a former member of the Sitsch women's company, was killed during a police interrogation in 1924. She became the “martyr” of the UWO. The UWO succeeded in influencing the scout association "Plast" and in recruiting young people through it. Even so, their guerrilla warfare was not popular everywhere. Because cultural and economic organizations of the Ukrainians were allowed to continue to exist, unlike in the Soviet Union , political forces who pleaded for cooperation with the Polish Republic gained ground. The Uniate Church under the popular Metropolitan Andrej Scheptyzkyj kept its distance from the UWO. However, their leadership had established contacts in Czechoslovakia , Lithuania and Germany through officers who had fled . The German Reichswehr was already running secret training courses for the UWO in Munich in 1923. Many UWO activists fled abroad.

After the end of the first Ukrainian state, the Ukrajinska Narodna Respublika (Ukrainian People's Republic), various emigration centers had formed, including around Ataman Petljura in Paris and Warsaw and around Hetman Skoropadskyj in Berlin. After the murder of Petljura in May 1926 (an act of revenge by a Jewish anarchist for Petljura's suspected guilt of anti-Semitic pogroms), the originally liberal or left-wing emigration increasingly turned to the right. The most important source of ideas for the OUN was Dmytro Donzow , who until 1939 published the renowned magazine Wistnyk in Lviv . Originally a socialist from eastern Ukraine, he became a proponent of “integral nationalism ”: All other political goals should be subordinated to the unity (sobornist) and independence of Ukraine. This goal should be achieved with "amoralnist" (immorality), ie through alliances with every opponent of Great Russia without exception. “Instead of pacifism… the idea of ​​struggle, expansion, violence… a fanatical belief in one's own truth, exclusivity, hardship. Instead of particularism, anarchism and demo-liberalism - the interests of the nation above all, ”he demanded in his 1926 book Nazionalism . However, he did not become an OUN member.

The OUN until World War II

From January 28 to February 3, 1929, the UWO, the "Union of Ukrainian Nationalist Youth" (SUNM) active in Galicia since 1926, other smaller organizations and individuals from the Ukrainian nationalist spectrum held the 1st Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists in Vienna. At the end of this congress they founded the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists: OUN. Its chairman was Jewhen Konowalez, who was addressed with the title Prowidnyk ("Führer") and who stayed in exile in Berlin, Geneva and Italy until his murder in 1938. The “Ten Commandments of the Ukrainian Nationalist” formulated by Stepan Lenkawskyj (SUNM) - in a slightly defused version - were adopted as the core of the OUN's program (so-called “Decalogue”, see below).

In the year it was founded, the OUN began the armed struggle against the Polish state. She enjoyed the support of the German Reichswehr and Lithuania . Attacks on state officials, arson and track dismantling were carried out. It was not until the fall of 1930 that the state intervened on a massive scale. This led to a further hardening of positions, so that the OUN received an influx of young Ukrainians. In August 1931, Tadeusz Hołówko , a politician and representative of a liberal course against the Ukrainian minority, was shot by the OUN.

Initially, the OUN tried to destabilize the Polish state and intensified its guerrilla activity in Poland, benefiting from the worsening economic situation. In 1932 she organized a peasant uprising in Lesko County, which was suppressed by 4,000 soldiers and police officers with the help of the air force. During the "pacification actions" Ukrainians were beaten by the police and houses and villages were destroyed, they deepened the hostility between Poles and Ukrainians and damaged Poland's reputation abroad, without being able to destroy the OUN.

The OUN had assassinations carried out on Polish politicians, such as Interior Minister Pieracki in 1934 and on Ukrainians willing to cooperate. As a result, the pressure of the Polish Republic on the Ukrainians was further increased and over 90 Greek Orthodox churches were destroyed.

After a rapprochement between moderate Ukrainians and Piłsudski in 1935, the Polish-Ukrainian relationship deteriorated again in 1938/39: Ukrainians were dismissed from the public service, and Orthodox Ukrainian churches were catholicized or closed.

In the meantime, the OUN had expanded its contacts with Germany, especially with the Reichswehr and its chief of defense, Admiral Canaris . In 1933, in cooperation with the Reichswehr, she tried to get the "Ukrainian Scientific Institute" (UWI), founded in Berlin in 1926, under control, but failed. The NSDAP used in the following period rather its relations with the "Hetman organization" Skoropadskis who controlled the UWI. The OUN chairman Konowalez tried to build a Europe-wide network of relationships in order to avoid one-sided dependencies. After his assassination in 1938, which was charged with Soviet agents, the OUN steered a decidedly pro-German course under its new chairman Andrij Melnyk .

Carpathian-Ukraine: The area marked off in red was annexed by Hungary after the First Vienna Arbitration

That the Third Reich was playing a double game with the Ukrainians became clear when Czechoslovakia was broken up. The Ukrainian nationalists, who counted on cooperation with Hitler and hoped for German help in acquiring a Greater Ukraine, were seriously disappointed in March 1939. The easternmost part of Czechoslovakia, Karpato-Ukraine , became autonomous after the Munich Agreement . On the one hand, Germany supported the autonomous region with trade agreements. On the other hand, German authorities gave Hungary the green light to initially annex sub-areas.

After the defeat of Czechoslovakia by Hitler in 1939, Prime Minister Avgustyn Voloschyn declared Carpathian Ukraine to be independent on March 14, 1939 and was appointed President by the Soim on March 15. Volozhyn asked Hitler to put the region under his protection. In view of the Hungarian invasion, the declaration of independence was only a symbolic gesture, the independent Carpathian Ukraine was occupied by Hungary on March 16, 1939 and the entire area was annexed with German approval. The poorly trained and poorly equipped Karpatska Sitsch, under the leadership of two OUN people ( Iwan Rohatsch and Stefan Rosocha ), who had declared themselves lieutenant colonels even though they had never done military service, briefly resisted the invading Hungarians.

The OUN in World War II

As agreed in the secret additional protocol to the Hitler-Stalin Pact , during the German-Soviet attack on Poland at the beginning of the Second World War in 1939, East Galicia and West Volhynia were occupied by the Red Army. Moderate Ukrainian politicians showed solidarity with the Polish Republic . The OUN, however, renounced a planned military uprising against Polish rule in Galicia in order to fight against the Soviet troops . This was followed by four large waves of deportations from areas that had become Soviet in 1940/41 , which, according to estimates by the Polish government-in-exile, killed more than 600,000 people.

West Galicia became part of the German General Government with the capital Krakow . To represent the Ukrainians , the German occupying power created a “Ukrainian Main Committee”, in which the OUN was not involved. However, their cadres were released from Polish prisons. At a congress in Krakow in 1940 they split into "Melnykists" (OUN-M), mostly older emigrants, and "Banderists" (OUN-B), mostly younger supporters of Stepan Bandera with experience in underground struggle, who have fought bitterly since then.

The strongly anti-Polish and anti-Russian Ukrainian nationalists already saw the attack on Poland as the beginning of a liberation by the Germans. In 1940 the Wehrmacht formed two battalions from OUN-B members: "Nachtigall" and "Roland" , which were used in the German-Soviet war . After the attack on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, both OUN factions formed "marching groups" (pochidni hrupy) , which were supposed to lay the foundations for the administration of an independent Ukraine in the area occupied by Germany. After the German Wehrmacht marched into Lviv (Lemberg) on ​​June 30, 1941, militias set up by the OUN-B partially took over the police force. Before they withdrew, the Soviets had murdered several thousand prisoners in Lviv. These acts were blamed on the Jews through propaganda spread by the German occupation forces . This led to pogroms against the Jewish population in Lviv and other places . The militias led by the OUN-B were significantly involved in this. They also prepared the mass shooting of 3,000 Jews by Einsatzgruppe C of the German security police on July 5, 1941 by making arrests .

On June 30, 1941, the OUN-B in Lviv proclaimed the independence of Ukraine and formed a government under Yaroslav Stetsko . While the Wehrmacht initially tolerated the activities of the OUN-B, Jaroslaw Stezko and Stepan Bandera were arrested by the SS a week later and taken to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp as "protective prisoners" in September 1941 . After Stezko's arrest, Lev Rebet's deputy was prime minister for some time, but after he refused to repeal the law to restore the Ukrainian state, he and other members of the government were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned in Auschwitz .

The National Socialist Germany had other plans for Ukraine: it was in the General Government (Poland and Eastern Galicia) and the Commission Ukraine divided. The OUN-UPA was later banned by the German occupiers. The Wehrmacht also distributed leaflets describing Bandera as Stalin's agent. Conversely, a quote from a leaflet published by the OUN-B in 1942 shows that the organization has distanced itself from the German occupying power: "We don't want to work for Moscow , the Jews, the Germans and other foreigners, but for ourselves."

The Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler made no distinction between Ukrainians and other Slavs in his racial contempt , and Hitler considered the latter to be "just as lazy, disorganized and nihilistic-Asian ... as the Great Russians" , while OUN theorists tried to prove that the Ukrainians not Slavs, but descendants of an "autochthonous population".

The following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.

Reichskommissar Koch and his subordinates , but also Wehrmacht agencies, pursued a brutal policy of exploitation. The kolkhozes from the Soviet era were retained and their delivery quotas increased, and over 1 million Ukrainians were deported to Germany as forced laborers . Many Ukrainians fled to the forests from being forced to work on collective farms and recruiting “foreign workers”. From them the OUN-B formed the first nationalist partisan units in Polesia and Volhynia , which were united in February 1943 to form the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA). With an estimated 40,000 to 100,000 fighters, the latter gained control over parts of Volhynia and Polesia, with the Polish civilian population there being the victims of targeted massacres, which in turn led to heavy fighting with the Polish Home Army (see Polish-Ukrainian conflict in Volhynia and eastern Galicia ).

The OUN-M welcomed the formation of the Ukrainian SS Volunteer Division "Galicia" in the summer of 1943. The OUN-B, however, fought against German and Soviet occupiers with equal intensity, in August 1943 it formulated a program that tried , nationalism with democratic elements to connect. At times, the OUN-B also urged its supporters to join the SS division, but only for tactical reasons so that they could receive military training there. On the other hand, fighting by the UPA against German troops is also documented. In the summer of 1944, for example, fierce battles took place between the Wehrmacht, the Red Army and the OUN / UPA for control of the Carpathian passes. In October 1944, most of the Ukrainian nationalists were released from the German concentration camps .

post war period

Commemorative plaque at Zeppelinstrasse 67 in Munich for Jaroslaw and Jaroslawa Stezko arranged by the then Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko . The OUN publishing house was also located here

In 1945, in the camps of Displaced Persons in Germany, mostly former forced laborers , the Ukrainians organized a “Central Representation of Ukrainians in Germany”, which was led by representatives of the OUN-B. The exact number of Ukrainians in Germany at the end of the war is unknown, but since 1948, according to figures from the “International Refugee Organization”, 114,000 Ukrainians have been resettled in western countries. Many former members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists joined forces in American exile in the Organization Ukrainian Congress Committee of America , which is politically active to the present day. The disputes about the orientation of the OUN towards authoritarian or democratic goals continued in the emigration , the OUN split into several groups. The extent to which the OUN influenced anti-Soviet partisans who were active in Ukraine until the early 1950s is unknown.

Initially, Munich became the center of post-war emigration, where a “ Ukrainian Free University ” was founded. The oldest scientific society in Ukraine, the “Ševčenko Society”, was also continued; today in Sarcelles / France. Stepan Bandera was murdered by a Soviet agent in Munich in 1959 . According to historian Per Anders Rudling, the OUN's forces in exile were supported by the American CIA during the Cold War . The foreign units of the OUN (Zakordonni Chastyny ​​OUN; Закордонний Частини ОУН) began to set up their center in Munich from 1945. Initially, Zakordonni Chastyny ​​OUN moved to the building at Dachauer Strasse 9 and later to Lindwurmstrasse 205. In 1954, the new office was opened in Zeppelinstrasse 67, where a publishing house was established in the basement, in which, among other things, the newspaper Schljach Peramohi was printed.

About 40,000 UPA members allowed themselves to be rolled over by the Red Army in the Carpathian Ukraine and began a bloody guerrilla war in western Ukraine after 1945, which the CIA estimates killed around 35,000 people by 1951. The terrorist operations were directed not only against police forces and communist party functionaries, but also against the civilian population, especially the surviving Jews. The guerrilla war was supported by the CIA from 1949, which parachuted around 75 Ukrainians in exile in the Ukraine by 1953; The British SIS also took part in these actions in 1951. The Soviet Union formally protested against these operations at the UN in 1957 .

In 1947, the Soviet Union, Poland and Czechoslovakia coordinated the fight against the UPA guerrillas in their border areas. After the UPA leader Roman Schuchewytsch was caught and shot by police units near Lviv on March 5, 1950 , the guerrilla war lost momentum and was suppressed by 1953.

The OUN is said to have used terrorist violence against the forced unification of the Ukrainian Catholics with the Russian Orthodox Church in 1946, so on September 28, 1948 one of the main proponents, Protopresbyter Dr. Gabriel Kostelnik, shot dead by a Ukrainian assassin. The Soviet authorities accused the OUN of having commissioned the assassination attempt, namely the OUN leaders Stepan Bandera , Jaroslaw Stezko , Mykola Lebed and Ivan Hrynioch (1941 chaplain of the notorious Wehrmacht unit nightingale battalion ).

The statehood and democratization of Ukraine was ultimately not achieved through the activities of the OUN, but rather through a heterogeneous coalition of civil society forces in the course of the collapse of the Soviet Union .

Decalogue of the OUN

In 1929 the Ten Commandments of the Ukrainian nationalist - the so-called "Decalogue" - were adopted by Stepan Lenkawskyj as the core program of the OUN. However, Lenkawskyi's original formulation has been slightly defused. Every member of the OUN should know the Decalogue by heart.

  1. You will fight for the Ukrainian state or die fighting for it.
  2. You will not allow anyone to blacken the glory and honor of your nation.
  3. Remember the great days of our liberation struggles.
  4. Be proud that you are the heir of the struggle for the glory of Trysub of Volodymyr .
  5. Take revenge for the death of the great knights.
  6. Do not talk about the matter with whom it is possible, but with whom it is necessary.
  7. Do not hesitate to commit the most dangerous act if the cause demands it. (in the original Lenkawskyjs version: "... the greatest crime ...")
  8. Meet the enemies of your nation with hatred and ruthless struggle.
  9. Pleadings, threats, torture, and death will not force you to reveal any secrets.
  10. You will strive to expand the power, wealth and fame of the Ukrainian state.

You will reach a Ukrainian state or die fighting for it, [...]
8. Treat the enemies of your nation with hatred and without consideration, [...]
10. Strive for the power, wealth and fame of Ukrainian To multiply the state. "

Historical classification and assessment

The historian Stanley Payne classifies the OUN as right-wing radical and racist , Andreas Umland classifies the OUN ideology as a Ukrainian variety of fascism. The historian Frank Golczewski also characterizes the OUN as a fascist movement.

In April 2015, the Verkhovna Rada , the Ukrainian parliament, officially declared members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists to be independence fighters.

successor

The official successor organization of the OUN in post-Soviet Ukraine sees itself as the Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists , which belonged to the Blok Nascha Ukrajina - Narodna samooborona by Viktor Yushchenko and received 8,976 votes across the country in the parliamentary elections in Ukraine in 2014 , which corresponds to 0.05 percent. It was co-founded by OUN chairwoman Slava Stetsko , widow of Jaroslaw Stetsko.

literature

  • Franziska Bruder: “Fight for the Ukrainian state or die!” The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) 1929–1948 . Metropol Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-938690-33-8 .
  • Frank Golczewski (Ed.): History of the Ukraine . Göttingen 1993, ISBN 3-525-36232-3 .
  • Frank Golczewski: Germans and Ukrainians, 1918–1939. Paderborn 2010, ISBN 978-3-506-76373-0 .
  • Frank Grelka: The Ukrainian national movement under German occupation in 1918 and 1941/42 . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-447-05259-7 . Studies of the Research Center East Central Europe at the University of Dortmund, Vol. 38, also a dissertation at the University of Bochum
  • Andreas Kappeler : A Brief History of Ukraine. 2nd edition, CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-45971-4 .
  • Paul R. Magocsi: A history of Ukraine . Toronto 1996, ISBN 0-295-97580-6 .
  • Svyatoslav Lypovetskyj: ОУН (бандерівці). Фрагменти діяльності та боротьби [OUN (banderiwzi). Frahmenty dijalnosti ta borotby; OUN (bandists). Fragments of activities and struggle] Kiev 2010.
  • The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (Banderites): A Collage of Deeds and Struggles . Kyiv 2010, ISBN 978-966-410-018-9 .

Web links

Commons : Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine (Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies / University of Toronto): Dmytro Dontsov
  2. ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine (Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies / University of Toronto): Yevhen Konovalets
  3. ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine (Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies / University of Toronto): Mykola Stsiborsky
  4. ↑ Manfred Alexander : Kleine Geschichte Polens , Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-15-010522-6 , p. 302.
  5. ^ A b c Frank Golczewski: Orhanizacija Ukraïnśkych Nacionalistiv. In: Wolfgang Benz: Handbook of Antisemitism - Organizations, Institutions, Movements. De Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2012, ISBN 3110278782 , pp. 468–471, on p. 468.
  6. ↑ Kappeler (2000), p. 211.
  7. ↑ a b Kai Struve: German rule, Ukrainian nationalism, anti-Jewish violence. The summer of 1941 in western Ukraine. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, p. 76.
  8. ↑ a b c Włodzimierz Borodziej, History of Poland in the 20th Century , Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60648-9 , p. 168.
  9. ^ Frank Golczewski: Germans and Ukrainians 1914–1939. Paderborn 2010, pp. 848-910.
  10. ↑ Golczewski: Deutsche und Ukrainer, p. 902.
  11. ↑ Golczewski: Deutsche und Ukrainer, p. 884.
  12. ^ A b c Frank Golczewski: Orhanizacija Ukraïnśkych Nacionalistiv. In: Wolfgang Benz: Handbook of Antisemitism - Organizations, Institutions, Movements. De Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2012, ISBN 3110278782 , pp. 468–471, on p. 469. ( Google Books )
  13. ↑ Kai Struve: German rule, Ukrainian nationalism, anti-Jewish violence. The summer of 1941 in western Ukraine. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, pp. 259–265, 353, 431.
  14. ↑ Hannes Heer : Bloody Overture . In: Die Zeit , No. 26/2001
  15. ↑ Kurzbiografie Lew Rebet on timenote.info ; accessed on June 13, 2020 (Ukrainian)
  16. ↑ Article on Lev Rebet in istpravda of October 12, 2011; accessed on June 13, 2020 (Ukrainian)
  17. ↑ entry to Lew Rebet in the Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine ; accessed on June 13, 2020 (Ukrainian)
  18. ↑ http://euromaidanpress.com/2014/03/10/four-myths-about-stepan-bandera/
  19. ↑ Quoted from Kappeler (2000), p. 222.
  20. ↑ Quoted from Kappeler (2000), p. 218.
  21. ↑ Is the US backing neo-Nazis in Ukraine? - Salon.
  22. ↑ Rudling, Per Anders (2013): The Return of the Ukrainian Far Right: The Case of VO Svoboda . In Wodak and Richardson: Analyzing Fascist Discourse: European Fascism in Talk and Text. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89919-2 .
  23. ↑ Grzegorz Rossoliński love : Stepan Bandera. The Life and Afterlife of a Ukrainian Nationalist. Fascism, Genocide, and Cult. ibidim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-8382-0604-2 . P. 317/318
  24. ↑ Christopher Simpson: "Blowback" (Collier Books, New York 1989, p. 163)
  25. ^ Correspondence between Frank Wisner (head of the CIA - Directorate of Plans ) and the US immigration office INS 1951, quoted in: John Loftus : "The Belarus Secret" (Knopf, New York 1982, p. 102/103)
  26. ^ "Nature and Extent of Disaffection and Anti-Soviet Activity in the Ukraine" (Report of the US military attaché at the US Embassy in Moscow, March 17, 1948), quoted in: Christopher Simpson: "Blowback" (Collier Books, New York 1989, p. 171)
  27. ↑ United Nations: "Official Records of the General Assembly" (11th Session [November 12, 1956 - March 8, 1957], Annexes Volume II - Agenda Item 70 , pp. 1-14)
  28. ↑ SP: "Taras Chuprynka" , in: ABN Correspondence, Munich (Vol. XXVI, No. 2 March / April 1975, p 23-24)
  29. ↑ "The Present Destruction Of Christian Churches" , in: ABN Correspondence, Munich (Vol. XXVI, No. 3/4 May-August 1975, pp. 61–64)
  30. ↑ Lypovetskyi: The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (Banderites). 2010, p. 90.
  31. ^ Payne: History of Fascism. P. 526.
  32. ↑ Analysis: Ukrainian nationalism between stereotype and reality - bpb.de
  33. ↑ Ukraine bans advertising for communism and national socialism on Deutsche Welle, April 9, 2015 , accessed on April 19, 2015.