Sumatran rhinoceros

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Sumatran rhinoceros
Sumatran Rhinos (at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden)

Sumatran Rhinos
(at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden )

Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria)
Superordinate : Laurasiatheria
Order : Unpaired ungulate (Perissodactyla)
Family : Rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae)
Genre : Dicerorhinus
Type : Sumatran rhinoceros
Scientific name of the  genus
Dicerorhinus
Gloger , 1841
Scientific name of the  species
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis
( Fischer , 1814)

The Sumatran rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) is the smallest and most primeval of the five species of the rhinoceros family (Rhinocerotidae) living today . It is characterized by two horns and is the only rhinoceros species to have more or less dense hairs. Contrary to its name, the occurrence of the animal is not limited to the island of Sumatra , rather it was found in large parts of Southeast Asia , but is now largely extinct there . The current population is estimated to be less than 80 individuals. Two committed conservation programs in Indonesia and Malaysia are trying to save the rhino representative from extinction. The last occurrences in Malaysia were declared extinct at the end of 2019, so that the species is only widespread in Indonesia. The rhinoceros species live largely solitary in tropical rainforests and feed on soft vegetable foods. The Sumatran rhinoceros is known for its extensive sound communication.

features

The Sumatran rhinoceros, the smallest and most primitive recent rhinoceros species.

Numerous features distinguish the Sumatran rhinoceros from other rhinos. With a head-torso length of 2.5 to 3.2 m (plus a tail up to 60 cm long), a shoulder height of 1.2 to 1.4 m and a weight of 500 to 800 kg, this is it smallest rhino species still alive today. It has a comparatively short but powerful body. The skin is between 1 and 1.6 cm thick, very soft and reddish-brown in color. Two characteristic skin folds run around the body vertically behind the front and in front of the rear legs. Smaller wrinkles are also found on the neck and upper limbs . Overall, however, the skin folds are less pronounced than in the other Asian rhino species. What is also noticeable is the relatively strong hairiness of the body, which is very dense in young animals, but is still present in young old animals and also has a red-brown color. In older individuals, the hair often turns black and becomes more sparse. There are more tufts of hair at the tips of the ears and at the end of the tail. Subcutaneous fat is extremely rare in wild animals. Also noticeable is the tapering and flexible upper lip, which is used to tear off the plant food.

In contrast to the other Asian rhinoceros ( Java rhinoceros , Indian rhinoceros ), the Sumatran rhinoceros has two horns, which are usually dark brown or black-brown in color. The front horn (nasal horn) is 15 to 25 cm long and has a predominantly conical shape with a tip that is partly directed backwards. The longest horn ever found was 81 cm long, measured across the curve. The rear horn (frontal horn), on the other hand, is usually only a blunt elevation. As with all rhinos , the horns consist of keratin , which is made up of thousands of thread-like strands (filaments) and thus has a high level of strength. Similar to hooves or hair, it will grow throughout life, even if damaged.

The skull of the Sumatran rhinoceros is very elongated at 70 to 80 cm and also narrow, its nose-forehead line is rather straight and is not as deeply saddled as in the other Asian rhino species. The occiput has a more rectangular shape and causes a clearly upright head position, which is not as strong as in the other Asian rhinos. The eye socket is located in the area of ​​the first molar . Characteristic is a partially ossified nasal septum in the front part , which occurs only very rarely in the other recent species. Like all Asian rhinos, the Sumatran rhinoceros also have, albeit reduced, anterior teeth. The tooth formula for adult animals is as follows: with another premolar formed in the deciduous dentition . The lower incisors protrude forward like a dagger and are very pointed, while the upper ones are flattened and stand vertically in the jaw. Sometimes there are alveoli of additional incisors in adult specimens. The molars have rather low to moderately high tooth crowns and have a high proportion of tooth enamel .

The Sumatran rhinoceros can communicate with numerous sounds and is generally very "talkative". An undisturbed animal gives off a constant and incessant squeaking of itself, especially when eating or in a generally satisfied state. A humming sound is emitted when there is joy or anticipation and is often heard on animals bathing in mud. If the animal is frightened or disturbed, it snorts loudly, in pain a whimper or also a squeak is heard. Some sounds are also in the infrasound range or resemble the songs of humpback whales . The multitude of sounds is considered important for communication in the dense tropical rainforest .

Furthermore, the Sumatran rhinoceros only have a very limited sense of sight, while the sense of smell and hearing are extremely well developed.

Distribution and subspecies

Occurrence of the Sumatran rhinoceros:
historical range Presumably extinct Current range (2016)




The female Begum (photo: London Zoo, around 1890) is the type specimen of the probably extinct subspecies D. s. lasiotis .

The Sumatran rhinoceros inhabits dense tropical rainforests and temperate, warm mountain forests . It occurs both in the lowlands and in the highlands up to altitudes above 2,000 m. It is extremely agile and can also climb steep mountain slopes. The original distribution area reached from the foot of the Himalayas in Bhutan and the extreme east of India via Bangladesh , Myanmar , Thailand to the Malay Peninsula and also included the islands of Sumatra and Borneo . An original distribution from Cambodia to Vietnam is questionable.

Currently, the Sumatran rhinoceros is only found in widely dispersed populations in Indonesia . Experts estimate that the total population is less than 80 animals, possibly less. Three larger groups live in Gunung Leuser National Park (18–30 animals), in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (4–15 animals) and in Way Kambas National Park on Sumatra (15–30 animals). Until the 2000s there was also a small population of 20 to 35 animals in the Taman Negara on the Malay Peninsula, which made up about half of the peninsula's total population. However, with a few exceptions, specific evidence from the period from 2008 onwards is largely missing. A study from 2015 concluded that the Sumatran rhinoceros on the Malay Peninsula has meanwhile become extinct due to poaching. in 2019 the Sumatran rhinoceros was declared extinct in Malaysia after the last specimen perished in captivity.

In 2011 there were still a small population of around 15 animals in the Tabin Game Reserve and possibly as many individuals in the Danum Valley Conservation Area in the north-east of Borneo . In March 2016, a Sumatran rhinoceros was sighted and captured in the Indonesian part of Borneo, but it died after a short time in captivity. These areas partly include natural marshland and secondary forests. The biotope is similar to that of the last refuge for the Java rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ), but the protected areas for the Sumatran rhinoceros are only partially considered to be optimal for the species.

In 2015, it was estimated that the total number of all Sumatran rhinos living in the wild is less than 100 animals. This population is spread over three widely separated protected areas. In addition to the wild population, there were six Sumatran rhinos in various zoos (one in the Cincinnati Zoo in the United States and five more in the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary in Sumatra, Indonesia). Scientists argue that the survival of the Sumatran rhinoceros, due to its low natural reproduction rate and the so far not really successful breeding in zoos, is only guaranteed if the remaining small populations (including the animals kept in captivity) are "managed" as part of an overall concept become.

The Sumatran rhinoceros are divided into three recent subspecies :

  • Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis ( Fischer , 1814) Western Sumatran rhinoceros on the mainland of Southeast Asia and on Sumatra, is the largest subspecies physically, but has relatively small teeth;
  • Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni ( Groves , 1965) Eastern Sumatran or Borneo / Sabah rhinoceros on Borneo, is significantly smaller than the western subspecies;
  • Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotus ( Buckland , 1872) Northern Sumatran rhinoceros in Bangladesh, India and Myanmar, was similar to D. ss but had larger teeth and is now extinct.

Subfossil is still the subspecies D. s. eugenei Sody , distinguished in 1946 from the early Holocene with very large teeth, the type locality of which are the Padang Caves on Sumatra.

Way of life

Territorial behavior

Image taken in the Way Kambas National Park in Sumatra.

As territorial loners, bulls and cows only form brief relationships during the mating season . The animals are usually active at night and at dawn. Bulls maintain large territories that cover up to 50 km² and can partially overlap. The territories of the cows are much smaller at 10 to 15 km². Most of the districts contain one or more ponds or ponds in the center that are around 3 to 15 m² in size. The vegetation around these pools is trampled down to a width of 10 to 35 m, and the free space serves as a resting place. The territorial boundaries are, however, rather loosely defined, as the animals migrate seasonally and often visit higher-lying regions during the monsoon season .

Little is known about territorial fights among the animals, but conspecifics are not tolerated in the core region of a district. If there is a fight, the horns are evidently not used, but the sharp lower jaw incisors, which serve as bite weapons and cause deep wounds. The territories, especially the paths on which the animals walk to the individual feeding and activity areas, are marked with excrement , urine and scratch marks. Sometimes twisted saplings also serve as clues. Above all, the dung is the most common intraspecific means of communication. Collective dung heaps such as the Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) were hardly found, but this is possibly a result of the low distribution density, since individual animals occasionally put a pile of rubbish next to an existing one. Bulls then sometimes distribute this with their hind feet in the area. Scent glands on the feet to mark the territory have not been detected in the Sumatran rhinoceros.

A startled Sumatran rhinoceros can run very quickly and gallop. The dense forest vegetation does not hinder it and it overcomes obstacles such as small trees and bushes very easily.

nutrition

Sumatran rhinoceros bathing at the Cincinnati Zoo

The Sumatran rhinoceros feed mainly on soft, plant-based food ( browsing ) and prefers leaves , twigs, branches , bark , fruits and seeds . Several hundred plant species have been identified that the rhinoceros consumes. The animal grazes particularly often on nettle plants such as Laportea or sumac plants such as Glutarengha , but mangoes , bamboo and figs are also the main food crops. The Sumatran rhinoceros mainly uses places with secondary vegetation on the edges of the forest, forest aisles or river banks. The horns, with which branches are broken, are often used for food intake. Branches lying on the ground are also crushed with the hooves. The food intake takes place mainly at dawn or dusk. The rhinoceros eats between 50 and 60 kg of plants every day, i.e. around 10% of its body weight.

Mud puddles and pools are also important. These are often enlarged with the help of the horns, which can sometimes lead to very deep hollows. There the animal usually spends two to three hours a day bathing. On the one hand, this is necessary for thermoregulation and , on the other hand, to actively combat parasites . Salt licks are also important for the well-being of the Sumatran rhinoceros. They are often made up of hot or mineral springs and are visited every month or two. They also provide important social contact points where bulls can encounter cows in heat.

Reproduction

Mother with calf at the Cincinnati Zoo

The birth of wild animals has not yet been directly observed; most of the information on reproduction and growth comes from the few animals born in zoos. Cows are sexually mature at six to seven years of age, bulls only at around ten. Cows in heat often urinate or raise and swing their tails. During the mating season, bulls are very aggressive towards one another and fighting can occur. The contact between bulls and cows occurs through touching the head, flanks or hind legs and is associated with numerous vocalizations. The actual sexual act begins with the bull sitting on it, which can be repeated up to 25 times.

The gestation period lasts about 15 to 16 months and averages 465 days. The period between two births is around four to five years. Each dam gives birth to only one calf, which weighs between 25 and 30 kg and is already around 60 cm high. The calf already has a 2 cm high knob at the point of the front horn and wears a thick, dark-colored coat that only turns rust-brown over time.

As a rule, the calves can stand half an hour after birth and walk after an hour. They start suckling milk for the first time after two to three hours. In the beginning, they grow around 1 to 2 kg a day and after a year they already weigh around 400 kg. Plant food is also consumed very early, but the suckling phase lasts up to 13 months.

The lifespan is believed to be around 30 to 45 years. The oldest animal living in captivity was almost 33 years old.

Interactions with other animal species

Adult animals have no natural predators. Young animals are occasionally prey to tigers and wild dogs . This happens very rarely, however, as the young always stays very close to the mother. As with the Indian rhinoceros, there is a close positive biological connection to the Asian elephant . It lies mainly in the breaking up of the forest fronts by the elephant and the associated creation of open spaces with secondary vegetation that the Sumatran rhinoceros use.

Parasites

The external parasites include ticks and horseflies (mainly from the Tabanus genus ). Especially ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Amblyomma attack the Sumatran rhinoceros, especially in the folds in the neck area, and transmit diseases or other parasites. Endoparasites include flukes (including Fasciolidae ) and protozoa (including Entamoeba ).

Systematics

Among the living rhinos, the Sumatran rhinoceros has no close relatives. Due to the hairiness and the front teeth, it is the most original rhinoceros species living today. Before the advent of DNA studies , the Sumatran rhinoceros was sometimes thought to be a relative of the two African species, mainly because of the two horns. However, with the help of anatomical studies, a stronger relationship to the unicorned Asian rhinos was established early on , which results from the presence of the anterior teeth, among other things. The genus Dicerorhinus belongs to an independent sub-tribus , the Dicerorhinina, which is sometimes placed without any systematic delimitation from the group of Rhinocerotina. More recent molecular genetic studies have confirmed the assumption that the Asian rhinos are related to a common family that separated from the African rhinos about 29 million years ago. The one-horned Asiatic rhinoceros of the genus Rhinoceros separated from the common lineage with Dicerorhinus 26 million years ago .

The Dicerorhinina and especially Dicerorhinus form a group of two-horned rhinos, with more than a dozen species, that populated Eurasia from the Miocene to the Pleistocene . The early representatives of Dicerorhinus are often assigned to different genera, such as Lartetotherium or Dihoplus , but are usually synonyms . One of the closest relatives of the Sumatran rhinoceros within the Dicerorhinina is the mid to late Pleistocene woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ), which is according to DNA research, split off more than 21 million years ago. There are similarities in the hair, the skull construction, the partial ( Dicerorhinus ) to complete ( Coelodonta ) ossification of the nasal septum and differences in the absence of anterior teeth. The latter, in turn, connects Coelodonta plus the ossified nasal septum that also occurs together with the genus Stephanorhinus (sometimes also called Brandtorhinus ), which lived at the same time and with the steppe rhinoceros ( Stephanorhinus hemitoechus ) and the forest rhinoceros ( Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis ), two relatively well-known representatives of the Euras Picerozänini having. The closer relationship between the Sumatran rhinoceros and Coelodonta and Stephanorhinus is also confirmed by protein sequence studies .

Internal system of the recent representatives of the genus Dicerorhinus according to Morales et al. 1997
  Rhinocerotidae 



 D. s. sumatrensis (Malai peninsula + East Sumatra)


   

 D. s. sumatrensis (East Sumatra, Riau Province)


   

 D. s. sumatrensis (Western Sumatra, Bengkulu Province)


Template: Klade / Maintenance / 3

   

 D. s. harrissoni (Borneo, East Kalimantan)



   

 Dicerotini



Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style

The subspecies of the Sumatran rhinoceros originally described anatomically also show considerable genetic differences. Different haplotypes can be distinguished within the individual populations that are largely separated today . The animals of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra are much more closely related to one another than to the representatives of Borneo. The splitting up of the individual populations must have taken place during the last glacial period, beginning around 100,000 years ago. At that time, the islands of the Sunda Shelf formed a more or less closed land mass. However, there appear to have been stronger barriers to migration between the western and eastern populations, possibly in the form of arid areas or broad river valleys running north-south. Within the western group, those of the Malay Peninsula and Eastern Sumatra are still more closely related than those of Western Sumatra. The Barisan Mountains acted as a clear boundary here.

Tribal history

The genus Dicerorhinus first appeared at the transition from the Oligocene to the Miocene 20 to 23 million years ago. During the Miocene and the Pliocene it was common with numerous species over the whole of Eurasia and Africa. However, fossil records are rare in Southeast Asia. Little is known about the phylogenetic predecessor of the Sumatran rhinoceros. A possibly very close relative or direct predecessor is Dicerorhinus gwebinensis from the Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene, which was found in the deposits of a terrace of the Irrawaddy near the place Gwebin in ( Myanmar ).

Little is known about the further tribal history of the Sumatran rhinoceros, as there are hardly any fossil finds. One of the earliest fossil records of the Sumatran rhinoceros comes from the Gigantopithecus Cave of Liucheng ( Guangxi Autonomous Region , China ) and can be assigned to the Old Pleistocene . In addition, there are individual finds from the Middle and Young Pleistocene of Indochina and the Malay Islands. These include those from the Niah caves on Borneo, which are around 40,000 years old. Skeletal remains from the Padang Caves on Sumatra have an early Holocene age.

Research history

Drawing of the Sumatran rhino made by William Bell in 1793.

The first record of the Sumatran rhinoceros by a European came in 1793 when the medic William Bell examined a specimen shot near Fort Malborough on Sumatra. He made descriptions and a drawing which he sent to Joseph Banks (1742–1820), then President of the Royal Society . He published the records a little later. The first valid scientific description of the Sumatran rhinoceros as Rhinoceros sumatrensis was only provided in 1814 by the German naturalist Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim (1771-1853), at that time director of the Museum of Natural History in Moscow . The German biologist Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger (1803–1863) introduced the recognized scientific generic name Dicerorhinus in 1841.

In the history of research, the Sumatran rhinoceros was also known by various scientific names:

  • Rhinoceros sumatrensis fisherman, 1814
  • Rhinoceros sumatranus Raffles, 1822
  • Rhinoceros crossii Gray, 1854
  • Rhinoceros lasiotis Buckland, 1872
  • Ceratorhinus blythii Gray. 1873
  • Ceratorhinus niger Gray, 1873
  • Rhinoceros malayanus Newman, 1874
  • Rhinoceros borniensis McDougall, 1912
  • Rhinoceros bicornis var. Sinensis Laufer, 1914
  • Didermocerus sumatrensis harrissoni Groves, 1965

Threat and protection

Sumatran rhino population estimates in Malaysia and Indonesia
area Stock size 1997 Stock size 2011
(assumptions)
Inventory size 2019
(assumptions)
Gunung Leuser National Park , Sumatra 60 60-80 18-30
Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park , Sumatra 22nd 50-70 4-15
Way Kambas National Park , Sumatra 16 27-33 15-30
Kerinchi Seblat National Park , Sumatra 28 0 0
Others, Indonesia 25th 10-15 3?
Taman Negara , Malaysia 44 21-34 0
Royal Belum State National Park , Malaysia 10 12-13 0
Endau Rompin National Park , Malaysia 9 1-2 0
Danum Valley Conservation Area , Malaysia 11 13-15 0
Tabin Game Reserve , Malaysia 20th 15th 0
Others, Malaysia 75 7th 0
total 320 216-284 40-78

The Sumatran rhinoceros is classified as critically endangered by the IUCN . The subspecies D. s. lasiotus is apparently already extinct, although there are occasional rumors of a small population still existing in the Lassai tract in Myanmar. The Borneo rhinoceros (subspecies D. s. Harrissoni ) was still preserved in the Malaysian state of Sabah with fewer than 40 individuals in the early 2000s , while the subspecies D. s. sumatrensis is still the most widespread, but at the time it was possibly only 180 to 200 individuals. For the year 2019 it is assumed that the total population will be less than 80 individuals who live in several smaller populations in various national parks on Sumatra. None of these individual populations comprises more than 30 individuals. In Malaysia, the Sumatran rhinoceros is officially considered extinct. On November 23, 2019, the last Sumatran rhinoceros registered in Malaysia, a 25-year-old female animal that was given the name Iman , died on the island of Borneo . In May of the same year, the last known male animal in Malaysia died. In the Indonesian part of Borneo, in East Kalimantan , there is a residual population of less than half a dozen animals of the Borneo rhinoceros.

The greatest threats to the Sumatran rhinoceros are illegal poaching and habitat destruction associated with the spread of human settlements or as a result of economic expansion. The trade in horns, which are ground to powder in traditional Chinese medicine as a medicine against fever and pain, poses a particular risk . According to historical sources, the horn trade goes back more than 2000 years. The consequence was that the Sumatran rhinoceros population had declined to fewer than 300 individuals by 1995. The problem here is the strong fragmentation of the populations, with often only a few cows of childbearing potential, so that the stability of some small groups is not guaranteed. Furthermore, the interval between the individual births of a cow is very long, so that such populations grow only very slowly or rather stagnate and, moreover, are highly susceptible to natural disasters and epidemics .

To further protect the Sumatran rhinoceros, two main strategies have been pursued since 1995 with the Conservation strategy for Rhinos in South-east Asia with the participation of the Asian Rhino Specialist Group and the International Rhino Foundation. To this end, on the one hand, the safety standards in the protected areas have been increased by having trained staff continuously inspect the rhino territory and clean it of traps and arrest poachers. In addition, a system of camera traps was installed at strategically important locations in various areas , which are both intended to observe the animals and provide opportunities for study. The national parks Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas on Sumatra as well as the Tabin Game Reserve and the Danum Valley Conservation Area on Borneo proved to be the central key areas. With the help of the camera traps, newborn calves and their dams have been detected several times in the wild in recent years.

On the other hand, individual animals or very small stocks are to be relocated to other areas in which an active rearing program has already been created under almost natural conditions. For this purpose, animal rights activists founded the 100 hectare, fenced Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary in 1997 within the Way Kambas National Park on Sumatra, where five rhinos now live and are studied. Each animal has its own 20 hectare enclosure and is guarded around the clock. These rhinos originally came from zoo populations and were introduced here. A similar program with a total of 40 Sumatran rhinos had been carried out between 1984 and 1996. However, it is considered to have failed in part, as too little was known about the natural needs of the species and the animals initially did not produce any offspring in captivity. After 20 rhinos died of course, the project was eventually discontinued. During this phase, only one young animal was born whose mother had already been pregnant during the capture. It was only after the project was officially completed that three rhinos were born at the Cincinnati Zoo . One of them has since been successfully paired with a female in the breeding station in Way Kambas, which led to the birth of a healthy young animal in 2012 (see below). A similar project as on Sumatra was decided with the Borneo Rhino Sanctuary for the rhinos of Borneo from 2009.

Over the past 200 years, almost 100 Sumatran rhinos have been kept in zoological gardens. There are currently a total of eleven animals in captivity, including five in the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary and three in the Borneo Rhino Sanctuary . So far, however, births have only seldom been achieved in horticultural animals; the first took place in 1889 in the Calcutta Zoo . There has been no successful birth in the entire 20th century. It was not until 2001 that the birth of a captive Sumatran rhinoceros was reported again at the Cincinnati Zoo, followed by two more in the same zoo, representing an initial success in the Sumatran rhinoceros breeding program. Another birth was recorded in the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary at the end of June 2012 and mid-May 2016 .

literature

  • Colin P. Groves and Fred Kurt: Dicerorhinus sumatrensis. Mammalian Species 21, 1972, pp. 1-6
  • Nico van Strien: Sumatran Rhinoceros. In: R. Fulconis: Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6. Info Pack, London, 2005, pp. 70-74
  • Nico van Strien: The Sumatran rhinoceros. In: Anonymous (ed.): The rhinos: Encounter with primeval colossi. Fürth, Filander Verlag, 1997, pp. 57-74, ISBN 3-930831-06-6

Individual evidence

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  3. Colin P. Groves: Species characters in rhinoceros horns. Zeitschrift für Mammaliankunde 36 (4), 1971, pp. 238-252 (245f)
  4. Friedrich E. Zeuner: The relationships between skull shape and way of life in recent and fossil rhinos. Reports of the Natural Research Society in Freiburg 34, 1934, pp. 21–80
  5. Colin P. Groves: The Rhinos - Tribal History and Kinship. In: Anonymous (ed.): The rhinos: Encounter with primeval colossi. Fürth, 1997, pp. 14-32
  6. T. Hubback: The Asiatic two-horned rhinoceros. Journal of Mammalogy 20 (1), 1939, pp. 1-20
  7. Elizabeth von Muggenthaler, Paul Reinhart, Brad Lympany and R. Barton Craft: Songlike vocalizations from the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). Acoustics Research Letters Online 4 (3), 2003, pp. 83-88
  8. a b c Rasmus Gren Havmøller, Junaidi Payne, Widodo Ramono, Susie Ellis, K. Yoganand, Barney Long, Eric Dinerstein, A. Christy Williams, Rudi H. Putra, Jamal Gawi, Bibhab Kumar Talukdar and Neil Burgess: Will current conservation responses save the Critically Endangered Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis? Oryx; 50 (2), 2016, pp. 355-359, doi: 10.1017 / S0030605315000472
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  11. ^ LC Rookmaaker: The distribution of the rhinoceros in Eastern India, Bangladesh, China and the Indo-Chinese region. Zoologischer Anzeiger 205 (3/4), 1980, pp. 253-268
  12. a b c d Richard H. Emslie, Tom Milliken, Bibhab Talukdar, Gayle Burgess, Karyn Adcock, David Balfour and Michael H. Knight: African and Asian rhinoceroses - status, conservation and trade. A report from the IUCN Species Survical Commission (IUCN / SSC) African and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups and TRAFFIC to the CITES Secretariat pursuant to Resolution Conf. 9.14 (Rev. CoP17). In: Report to CITES. 17th meeting, Colombo, CoP 18 Doc.83.1 annex 3, 2019, pp. 1–38 ( [1] )
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  15. Bibhab Kumar Talukdar: Asian Rhino Specialist Group report. Pachyderm 49, 2011, pp. 16-19 ( online )
  16. a b c d e f g Abdul Wahab Ahmad Zafir, Junaidi Payne, Azlan Mohamed, Ching Fong Lau, Dionysius Shankar Kumar Sharma, Raymond Alfred, Amirtharaj Christy Williams, Senthival Nathan, Widodo S. Ramono and Gopalasamy Reuben Clements: Now or never : what will it take to save the Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis from extinction ?. Oryx 45 (2), 2011, pp. 225-233
  17. WWF: Rhino rediscovered: WWF discovers a rhinoceros species believed to be extinct in Kalimantan / Indonesia. ( [3] ), accessed April 30, 2016
  18. Colin Groves and Peter Grubb: Ungulate Taxonomy. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011, pp. 1–317 (SS 23–24)
  19. ^ A b Wolfgang Grummt: Encounters with Sumatran rhinos, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814). Milu 9, 1998, pp. 354-362
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  21. a b c Fred Kurt: The Gunung Leuser Survey 1970. Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo 16 (2), 1973, pp. 59–74
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  23. ^ Alain Zecchini: La reproduction du rhinoceros de Sumatra est un succes mitige. Semaine Veterinaire 1176, 2005, p. 50
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  25. Cepi Tri Sumantri, Upik Kesumawati Hadi, Adiansyah and Mohammad Agil: The tick abundance (Parasitiformes: Ixodidae) in Sumatran Rhino Way Kambas National Park Lampung and its role in diseases transmitting to Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). Proceedings of AZWMC 2008, p. 145
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Web links

Commons : Sumatran Rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis )  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files