Indian rhinoceros

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Indian rhinoceros
Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis )

Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria)
Superordinate : Laurasiatheria
Order : Unpaired ungulate (Perissodactyla)
Family : Rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae)
Genre : Rhinoceros
Type : Indian rhinoceros
Scientific name
Rhinoceros unicornis
Linnaeus , 1758

The Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ), also Indian Rhinoceros and Indian Rhinoceros , belongs to the family of Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses) in Asia and Africa. The one-horned rhinoceros is native to the Indian subcontinent and is now only found in northeastern India and in protected areas in the Terai of Nepal . In 2008 the IUCN listed Indian rhinos as endangered , with the population increasing.

features

General

Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park

With a head trunk length of 368 to 380 cm in bulls (cows 310 to 340 cm), a shoulder height of 170 to 186 cm (cows 148 to 173 cm) and a weight of 2.2 t (cows 1.6 t), the Indian rhinoceros is the largest of the three rhinoceros species in Asia and the second largest recent after the white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum ). Large bulls can also weigh up to 2.7 tons and have a shoulder height of 193 cm. The body is very sturdy, with the limbs relatively short and wide. The tail becomes an average of 66 cm long.

The skin , up to 4 cm thick, is gray-brown in color and firm, only in the area of ​​the folds, the abdomen and on the head is it softer and thinner. The numerous folds of the skin, which give the animal the appearance of heavy armor, are striking, which explains the German name. Two large folds of skin behind the front legs and in front of the rear legs circle the body vertically, horizontal folds are on the upper ends of the limbs and in the buttocks area, here the tail is also framed by two additional vertical folds. There are also distinct folds on the neck, which in adult bulls form large wattles ("lap"). The wrinkles are much more pronounced than those of its closest relative, the Java rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ). In the wrinkles, the skin partially shows pink pigments. The strong folding is most likely due to thermoregulation to protect the body from overheating. The skin is also characterized by numerous wart-like lumps. There is a 2 to 5 cm thick layer of fat under the skin.

The Indian rhinoceros has hardly any hair. Hair is only found on the ears , the tip of the tail and as eyelashes . Another important characteristic is the finger-shaped and sometimes very flexible upper lip, which is common to all Asian rhinos. But it is not quite as pronounced as in the Java rhinoceros. The lip is used to tear off food. It is named after the single horn, which sits on the nose and is dark gray to black in color.

Skull and dentition features

Indian rhinoceros skull

The skull of the Indian rhinoceros, which is between 60 and 65 cm long, is short and wide and has a clearly rounded nasal bone , where the horn also attaches. There is a deep saddle between the nasal bone and the occiput . The occiput itself is broad and rectangular in shape, and sometimes also has a slightly obtuse angle. The resulting high head posture is the highest in all recent rhinos. The eye socket , which is above the fourth premolar , is wider than it is high and very spacious.

The Indian rhinoceros has a reduced sequence of teeth in its teeth , as part of the incisors and the canine teeth are missing on each jaw arch. As a result, the dental formula for an adult animal is as follows: Sometimes additional incisors, especially in the lower jaw, can be rudimentary and then form small, cone-shaped teeth, and the first premolar is also present in the deciduous dentition. As with the Java rhinoceros, the upper incisors stand vertically in the jaw and are rather small and flat, like blocks. The lower ones, however, protrude diagonally forward, have a dagger-like shape and can be up to 8 cm long. The arrangement of the incisors is called the "chisel-tusk arrangement". The premolars and molars have a strongly folded enamel and are significantly higher crowned than the Java rhinoceros.

horn

Close up of the head with horn

The single horn of the Indian rhinoceros sits on the nose and consists of keratin , which is formed from thousands of compressed, elongated threads (so-called filaments) and is similar in structure to hair or hooves . It grows throughout the animal's life, even if parts of the horn are lost due to traumatic events. It is predominantly shaped like a cone and can reach lengths of up to 60 cm, with horns usually 20 to 30 cm long. At the base it has an oval shape with an extension of approximately 19 by 12 cm. The weight averages around 3 kg.

Often the horn is rubbed on the ground, on trees or stones and is heavily rubbed off, which has been particularly well studied with animals in captivity. As a result, the shape of the horns also varies between individual animals, and characteristic traces of abrasion are formed on the front edge above the snout. With the exception of ritualized fencing fights, animals in the wild do not or only rarely use their horn in aggressive actions with one another, but mainly use it to search for food.

Sometimes a second, albeit very small, horn develops on the forehead. Noteworthy is the so-called "Dürerhörnlein", named after the prominent neck horn on the woodcut Rhinocerus by Albrecht Dürer . Such horn formation has already been observed several times and is probably promoted by the clear folds of skin on the neck. But it also occurs in other rhino species.

Sensory performances and vocalizations

The Indian rhinoceros, like all modern rhinos, has poor eyesight. The impaired visual performance sometimes leads to spontaneous attacks on intruders or moving objects. The Indian rhinoceros, like other rhinoceros, has an excellent sense of smell and hearing. The main communication with one another takes place olfactorily via the secretions , which are sniffed intensively. In addition, at least a dozen vocalizations are known that are uttered in different situations. A snort can be heard most often, it represents the first call to contact with fellow members of the same species, while bleating or roaring is used in aggressive actions. Bulls squeak when they are interested in cows, and calves use a sound similar to the moo sound used by cattle to attract their attention.

distribution and habitat

Historical (pink) and today's (red) distribution area of ​​the Indian rhinoceros

The original distribution area covered the entire north of the Indian subcontinent, along the Indus in Pakistan over the river plains of Ganges and Brahmaputra in India and Bangladesh to the border between India and Burma , including the southern parts of Nepal and Bhutan . In the north it reached Peshawar on the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan . The Indian rhinoceros prefers open grasslands and marshland along rivers, which are mainly interspersed with the 2 to 5 m high ravenna grass , in which the animals move unnoticed, but can also seek cover. The Indian rhinoceros also look for open pastures with low grass cover and also smaller forests, so that its actual habitat is a more mosaic-like landscape of various types of vegetation. Its current habitat is predominantly surrounded by densely populated areas and only in a few cases corresponds to the natural habitat, so that it can also be found in grassland , fields and secondary forest. Currently it only occurs in eastern India in the states of Assam , West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh and in the lowlands of Nepal. These two more or less separate populations differ genetically very clearly.

According to censuses in spring 2011, 2,048 animals and thus more than 70% of today's total population lived in the Indian Kaziranga National Park , which means that the population there has almost doubled compared to the same period in 2007. The second largest Indian population is found in the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary with 108 rhinos . In addition, there are five other national parks in which the Indian rhinoceros occurs naturally.In addition, eleven animals have been introduced into Manas National Park since 2008 as part of the Indian Rhino Vision security project , where the last wild Indian rhinoceros was spotted in 1996. According to counts in spring 2011, there were around 534 animals in Nepal - 503 in Chitwan National Park , 24 in Bardia National Park and 7 in the Suklaphanta Game Reserve in the south-west of the country. The populations of the last two protected areas were also resettled as part of resettlement measures to stabilize the species population at the beginning of the 21st century. By spring 2015, the population in Nepal increased by around 20% to 645 animals, while at the same time no animal was killed by poachers in the last three years. The 645 individuals were distributed over the Chitwan National Park with 605 animals, 29 in the Bardia National Park, 8 in the Suklaphanta Game Reserve and 3 in the Parsa Game Reserve .

Way of life

Territorial behavior

Indian rhinos in Kaziranga National Park

The Indian rhinoceros is a mostly night to dusk-active loner, bulls and cows usually only come together during the mating season. The animals maintain their own districts , but these can overlap at the borders. The size of these territories varies between 2 and 8 km², but the extent and boundary lines of an individual area can vary over the year depending on the food supply. The animals mostly avoid each other; fighting rarely occurs. This mainly happens when dominant bulls meet young bulls or old animals. The horn is only used in the form of fencing actions; the sharp, pointed incisors of the lower jaw serve to weaken the opposing animal. These can tear dangerous wounds that, while not killing the injured animal immediately, can sometimes lead to death from subsequent infection.

The territories are marked by targeted spraying of urine on bushes and shrubs. Some of the paths taken can also be marked with excretions from the scent glands on the feet. Unlike most other rhinoceros, the dung is rarely used as a sign of territory. Therefore, scratching with the hooves in the rubbish heap to distribute it on surrounding plants or stones is observed much less often. Rather, several animals use a waste place and thus create large piles of excrement, which can sometimes be several meters high and are used for intra-species communication. Sometimes, however, an Indian rhinoceros carries the manure with its hooves to its paths and distributes it there.

Diet

Indian rhinoceros feeding in Kaziranga National Park
Swimming Indian rhinoceros.

The Indian rhinoceros needs up to 150 kg of food a day and feeds on grasses ( grazing ) as well as soft plant food ( browsing ), such as leaves , twigs, branches , bark and fruits . A total of over 180 plant species are known that are consumed by the Indian rhinoceros. The different nutritional strategies are largely separated by the seasons. In dry seasons, it mostly eats grass, which makes up 80% of its total diet. The animal grazes on the ground with its head bowed and uses its pointed upper lip for this. Then especially sweet grasses , z. B. Saccharum spontaneum , Narenga porphyrocoma and Cynodon dactylon . During the dry season, branches are not spurned either. Among the monsoons the rhinoceros often consumed leaves and fruits. Above all, bamboo and figs belong here , with the animal taking in the food with its head raised and with the help of its incisors.

In contrast to the other recent rhinoceros species, the Indian rhinoceros is a very good swimmer and spends longer periods in the water, often especially during the monsoon season. It is also not afraid of deep water and is able to graze under water, whereby the plants are only chewed above water. This means that aquatic plants such as Hydrilla , Vallisneria and Pistia also belong to its food spectrum . Long swimming trips are usually carried out during the day.

Salt and soil leaks are also an important part of the diet. In addition, mud holes are important for the well-being of the animals, in which they spend a large part of the day - up to 60% - and wallow and wallow extensively there. The mud baths are used on the one hand to regulate the temperature of the body and on the other hand to remove parasites . This can lead to bottlenecks in dry seasons or in areas with a high population density such as in Kaziranga National Park , so that several Indian rhinos meet at one place. Up to ten individuals have been observed in one place. However, these encounters are only temporary and are usually peaceful.

Reproduction

Indian rhinoceros with offspring in Chitwan National Park in Nepal
Young animal without horn in Hellabrunn Zoo (Munich)

Females reach sexual maturity at 5 to 7 years of age, males at 8 to 10. The animals are ready to mate all year round, with cows rutting every 27 to 42 days . Signs of this are decreased food intake, restlessness, frequent urination, or rhythmic calls. In addition, the vulva swells significantly and turns reddish to purple in color . During the rut, especially bulls are very aggressive towards each other and dangerous biting duels often occur. If a bull wants to mate with a cow, he draws her attention by touching it, licking it or chasing it. The act of mating begins with the bull sitting on the cow several times and can last up to two hours. This often leads to ritualized urination of both animals. After mating is over, the animals separate again.

The gestation period is around 16 months and varies between 465 and 490 days, after which a single calf is born. At birth, it already weighs 60 to 75 kg and can stand after 30 minutes. As a rule, more male calves are born than female calves. The calf is suckled for around a year and a half, in the beginning it drinks almost 30 liters of milk and gains between 1 and 2 kg in weight every day. During the suckling phase, however, the calf begins to eat plant-based food from the third to fifth month. After the suckling phase, the displaced older calves sometimes return, so that groups of three to four animals can form. In total, the calf stays with its mother for three years before it is finally driven away before another calf is born. Cows with newborn calves are particularly aggressive towards intruders of their kind, but also towards other large animals and people.

The life expectancy of the Indian rhinoceros is around 40 years in the wild. A record age of 47 years has so far been registered for animals living in captivity, but is otherwise not far above that of the oldest free-living conspecifics.

Interaction with other animal species

Adult animals have no natural predators. However, calves fall victim to tigers who tear them if the mother is careless. In some cases, a considerable number of young animals can die. In the Kaziranga National Park alone, more than 200 individuals killed in this way were registered between 1985 and 2000. As with the African rhinoceros species, the Indian rhinoceros has a close ecological community with the - in this case Asian - elephant , whereby there is seldom aggressive behavior towards the other animal species. The relationship is particularly evident in the fact that the elephants' life strategy often keeps landscapes open or even breaks into the forest front, creating open areas that can later also be used by the Indian rhinoceros. There is also a loose relationship with the coexisting wild cattle species , the water buffalo and the gaur . Furthermore, the Indian rhinoceros tolerates the presence of cattle egrets , shepherd's starlings and black drongos on its back, which peck out parasites from its skin. In contrast to those of the African rhinos, the birds do not seem to have an alarm function in the event of an approaching danger.

Indian rhinos become very tame in captivity and develop a firm relationship with their respective keepers.

Parasites

Like the other rhinoceros species, the Indian rhinoceros is often attacked by parasites, but these have so far been little studied. External parasites are mainly leeches , spotted ticks ( Dermacentor ) and horseflies (especially of the Tabunas genus ). Among the endoparasites mainly include nematodes of the genus Decrusia and various forms of ciliates , mainly from the family of Cycloposthiidae .

Systematics

Together with its closest relative, the Java rhinoceros, the Indian rhinoceros belong to the genus Rhinoceros , which is characterized by a single horn on the nose. Within the genus Rhinoceros , the Indian rhinoceros represents the somewhat more modern form due to its tooth morphology. According to molecular genetic studies, the phylogenetic lines of the Indian rhinoceros and Java rhinoceros separated about 11.7 million years ago. Furthermore, both rhino species are part of the sub- tribus Rhinocerotina. The closest related group to the Rhinocerotina are the Dicerorhinina, to which the Sumatran rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) belongs as the only surviving species. The separation of these two groups occurred about 26 million years ago.

Internal systematics of the recent representatives of the genus Rhinoceros according to Zschokke et al.
  Rhinoceros 




 R. unicornis haplotype 5-9 (Nepal)


   

 R. unicornis haplotype 10 (Nepal)


   

 R. unicornis haplotype 4 (Assam)


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 R. unicornis haplotype 3 (Assam)



   

 R. unicornis haplotype 1-2 (Assam)


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 Rhinoceros sondaicus



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Recent subspecies of the Indian rhinoceros have not been described. Genetic investigations based on mitochondrial DNA , which were carried out on 86 individuals - 50 of them from Assam, 32 from Nepal and four hybrids - produced ten different haplotypes . Of these, four occur in Assam and six in Nepal. Furthermore, there is a strong genetic differentiation due to non-overlapping alleles between the two populations , which can be attributed to the long separation of these two rhino groups. However, the Nepalese population is much more closed than that of Assam, which has a high degree of variation. The population in Nepal probably goes back to a founding group from Assam who settled the area after the Pleistocene . The high variation of the Assam group cannot be seen as a result of today's population increase, as the present day Indian rhinos in Assam can be traced back to a group of only a few dozen specimens that survived the overhunt at the beginning of the 20th century. Scientists therefore assume that there must have been a collapse in the population in Assam in historical or prehistoric times, which they date back to 800 to 4,200 years.

The Indian rhinoceros was the first Asian rhinoceros known in Europe at the beginning of the 16th century and described several times. The first scientific description was made by Linnaeus in 1758, although there is no holotype and the description is based on older mentions in the literature. Several other names were later used for the species:

  • Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus , 1758
  • Rhinoceros rugosus Blumenbach , 1779
  • Rhinoceros asiaticus Blumenbach , 1797
  • Rhinoceros indicus Cuvier , 1816
  • Rhinoceros stenocephalus Gray , 1868
  • Rhinoceros jamrachi Jamrach , 1875
  • Rhinoceros unicornis var. Sinensis Laufer , 1914
  • Rhinoceros unicornis bengalensis Kourist , 1970

Tribal history

The genus Rhinoceros has the upper Pliocene proved in around 3.3 million years ago and was probably from the Miocene living Gaindatherium or Punjabitherium forth. A likely predecessor of the Indian rhinoceros was Rhinoceros sivalensis from the transition from the Pliocene to the Pleistocene . The Indian rhinoceros first appeared in the Middle Pleistocene and is known in its early form as Rhinoceros unicornis fossilis . It has been found at numerous sites on the Indian subcontinent, including the deposits of the Narmada River , where important early human fossils were discovered.

The original distribution area must have been much larger. It is passed down as a subspecies Rhinoceros unicornis kendengindicus in the early Middle Pleistocene in the Kedung Brubus fauna on Java ( Indonesia ) together with the Java rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ), but does not appear here later. In contrast, it is documented in Southeast Asia with finds from the Ma U'Oi and Duoi U'Oi caves (both Vietnam ) both in the Middle and in the Late Pistocene , also in common with the Java rhinoceros.

In the middle Holocene , the species was widespread across the Indian subcontinent to Pakistan. Finds from various sites from the time of the Indus culture (approx. 2600 to 1900 BC) show that the animals were on average larger than today's representatives. It was not until the massive killing of the animals, mainly in the European colonial era , that the Indian rhinoceros pushed back to what is now the remaining areas.

Threat and protection

Indian rhinoceros at the Cincinnati Zoo
Indian rhinoceros in Hellabrunn Zoo (Munich)

The Indian rhinoceros was ubiquitous in the regions that today belong to Pakistan and India . Subsequently, it was pushed further and further east, mainly by draining swamps to gain agricultural land, until the rhinos had withdrawn to the southern slopes of the Himalayas and remote tributaries of the Ganges .

In the 19th century, hunting tourism became very popular not only among Europeans. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. At the beginning of the 20th century there were fewer than 200 Indian rhinos, so they were on the verge of extinction. In addition, the Indian continued colonial government a launch premium from each killed Rhinoceros, since the animals supposedly the tea - plantations destroyed. It was not until 1910 that hunting the Indian rhinoceros was banned and the species was placed under protection. Areas for the protection of the rhino species were established much later, such as the Kaziranga National Park in India in 1926 and the Chitwan National Park in Nepal in 1973 .

Poaching remains a major problem to this day, as the horn of the Indian rhinoceros is used in traditional Chinese medicine in East Asia . A horn smuggled into China can bring poachers up to a hundred thousand dollars. By increasing the number of park rangers, India and Nepal have recently tried to get this problem under control.

Today there are more than 2,800 Indian rhinos again, but the species is still listed as endangered by the IUCN . In order to preserve the species, the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV2020) project was started in India in 2005 under the auspices of the WWF and the International Rhino Foundation (IRF), which aims to establish new populations in areas in order to gradually increase the range of the Indian rhinoceros expand and further consolidate the total population. For this purpose, animals from stable stocks are caught every year and settled in other protected areas.

In addition, scientifically managed zoological gardens around the world strive to maintain their existence through conservation breeding. As part of the European Endangered Species Program (EEP) of the European Zooverbands EAZA be the International Stud Book and the EEP studbook since 1967 in Basel Zoo out. There the bull Gadadhar (imported 1951) and the female Joymothi (imported 1952) gave birth in 1956 to the world's first Indian rhinoceros calf Rudra to be born in a zoo. To date, 35 Indian rhinos have been born in Basel. At the end of December 2010 there were 188 Indian rhinos living in 69 institutions in North America, Europe, Asia and Australia.

The Indian rhinoceros in culture and art

Asia

On the Indian subcontinent, the Indian rhinoceros had long been part of the cultural tradition and was a popular hunting animal. Perhaps the oldest images of this animal species include rock carvings on the Marodeo rock near Pachmarhi in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh , which can be assigned to the Mesolithic there. The Indian rhinoceros was often depicted, especially in the Indus culture from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age . It is mainly known from seals from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (both Pakistan), which were spread as far as Mesopotamia (e.g. Tell Asmar , Iraq ) as a result of trade . From the Vedic period onwards , the Indian rhinoceros was rarely depicted, but found its way into the Mahabharata epic as ŗśya and is part of the mythical figure Ŗṣyaśŗṅga , whose attribute is a single horn. This figure is also mentioned in later Buddhist texts as Ekaśŗṅga . Furthermore, symbolic pincers originate from this time, which were made from the horns of the Indian rhinoceros and found their way into temple architecture as symbolic signs, while abstract, mostly S-shaped curved horn signs served as seal stamps. Only later are more or less complete images of the animal found again, for example as a rock relief on Rag-i-Bibi near Shamarq ( Baglan province , Afghanistan) from the time of the Sassanids . Rhino figures are also occasionally used as decorative elements in later Buddhist temples.

Europe

Roman mosaic from the Villa del Casale , Sicily, depicting an Indian rhinoceros, around 210 AD.
Rhinocerus by Albrecht Dürer .

The Indian rhinoceros may have been known in ancient Greece. The first representative of this species, which verifiably set foot on European soil, was an animal which an Indian embassy from Gujarat around 20 or 19 BC. BC to Antioch on the Orontes in what is now Turkey, along with numerous other animal species, and which Strabo reported in several letters. The rhinoceros, which at that time was young reportedly still and was probably freshly caught prior to departure, was organized by the embassy Emperor Augustus given that it loud Suetonius in 11 v. BC presented to the public, at which Strabo was also present. The same animal fought an elephant in 8 AD. Representations of the rhinoceros can be found on the Artemidor papyrus , which belonged to the collection of the ancient geographer Artemidor of Ephesus . However, the drawings were only made after his death in the first century of our time. Other images and representations from later times in the Roman Empire may also be based on this animal, as there were only a few imports of exotic animals from South Asia. In this context, the depiction of a young Indian rhinoceros in the presence of guards in the large hunting mosaic of the Villa Romana del Casale in Piazza Armerina in Sicily from 210 AD is significant .

Another Indian rhinoceros may have been shown in Rome in 80 AD . Knowledge of this rhino species was largely lost in the 3rd century. It was not until 1,500 years later, at the beginning of the 16th century, that the Indian rhinoceros became known again in early modern Europe . The following were among the most important and at that time attention-grabbing representatives who set foot on European soil:

  • In Albrecht Dürer's 1515 woodcut entstandenem Rhinocerus is an illustration of the rhinoceros, which the expedition of Afonso de Albuquerque in 1515 from an India trip to Lisbon brought. It is speculated that Albrecht Dürer did not see the animal himself, but in the same year he made an almost identical drawing in addition to the woodcut. Both works of art are characterized by a strong, sometimes martial-looking exaggeration. They have been copied and printed many times, even porcelain figurines such as those made between 1731 and 1734 by the Meissen porcelain factory were based on the models. Another woodcut of the same animal was made by Hans Burgkmair in the same year . This, however, differs significantly from Dürer's work in the absence of the nuchal horn and thicker hair. The Indian rhinoceros itself only stayed in Lisbon for a short time, where it had to fight an Asian elephant in an arena, among other things, and was shipped to Rome as a gift to Pope Leo X in early 1516 . The ship, however, sank during a storm off the coast of Italy near Porto Venere . The carcass of the rhinoceros was later recovered.
Clara souvenir picture with verses .

literature

  • E. Dinerstein: Family Rhinocerotidae (Rhinoceroses). In: Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 178-179
  • Friederike von Houwald: Greater on-horned rhino. In: R. Fulconis: Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6. Info Pack, London, 2005, pp. 66–69 ( PDF )
  • WA Laurie, EM Lang and Colin P. Groves: Rhinoceros unicornis. Mammalian Species 211, 1983, pp. 1-6
  • WA Laurie: The Indian rhinoceros. In: Anonymous (Hrsg.): The rhinos: encounter with primeval colossi. Fürth, Filander Verlag, 1997, pp. 94-113, ISBN 3-930831-06-6
  • Rudolf Schenkel and Ernst M. Lang: The behavior of the rhinos. Handbuch für Zoologie 8 (46), 1969, pp. 1-56
  • Andrew Laurie (report and photos): Indian rhinos: Hope for the fat? . Geo-Magazin 6, 1978, pp. 88-102. ("Of the remaining 1200 Indian rhinos, around 250 live in Nepal. In order to save these animals life, the government has had entire villages evacuated.) ISSN  0342-8311

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d Bibhab Kumar Talukdar, R. Emslie, SS Bist, A. Choudhury, S. Ellis, BS Bonal, MC Malakar, BN Talukdar and M. Barua: Rhinoceros unicornis in: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2
  2. ↑ a b c Kamal Sarma and Jonali Devi: The Indian one horned rhinoceros: an overview. The North East Veterinarian 8 (3), 2008, pp. 16-17
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Friederike von Houwald: Greater on-horned rhino. In: R. Fulconis: Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6. Info Pack, London, 2005, pp. 66-69
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l W. A. ​​Laurie, EM Lang and Colin P. Groves: Rhinoceros unicornis. Mammalian Species 211, 1983, pp. 1-6
  5. ↑ E. Dinerstein: Family Rhinocerotidae (Rhinoceroses). In: Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 178-179
  6. ↑ Hideki Endo, Hiroshi Kobayashi, Daisuke Koyabu, Akiko Hayashida, Takamichi Jogahara, Hajime Taru, Motoharu Oishi, Takuya Itou, Hiroshi Koie and Takeo Sakai: The morphological basis of the armor-like folded skin of the greater Indian rhinoceros as a thermoregulator. Mammal Study 34, 2009, pp. 195-200
  7. ↑ A. Kalita, M. Talukdar, M. Sarma, SN Kalita and Monalisa Saikia: Craniometrical study in Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Cheiron 32 (1/2), 2003, pp. 33-35
  8. ↑ a b Colin P. Groves: The Rhinos - Tribal History and Kinship. In: Anonymous (ed.): The rhinos: Encounter with primeval colossi. Fürth, 1997, pp. 14-32
  9. ↑ Friedrich E. Zeuner: The relationships between skull shape and way of life in recent and fossil rhinos. Reports of the Natural Research Society in Freiburg 34, 1934, pp. 21–80
  10. ↑ Kamal Sarma and SN Kalita: Morphological and biometrical observations on the orbits of Indian one-horned rhinoceros. Indian Veterinary Journal 81, 2004, pp. 558-560
  11. ^ A b Colin P. Groves: Species characters in rhinoceros horns. Journal of mammalian studies 36 (4), 1971, pp. 238-252 (241f)
  12. ↑ Bernhard Blaszkiewitz: Again: front horn bearing rhinoceros. The Zoological Garden 64 (2), 1994, p. 111
  13. ↑ Bernhard Blaszkiewitz: Diceros 'tricornis' - a 3-horned black rhinoceros in the Berlin zoo. Bongo 11, 1986, pp. 123-124
  14. ↑ a b c d e f g Rudolf Schenkel and Ernst M. Lang: The behavior of the rhinos. Handbuch für Zoologie 8 (46), 1969, pp. 1-56
  15. ↑ a b c d Samuel Zschokke, Georg FJ Armbruster, Sylvain Ursenbacher and Bruno Baur: Genetic differences between the two remaining wild populations of the endangered Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Biological Conservation 144 (1), 2011, pp. 2702-2709
  16. ↑ a b c Bibhab Kumar Talukdar: Asian Rhino Specialist Group report. Pachyderm 49, 2011, pp. 16-19 ( online )
  17. ↑ International Rhino Foundation: Indian Rhino Vision 2020. 2011 ( [1] )
  18. ↑ eurekalert.org of April 25, 2011: "Collective conservation efforts boosted rhino population in Nepal"
  19. ^ Nico van Strien and Tirtha Maskey: Asian Rhino Specialist Group report. Pachyderm 40 (January-June), 2006, pp. 15-23
  20. ^ Daniel Lingenhöhl: Good news: Nepal's rhinos are multiplying. Spektrum.de, May 15, 2015.
  21. ↑ Sanjib Chaudhary: In the midst of the great earthquake trauma, Nepalis celebrate unprecedented success in nature conservation. Oximity.com, May 23, 2015.
  22. ↑ Rhino population up.Kantipur.com, May 5, 2015.
  23. ^ VK Yadav: Male-male aggression in Rhinoceros unicornus: Case study from North Bengal, India. Indian Forester 126 (10), 2000, pp. 1030-1034
  24. ↑ Per Wegge, Anil K. Shrestha, Stein R. Moe: Dry season diets of sympatric ungulates in lowland Nepal: competition and facilitation in alluvial tall grasslands. Ecological Research 21, 2006, pp. 698-706
  25. ↑ a b c Pradip Konwar, Malabika Kakati Saikia and PK Saikia: Abundance of food plant species and food habits of Rhinoceros unicornis Linn. in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 1 (9), 2009, pp. 457-460
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  27. ↑ Amal Bhattacharya and Koushik Chakraborty: Study on group size and group composition of great indian one horned rhinoceros (R. unicornis, Linn.) At Gorumara, Jaldapara and Kaziranga National Parks, India. International Journal of Science and Research 5 (9), 2013, pp. 534-540
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  29. ↑ Toshihiro Tokiwa, Soici Imai, Akira Ito and Tatsushi Morita: Morphological observation of intestinal ciliates from Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Japanese Journal of Protozoology 40 (1), 2007, pp. 78-79
  30. ↑ Cecil A. Hoare: A new cycloposthid ciliate (Triplumaria hamertoni gen.n., sp.n.) parasitic in the Indian Rhinoceros. Parasitology 29, 1937, pp. 559-568
  31. ↑ Christelle Tougard, Thomas Delefosse, Catherine Hänni and Claudine Montgelard: Phylogenetic Relationships of the Five Extant Rhinoceros Species (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla) Based on Mitochondrial Cytochrome b and 12S rRNA Genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 19, 2001, pp. 34-44
  32. ^ LC Rookmaaker: The sources of Linnaeus on the rhinoceros. Svenska Linnesallskapets Arsskrift 1996/97, 1998, pp. 61-80
  33. ↑ RhinoResourceCenter [2]
  34. ^ Donald R. Prothero, Claude Guérin and Earl Manning: The history of Rhinocerotoidea. In Donald R. Prothero and RM Schoch (eds.): The evolution of the Perissodactyls. New-York, 1989, pp. 321-340
  35. ↑ Esperanza Cerdeño: Diversity and evolutionary trends of the the family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla). Palaeo 141, 1998, pp. 13-34
  36. ↑ Gert D. van den Bergh, John de Vos, Paul Y. Sondaar and Fachroel Aziz: Pleistocene zoogeographic evolution of Java (Indonesia) and glacio-eustatic sea level fluctuations: A background for the presence of Homo. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 14 (Chiang Mai Papers, Volume 1), 1996, pp. 7-21
  37. ↑ Anne-Marie Bacon, Fabrice Demeter, Mathieu Schuster, Vu The Long, Nguyen Kim Thuy, Pierre-Olivier Antoine, Sevket Sen, Ha Huu Nga and Nguyen Mai Huong: The Pleistocene Ma U'Oi cave, northernVietnam: palaeontology, sedimentology and palaeoenvironments. Geobios 37, 2004, pp. 305-314
  38. ^ Anne-Marie Bacon a, F. Demeter, P. Duringer, C. Helm, M. Bano, Vu The Long, Nguyen Thi Kim Thuy, P.-O. Antoine, Bui Thi Mai, Nguyen Thi Mai Huong, Y. Dodo, F. Chabaux, S. Rihs: The Late Pleistocene Duoi U'Oi cave in northern Vietnam: palaeontology, sedimentology, taphonomy and palaeoenvironments. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 2008, pp. 1627-1654
  39. ^ S. Banerjee and S. Chakraborty: Remains of the great one-horned Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis Linneus, from Rajasthan. Science and Culture 39 (10), 1973, pp. 430-431
  40. ↑ Dev Mangal Singh, Amit Sharma and Bibhab Kumar Talukdar: Translocation of Rhinos within Assam: A successful first round of the second phase of translocations under Indian Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020. Report of IRV2020, pp. 1–6 ( PDF )
  41. ↑ Basel Zoo: What's new at Basel Zoo - Finally, the Indian rhinos have offspring again. ( [3] ), last accessed on January 11, 2018
  42. ↑ Meenakshi Dubey: Rock paintings of Pachmarhi Hills. In: Michel Lorblanchet (Ed.): Rock art in the old world. New Delhi, Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts, 2001, pp. 131-145
  43. ↑ a b A. van der Geer: Rhinoceros unicornis: The Indian Rhinoceros. In: A. van der Geer: Animals in stone: Indian mammals sculptured through time. Handbook of Oriental Studies, section 2: India 21, Leiden, Boston, 2008, pp. 380-386
  44. ↑ Gautama V. Vajracharya: Unicorns in Ancient India and Vedic ritual. Journal of Vedic Studies 17 (2), 2010, pp. 135–147
  45. ^ Brendan J. Cassar: The rock relief discovered in the Village of Shamarq, Baghlan Province. Report to SPACH (Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage), 2004, pp. 2-7
  46. ↑ Ragnar K. Kinzelbach: The Artemidor papyrus: animal pictures from the first century. Zoology (Communications of the German Zoological Society) 2011, pp. 13–26
  47. ↑ Werner Stein: The great cultural timetable . Munich: Herbig, 1981, p. 267
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  49. ^ LC Rookmaaker: Albrecht Dürer's rhinoceros. The Rhino and Elephant Journal 12, 1998, pp. 8-11
  50. ^ Bruno Rottenbach: Würzburg in the course of the year. Echter, Würzburg 1978, ISBN 3-429-00554-X , p. 52

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