Salghurids

Shiraz Bardasir (Kirman) Isfahan Hamadan Hormuz Yazd Tabriz Kish Idhaj (Ize) Bahrain

The kingdom of the Salghurids with the capital Shiraz primarily comprised the present-day provinces of Fars , Bushehr and the west of the Hormozgans . In the east it bordered on Kirman and the Shabankara area (around Darab ), with Fasa and Kahurestan belonging to the Kurds, while Lar still belonged to the Atabegs. In the north (where the salghurids Abarkuh but not Qumischah dominated) were the small principality of Yazd and the province jibal with its southern city of Isfahan , in the northeast Großluristan (to Ize ) and the Abbasid Caliphate belonging Chuzistan (west of Arradschan and Mahruban).

The Salghurids ( Persian سلغريان, DMG Salġuriyān ) were a Muslim regional dynasty from the Oghuz clan of the Salghur . As atabegs from Fars (اتابکان فارس, Atābakān-i Fārs ) they ruled in southern Iran between 1148 and 1282, mostly recognizing the sovereignty of the Greater Seljuks , Khorezm Shahs and ultimately the Mongols . The dynasty began with Sunqur ibn Maudud and ended with the direct takeover of the Ilkhan .

Event history

Ascent

View of today's Shiraz

The Salghur clan came to Iran from Central Asia with the Seljuks under Toghril-Beg ( Toġrïl-Beg ) in the middle of the 11th century . That Masud ibn Muhammad ( Masʿūd b. Muḥammad ) was busy asserting his sultanate against rivals, Sunqur ibn Maudud, the descendant of a Salghur leader, took advantage of 1148 to bring Fars ( Fārs ) with the capital Shiraz ( Širāz ) under his Bring control. The southern Persian province had long been ruled by the Turkish emir and Atabeg Boz-Aba, whose nephew Sunqur is said to have been. The founder of the Salghurid rule recognized the suzerainty of the Seljuks, but was repeatedly involved in their disputes. Against Sultan Malik-Shah III. ( Malik-Šāh ) and other adversaries supported him the neighboring Seljuks von Kirman and also with other royal houses in the region he and his successors cultivated good relations. The first Hazaraspide Abu Tahir had originally even been in Sunqurs services and this in a campaign against the Kurds tribe of shabankara supported (Šabānkāra) before it in gratitude to the Governor of Kuhgiluya ( Kūhgīlūya was appointed) and later as atabeg of Great Luristan became independent. Through Fars' location on the Persian Gulf and the relationship with the island of Kisch ( Kīš ), Sunqur also gained an influence on shipping and sea trade that should not be underestimated. After the booming world trade city of Siraf fell , Kish (Arabic: Qais ) rose to become a sea power under its own princely dynasty in the mid-11th century, which controlled part of the lucrative Indian trade .

After his brother Sunqur died in Baida ( Baiḍā ) in 1161 , Zangi ibn Maudud forcibly prevailed against all competitors, which initially caused his country to suffer greatly. He fended off an advance by the Kirman Seljuks, in whose line of succession he repeatedly interfered, and in 1169 also survived an invasion by the Emir of Chuzistan ( Ḫūzistān ), Shumla ( Šumla ), whom Zangi's disaffected soldiers had called into the country. As for the weaker and weaker Great Seljuks, Zangi considered a son of Malik-Shah III as his own candidate for the sultanate in Istachr ( Iṣṭaḫr ). called Mahmud. As overlord, however, he recognized Arslan ibn Toghril ( Arslan b. Toġrïl ), who confirmed him as Atabeg of Fars. After Zangi consolidated his rule, Fars appears to have prospered modestly under his leadership. He died in 1175/76 or 1178/79 at Uschkunvan Castle ( Uškunvān ), that of the three fortresses northwest of Istachr, which served the Salghurids as a state prison.

Zangi's successor was, as determined, Tekele (or Degele), one of his five sons, and as the new Atabeg had to fight on several fronts: In 1179/80 he got it first with Muhammad Dschahan-Pahlavan ( Muḥammad Ǧahān-Pahlavān ), the Atabeg of Azerbaijan , whose father Zangi (1165) had to submit formally. In 1182/83 his cousin Qutb ad-Din Toghril ibn Sunqur ( Quṭb ad-Dīn Toġrïl b. Sunqur ) (probably recognized by Jahan-Pahlavan ) rose and took over parts of Fars before the uprising could be put down by Tekele. When the Seljuk dynasty of Kirman went down in chaos, fighting broke out between the Salghurids and the Oghuzen for control of Kirman, with the latter completely conquering the province by 1186. Campaigns were also continued against the neighboring Shabankara. Although Fars and its inhabitants suffered from all the fighting, Tekele succeeded in permanently consolidating the rule of his dynasty until his death in 1197/98, while the Great Seljuks, which had long been in decline, were finally eliminated by the Khorezm Shahs in 1194.

Climax

After Tekele's death, a plague broke out in Fars and again disputes over the throne. Sad I, Tekele's younger brother, was only able to win the latter when he finally had his rebelling cousin Qutb ad-Din Toghril executed after eight devastating years of war (1202/03). With this victory of Sad I, the now virtually independent Salghurids began a brilliant time of prosperity, cultural prosperity and development of power; As a result of a clever policy - in which the able vizier Khodja Amid al-Din Abu Nasr Asad Abzari ( Ḫᵛāǧa ʿAmīd al-Dīn Abū Naṣr Asʿad Abzarī ) participated - the country was finally able to recover from the long years of devastation. Also succeeded Sad I. to increase his domain by Sirjan ( Sīrǧān conquered) and other parts Kirmans and pulled against the shabankara that often had undertaken to Fars earlier raids. In 1203/4 he even occupied Isfahan , but he had to quickly give up the city again and hurry back to Shiraz, since his capital had been taken by the troops of the Azerbaijani Atabeg Öz-Beg ibn Pahlavan. Later, Sad was involved in battles with the Oghuzen over Kirman for several years, until this province, like Hormuz, fell to the powerful Khorezm Shah Muhammad II around 1213 . When Sad advanced to Djibal again in 1217 to seize the cities of Rey , Qazvin and Semnan , he was surprised by Muhammad II, defeated and held in Hamadan until he decided to pay tribute (one third of his state income) and cede his territory (region around Istachr and Ushkunvan) declared ready. In addition, Sad had to send his eldest son hostage to Muhammad's court, from where he was allowed to return after the Salghurids and the Anushteginids had married. Abu Bakr, another son of Sad I, had taken his father's captivity as an opportunity to usurp power in Shiraz. Sad I was able to take over the rule again on his return to Fars, as the Khorezm Shah had given his new vassal troops for this purpose. Abu Bakr was imprisoned for a long time after this failed rebellion. When Sultan Muhammad II was later oppressed by the Mongols and completely defeated in 1220, Sad was able to shake off the supremacy of the Khorezm Shahs for the time being. He also benefited from the conflict between the sons of Muhammad II, Ghiyath ad-Din ( Ġiyāṯ ad-Dīn ) and Jalal ad-Din ( Ǧalāl ad-Dīn ), who fought over the succession to the throne. When Jalal ad-Din returned from India to Fars in 1224, he married Sad's daughter. He then defeated his brother, who had repeatedly attacked the Salghurids, and left Isfahan and other areas to his new father-in-law, for which the Atabeg recognized him as overlord until his death on November 5, 1226.

Sad I was followed by his son Abu Bakr, who was released shortly before (at the suggestion of Sultan Jalal ad-Din), who voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and was thus able to protect his empire from war and plunder. As a token of recognition of the Mongolian sovereignty, he sent his brother (or nephew) Tahamtan to the court of the great khan Ögedei ; In return, he was given the title Qutlugh-chan (Qutluġ-Ḫān) and a Mongolian commander ( šiḥna ) assigned, who, however, housed in a quarter outside the city walls, hardly appeared. Apart from the unsuccessful rebellion of a Salghurid prince named Salghur-Shah Qarandash-Chan ibn Sad ( Salġur-Šāh Qarāndāš-Ḫān b. Saʿd ), who was poisoned in the end, Abu Bakr's rule was generally characterized by inner peace and stability. Under Atabeg, who was interested in art and research, who surrounded himself with scholars and poets and had numerous buildings built, the Salghurid rule reached its climax, especially in cultural terms (see section Culture, Science and Religion ) and also made the empire on a political and economic level once again considerable progress. The two viziers Mughrib ad-Din Mufachir Masud ( Muġrib ad-Dīn Mufāḫir Masʿūd ) and Amir Fachr ad-Din Abu Bakr ( Amīr Faḫr ad-Dīn Abū Bakr ) as well as the upper Qadir Jamal ad-Din Abu Bakr Misri ( Ǧamāl ad -Dīn Abū Bakr Miṣrī ) their share. As a result of a series of new tax laws, Abu Bakr was not only able to pay the tribute of 30,000 dinars (plus gifts) to the Mongols, but was also able to expand his armed forces. In order to participate more in the lucrative Indian trade, he expanded with the help of his enlarged army into the (not Mongolian-ruled) Persian Gulf, whereby from August 1236 there were protracted battles with the Arabs of Bahrain , which - after the capture of Tarut ( Ṭārūt ) and the execution of a sheikh in the spring of 1244 - which ultimately ended in 1256/57 with the appointment of two reliable emirs of the islands. On the other hand, on November 12, 1230, Abu Bakr gained supremacy over the island of Kish. The island, which was an abundant source of money in terms of customs and tax revenue, was given to him by his vassal, the ruler of Hormuz, who had only conquered it the year before (allegedly for the Salghurids). One of Abu Bakr's plans that was unsuccessful was the attempt to regulate land ownership in the country more fairly.

Decline

Under the first Ilkhan Hülegü , the Mongols subjugated all of Iran. Abu Bakr thereupon again affirmed his loyalty and sent his son Sad as a hostage to Hülegü's court. With Abu Bakr's death on May 18, 1260, the decline of the Salghurids began. Sad, who was then in Baghdad, inherited his father as Sad II, but died of an illness after only twelve, seventeen or eighteen days as Atabeg before he could return to Shiraz. So Sad's young son Muhammad came to the throne, but the real power came from his mother Terken-Chatun, a princess from the Atabeg dynasty of Yazd , and her vizier Nizam ad-Din Abu Bakr ( Niẓām ad-Dīn Abū Bakr ) . With the beginning of rampant acts of violence and waste of money, the general decline of Salghurid rule accelerated. When Muhammad died after about two and a half years - Hülegü had just confirmed him as Atabeg - on November 20, 1262, Terken-Chatun helped his uncle Muhammad-Shah (also: Muhammad II) to the throne. He was a deserved warrior, but not a statesman. He spent a lot of time on feasts and did not think about working with Terken-Chatun - whose daughter Salghom ( Salġom ) he married. Fearing their influence, Terken-Chatun therefore decided to get rid of her son-in-law, and for this purpose had Muhammad Shah captured and brought to the Mongolian court on July 18, 1263. Around this time, the Salghurid regent seems to have entered into cautious contact with the Egyptian Mamluk Sultan Baibars I in secret , but this diplomatic attempt at advances was probably unsuccessful.

Seljuq-Shah ibn Salghur, a brother of the deported ruler, became the new Atabeg and also married Terken-Chatun. But this displeased his previous wife and the other emirs, which is why he murdered Terken-Chatun at a banquet while intoxicated. Seljuq Shah's rebellion against the Ilkhan turned out to be serious and foolish: When he had the Mongolian delegation murdered in Shiraz, Hulegü killed Muhammad Shah, who was still at his court, and sent his army against Shiraz. In this army there was also a detachment from Yazd under the command of Ala ad-Daulas, who wanted revenge for his sister Terken-Chatun. Seljuq Shah fled the city and holed up in Kazerun , but eventually had to surrender and was executed on December 4, 1264.

With the minor princess Abish-Chatun - she and her sister were the only two members of the family still alive - Hülegü has now appointed a daughter of Sad II as ruler of Fars. After she had been engaged for a long time, she was called to the new Ilchan Abaqa around 1273, at the age of around fifteen , and married his brother Mengü-Temür, the eleventh son of Hülegüs (although he was not a Muslim). As the main wife, she gave birth to the Mongolian two daughters, Kürdüdschin (Kürdüǧin) and Alghantschi (Alġanči) . While Abish-Chatun initially stayed at the Ilchan court after the wedding, Mengü-Temür went to Fars as the new regent. He ruled there in the name of his wife, who continued to be mentioned in the Chutba and on coins, although the actual, direct control over the province was now in the hands of the Mongolian governor Sughundschaq (Suġunǧaq) and his tax officer (often mentioned in the sources) . Abish-Chatun's return to Shiraz did not take place until 1283, when she was replaced by Ilchan Ahmad Tegüder in the place of her husband, who had since been ordered back and who had died. Since she was in arrears with the payments to the new Ilchan Arghun (Arġun) due to her careless handling of financial resources and a drought , she was to appear again a short time later with her Mongol overlord. Probably on the advice of her patroness Öldschei-Chatun (Ölǧei-Ḫatun) , the widow of Hülegüs, Abish-Chatun opposed this order and apparently took a rebellious stance. Anti-Mongol riots broke out in Shiraz, in which the Ilchanat envoy was killed again and the Arghun gave a reason to intervene in 1284. Abish Chatun was subsequently forced to submit, fined, and captured by the Mongolian General Bugha. Öldschei-Chatun stood up for her, but the Salghuridin remained imprisoned in Tabriz until she died on December 31, 1286 at the age of only about 26 years. Although she was a Muslim, she was buried according to Mongolian custom and her inheritance was distributed as she had determined in her will: her two daughters each received one of the land and the 100,000 dinars that she had once received from Hülegü on the occasion of her wedding Quarter, her slaves and those freed by her a quarter and also Taitschu (Taiču) , Mengü-Temür's son from another marriage, a quarter.

With Queen Abish-Chatun, the rule of the Salghurids and the principality of the Atabegs of Fars ended. Her older daughter Kürdüdschin, who was also the eldest of all Mengü-Temür's daughters, first married the Qutlughchanid Soyurghatmisch (Soyurġatmïš) and played an important role in the politics of Kirman before she became the wife of the emir Taj ad-Din Satilmisch (Tāǧ ad- Dīn Satïlmïš) was and finally married his nephew Toghai (Toġai) . In 1319/20, the Ilchan Abu Said (Abū Saʿīd) made her by contract to be the tax hirer of Fars, as which she is expressly praised in the sources: She is said to have been generous, cared for the people and made particular efforts as a patron be to preserve the facilities of their ancestors (see below).

Culture, science and religion

Construction activity

The Shāh Cherāgh in Shiraz

Like the Buyids before them, the Salghurids expanded Shiraz and left behind a number of magnificent structures, of which, however, not much has survived. For example, Sunqur had a madrasa mosque complex named after him built, which he equipped with bazaars and qanats (as waqf goods) and in which he was ultimately buried. His tomb later developed into an important shrine. Sonqor's successor, Zangi, commissioned the construction of the Ibn Chafif shrine, adding a ribat ( Ribāṭ , a kind of hostel) to the Sufi resting place and donating several villages to provide for them. Under Tekele, another ribat and the Amini mosque (named after its builder, Tekeles vizier Amin ad-Daula Kaziruni) were built near the Atiq mosque ( Masǧid-i ʿAtiq).

After a phase marked by unrest and epidemics, Sad I was able to continue the expansion of Shiraz and led his capital to more prosperity with a clever policy. So he surrounded the city with a new city wall, had a new Friday mosque (the so-called Masǧid-i nou , "new mosque") built and built the Atabeg Bazaar ( Bāzār-i Atābakī ) and the Zangi-Qanat ( Qanāt-i Zangī ). Under Abu Bakr, who saved Shiraz from the Mongols, another madrasa, public parks, mosques, bazaars and a hospital (generously endowed with pious foundations) were built - not only in the capital. The two viziers of the Atabeg were also involved in construction and set up waqf goods. One of them, Amir Muqarrab ad-Din, discovered the grave of Ahmad ibn Musa Kazim, brother of Ali ar-Rida and son of Musa al-Kazim , the seventh imam of the Twelve Shiites , while doing grading . The vizier then had the famous Shah-e Cheragh ( Šāh-e Čerāġ ) built around the resting place, which developed into the holiest place in all of Shiraz.

After Abu Bakr, Shiraz lost its luster again: The city fell victim to several raids and a drought in the years 1284 to 1287 claimed 100,000 victims before the plague and measles in 1297 killed another 50,000 people in Shiraz and the surrounding area. Abish-Chatun was able to improve the situation by maintaining the charitable and religious institutions and had the Ribat-i Abish , named after her, built on the graves of her ancestors . It is z. B. reports that she wisely administered the funds of the Adudi madrasa (ʿAḍuḍī) established by Terken-Chatun and even increased them at a time when many auqāf were dying .

poetry

Among the poets who worked at the Salghurid court, Saadi ( Muṣliḥ ad-Dīn Saʿdī , d. 1291) - to this day one of the greatest Persian poets - is by far the best known. He probably derived his tachallus from Sad II and, after returning to his native Shiraz after a long journey, dedicated the two famous works Bustan (1257) and Golestan (1258) to Abu Bakr and Abu Bakr, Sad II and the vizier Fachr ad -Din Abu Bakr ibn Abi Nasr ( Faḫr ad-Dīn Abū Bakr b. Abī Naṣr ).

Amid ad-Din Abzari (d. 1227), the vizier of Sads I, also made a name for himself as a poet who wrote in Persian and Arabic. After Abu Bakr had him imprisoned in Uschkunvan, he wrote a Qaside ( al-Qaṣīda al-Uškuwānīya ) for his son, for example , in which he emphasized his virtues with rhetorical brilliance and regretted his fate.

science

In the field of science, Qutb ad-Din al-Shirazi ( Quṭb ad-Dīn Širāzī , 1236-1311) should be emphasized, who studied and worked as a doctor in the Shiraz Muzaffari Hospital until around 1260. He is known, among other things, for the reviews of Ptolemy's Almagest written with his teacher Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi , the continuation of Alhazen's optical experiments and the first correct explanation for the structure of the rainbow. In addition to medicine, astronomy, physics and mathematics, among other things, philosophy and Islamic mysticism belonged to Shirazi's fields of activity; he also wrote poems.

religion

The Sunni Salghurids recognized the suzerainty of the Baghdad Abbasid Caliphate, at least formally, and, in contrast to the comparatively tolerant Shiite Buyids, adopted a strictly orthodox religious stance. Especially Abu Bakr, under whom no one allegedly dared to deal with logic or philosophy, representatives of unorthodox opinions were banned and the Shiites were partially suppressed.

Ruler list

• Muzaffar ad-Din Sunqur (or Sonqur ) ibn Maudud (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Sunqur b. Maudūd) , r. 1148-1161
• Muzaffar ad-Din Zangi ibn Maudud (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Zangī b. Maudūd) , r. 1161–1175 (or 1161–1178)
• Tekele (or Degele ) ibn Zangi ( Tekele b. Zangī) , r. 1175–1198 (or 1178–1198)
• Muzaffar ad-Din Abu Shudscha Sad (I.) ibn Zangi (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Abū Šuǧāʿ Saʿd (I.) b. Zangī) , r. 1198-1226
• Muzaffar ad-Din Qutlugh-Chan Abu Bakr ibn Sad (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Qutluġ-Ḫān Abū Bakr b. Saʿd) , r. 1226-1260
• Muzaffar ad-Din Sad (II.) Ibn Qutlugh-Chan (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Saʿd (II.) B.Qutluġ-Ḫān) , r. 1260
• Adud ad-Din Muhammad ibn Sad (ʿAḍud ad-Dīn Muḥammad b. Saʿd) , r. 1260-1262
• Muzaffar ad-Din Muhammad-Shah ibn Salghur-Shah ibn Sad (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Muḥammad- Shāh b.Salġur-Shāh b. Saʿd) , r. 1262-1263
• Muzaffar ad-Din Seljuq-Shah ibn Salghur-Shah (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Selǧuq- Shāh b.Salġur-Shāh) , r. 1263
• Muzaffar ad-Din Abish-Chatun bint Sad (Muẓaffar ad-Dīn Ābiš-Ḫatun bt. Saʿd) , reg. 1263–1284 (sometimes together with Mengü-Temür ibn Hülegü )

family tree

Only the most important family members are listed.

Maudud

1. Sunqur

2. Zangi

Toghril

3. Tekele

4. Sad I.

5. Abu Bakr

Salghur Shah

6. Sad II.

Terken-Chatun

9. Seljuq Shah

8. Muhammad Shah

7. Muhammad

Salghom

10. Abish Chatun

Mengü-Temür

Alghantschi

Kürdüdschin

literature

• Clifford Edmund Bosworth : Article "SAL GH URIDS" in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition
• Clifford Edmund Bosworth: Chapter "The political and dynastic history of the Iranian world (AD 1000-1217)" in John Andrew Boyle (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Iran , Vol. 5 - The Saljuq and Mongol periods , Cambridge 1968 ( Pp. 169, 172-174)
• Bertold Spuler : Article “ATĀBAKĀN-E FĀRS” (December 15, 1987) in Ehsan Yarshater (Ed.): Encyclopaedia Iranica , Online Edition
• Bertold Spuler: The Mongols in Iran , Berlin 1985 (pp. 117–121)
• A. Shapur Shahbazi: Article “SHIRAZ i. HISTORY TO 1940 “ (July 20, 2004) in Ehsan Yarshater (Ed.): Encyclopaedia Iranica , Online Edition
• John W. Limbert: Shiraz in the age of Hafez - the glory of a medieval persian city , University of Washington Press, 2004, ISBN 0-295-98391-4 , preview on Google books
• Erdoğan Merçil: Fars Atabegleri Salgurlular , Ankara 1975
• Erdoğan Merçil: The building activity of the Salgurid period according to historical sources in G. Fehér (Ed.): Fifth International Congress of Turkish Arts , Budapest 1978

Remarks

1. ↑ Other historians such as Hamdallah Mustaufi and Raschīd ad-Dīn were not sure whether the word Salghur was a clan or an ancestor of the ruling family. Wilhelm Barthold even doubted a connection between the dynasty and the tribe.
2. ↑ Boz-Aba was captured and executed in a battle by his arch enemy Sultan Masud ibn Muhammad in 1147/48.
3. ↑ the capital of the district of the same name in the district of Sepidān
4. ↑ Zangi initially supported Turan-Shah with troops against his brothers and later tried, after Turan-Shah actually came to power (1176/77), to overthrow him again (in alliance with the Atabeg Muhammad ibn Boz-Qusch).
5. ↑ Toghril even had coins minted in his name - like all Salghurid rulers except Muhammad, Muhammad-Shah and Seljuq-Shah.
6. ↑ She was the sister of Ala ad-Daulas ( ʿAlāʾ ad-Daula , r. 1272-1275).
7. ↑ ^{a b} Shahbazi: SHIRAZ i. HISTORY TO 1940
8. ↑ ^{a b} Limbert: Shiraz in the age of Hafez , p. 14
9. ↑ The name probably comes from Muhammad's Laqab ʿAḍuḍ ad-Dīn .