Political and Social History of Islam
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Left picture : Jean-Léon Gérôme, praying in Cairo, 1865
Right picture : Muslim woman in Tehran, 2009 |
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The history of Islam ( Arabic تاريخ الإسلام, DMG tārīḫ al-Islām ) is presented in this article from a political, cultural and social historical perspective. Due to the long historical development and the geographical extent of the Islamic world, only the main features can be presented here. To make the overview easier, a breakdown is made on the one hand by time epochs, on the other hand, a western ( Maghreb ) and an eastern part ( Maschrek ) are distinguished within the Dār al-Islam . In order not to let the list of individual proofs become too long, reference is also made to the corresponding main articles.
Historical overview
Spread and first flowering period
Starting from the Islamic “original community” in Arabia, Islam had already spread over a large part of the then known world in the first two centuries of its existence. In the course of its more than 1,300-year history, different beliefs, societies and states developed within the Islamic world. The appropriation and transformation of the culture of antiquity led to an early heyday of Islamic culture , which radiated into Christian Europe. The dominance and integrating power of the Islamic religion and the Arabic language common to all educated people were decisive for this development . Until the rise of modern natural science in the wake of the European Enlightenment , the influence of Islamic scientists, especially doctors , remained unbroken in Europe as well.
differentiation
As a result of the separation of Sunnis and Shiites , the religious unity of the Islamic world was lost with the end of the Umayyad dynasty and the establishment of the Emirate of Córdoba . The individual regions remained closely linked through trade and migration, but developed their own cultural traditions under changing ruling dynasties. The Mongol storm of the 13th and the devastating epidemics of the 14th century led to profound changes in the political situation.
During the 11th – 15th In the 19th century, areas with Arabic as the everyday and cultural language separated from those in which Persian became the most important language in secular culture and Arabic remained the language of religious and legal discourse. In large parts of the eastern Islamic world, the Turks became the ruling elite. The Abbasid caliphate continued until Baghdad was destroyed in the Mongolian storm in 1258, but the Arabic-speaking area was divided into three politically separate regions: Iraq, mostly united under one rule with Iran (" Both Iraq "), Egypt as supremacy over Syria and that western Arabia, as well as the areas of the Maghreb .
Although the Islamic rulers, the caliphs , retained their role as regional rulers for a certain time, in Baghdad, Cairo or in al-Andalus , and the office of the caliph could still serve to legitimize the exercise of Islamic rule, the real power went to sultans , emirs , Maliks and other rulers over. In the 11th-18th In the 19th century, Islam spread deep into India, western China, and across the oceans to East Africa, the coastal areas of South Asia, Southeast Asia and South China. Such an expansion, in its cultural and political diversity, makes central rule and coordinated administration impossible. In the further spread of Islam, the traders and the Sufi mystics of the Tarīqa played just as important a role as an army or an administrative head before.
Early modern empires
In the 15th and 16th centuries, three new great powers emerged with the Safavid dynasty , the Mughal Empire and the Ottoman Empire . In the course of their self-assurance and guided by the need for appropriate cultural representation of their new political role, Islamic culture experienced another heyday in these countries. Supported by the rulers, guided by court manufacturers under the protection of the rulers, masterpieces of art and buildings were created that are now part of the world cultural heritage .
At the beginning of the 12th century, trade between Europe and the Islamic world, especially with the Ottoman Empire, grew strongly. As early as the 15th century, an export-oriented economic structure had emerged in Asia Minor. The increasing European demand for commercial goods such as spices, oriental carpets , glass and ceramic goods destroyed traditional handicrafts in the Islamic countries as a result of mass production and the use of cheaper materials. At the same time, the abundant silver in Europe due to imports from South America weakened the silver- based economy of its most important trading partner. The revolution in military technology that followed with the introduction of firearms in the 16th century put a strain on the state finances of the great empires.
Colonialism and independence
With the development of the modern world order, the primacy of Islamic culture was lost: the Western European Renaissance, Reformation and the beginning of the scientific and industrial revolution were almost unnoticed by the Islamic world. The political and economic dominance of Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries led to a self-interested policy of colonialism towards the countries of the Islamic world and their division into spheres of interest of the respective colonial powers, for example in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1907) . With the support of major European powers, the Pahlavi dynasty was established in Iran in 1925 . Since the conquest of the Mughal Empire by Great Britain (1858) India was under direct British rule as a crown colony , and Egypt was a British protectorate since 1882 . Afghanistan , originally part of the Mughal Empire, has been the scene of armed conflicts on the border between the British and Russian spheres of influence since the late 19th century, and in the 20th century the Cold War and the American War on Terror .
Numerous reform movements developed in the Islamic countries at the time of European colonial rule and in the process of dealing with it, among which a modernist and a traditionalist-fundamentalist school of thought can be distinguished. Founded in the 19th and early 20th centuries, several of these organizations are still of ideological and political importance today.
The pursuit of independence, for example in the Greek Revolution (1821–1829) or in the Ottoman-Saudi War (1811–1818) led to territorial losses of the Ottoman Empire, which perished in the Turkish Liberation War in 1923 . India was in 1947 on the basis of Nations two-theory in today's Indian state and the Muslim countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh split . Indonesia declared its independence from the Dutch colonial power in 1945 . In the Islamic West, the states of the Maghreb only gained their independence in the middle of the 20th century, for example in the Algerian War . In 1979, the Iranian monarchy was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution . The country has been an Islamic republic since then . In the east, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, independent, partly autocratic states emerged.
Modern
The hegemony of modern Western culture represents a fundamental challenge for the Islamic world. The discussion ultimately focuses on the question of the extent to which Muslims today should adopt Western liberal achievements and political concepts, or whether the Islamic world has the means on the one hand, and whether on the other it would even have a duty to create its own Islamic modernity. In contrast to the short-lived Arab Spring , there is a fundamentalist position that economic and cultural decline is a result of disregarding God's commandments. In this case, it is argued, only an uncompromising return to Scripture and the traditions of the Prophet can solve the dilemma.
The idea of the Islamic Awakening since the 1970s stands for a return to Islamic values and traditions in a conscious departure from Western customs. Particularly in the context of poverty and a lack of access to education, Islamist terrorism is gaining ground and is directed not only against the western-secular, but also against the society of its own or neighboring countries. Civil wars, for example in Syria , devastate some of the oldest and most important cities of Islamic culture and thus part of the material and cultural heritage of Islam in the core countries of its origin.
Islamic historiography
Early Islamic historians
· az-Zubair (634 / 35–712 / 13)
· Ibn Ishaq (d. 761)
· al-Waqidi (745–822)
· Ibn Hisham (d. 834)
· ibn Saʿd (d. 845)
· Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam (d. 871)
· ibn Shabba (d. 877)
· at-Tabarī (839–923)
· al-Mas'udi (d. 956 or 946)
· Ibn ʿAsākir (d. 1176)
· Ibn al-Athīr (d. 1233)
· Ibn Chaldūn (1332–1406)
· al-Maqrizi (d. 1442)
· al-ʿAsqalānī (1372–1449)
The transmission of the history of Islam began soon after the death of Muhammad. Tales of the Prophet, his companions, and the early days of Islam have been compiled from various sources; Methods had to be developed to assess their reliability. The Hadith Science ( Arabic علم الحديث, DMG ilm al-ḥadīth ) comprises a number of disciplines on which the study of the sayings of Muhammad, the hadith , is based. Jalal ad-Din as-Suyūtī described the principles according to which the authenticity of a chain of narration ( Isnād ) is assessed. The term " ʿIlm ar-ridschāl " denotes the biographical science, the aim of which is to assess the reliability of the information transmitted by a person.
The at-Tabarī (839-923), who worked in Baghdad, is the best-known author in the field of universal or imperial history with his annalistic Ta'rīch / Achbār ar-rusul wal-mulūk (story / news of the ambassadors and kings). At-Tabarī sees himself as a narrator who should contain his own conclusions and explanations.
The first detailed studies on the methodological criticism of historiography and the philosophy of history appeared in the works of the politician and historian Ibn Chaldūn (1332-1406), especially in the Muqaddima (introduction) to the Kitāb al-ʿIbar ("Book of Hints", actually "World History") ). He regards the past as strange and in need of interpretation; when looking at a bygone age, the relevant historical material must be judged according to certain principles. Often it has happened that a historian has copied uncritically from previous authors without worrying about whether the respective tradition fits into the overall picture of an epoch or with other information transmitted by a person. He understands the historiography he has called for as a completely new method and repeatedly describes it as a "new science".
6-10 century
Arabia before Islam
Muslims refer to the time before Islam as Jāhiliyya , the epoch of "ignorance". Islam has its origin in the Arabian Peninsula ( Arabic الجزيرة العربية jasirat al-ʿarabiya , DMG al-jazīra al-ʿarabiyya 'Island of the Arabs '), asteppe and desert areamainly inhabited by Bedouins . At that time, Arabia was not a politically and socially uniform community, but lay on the edge of the sphere of influence of the Byzantine Empire on the one hand and the Persian Empire on the other, as well as their vassal states, the Ghassanids affiliated to the Byzantinesand the Lachmids allied with the Persians.
Mecca , the homeland of Muhammad , had developed into a trading metropolis due to its favorable location on the Incense Route that ran from southern Arabia to Syria, which was dominated by the Koreishites , an Arab tribe of merchants, who also included Muhammad's clan, the Hashemites , belonged to.
Although also numerous Jews (especially in Mecca and the nearby at-Ta'if, Yathrib (there, for example, the tribes of the Banu Qainuqa , Banū n-Nadīr and Banu Quraiza ), Wadi l-Qura, Chaibar , Fatal and Taima) and Christians lived on the Arabian Peninsula, according to Islamic tradition, the majority of the inhabitants professed a variety of pagan tribal gods, such as al-Lat , Manat and al-Uzza . The local deity Hubal was worshiped in Mecca . The Kaaba - arab. also baytu llāh , d. H. "House of God" - in Mecca was already an important place of pilgrimage in pre-Islamic times and represented a source of economic, religious and political influence for the Koreishites. Information about ancient Arabic deities was obtained from Hišām b. Muḥammad b. as-Sāʾib al-Kalbī, known as Ibn al-Kalbī (d. 819–821) reported.
as-Sīra an-Nabawīya - The biography of the prophets
The earliest known biography of the prophet ( Arabic السيرة النبوية, DMG as-sīra an-nabawīya ) is Ibn Ishāqs Sirat Rasul Allah ("The Life of the Messenger of God"). It is quoted in excerpts in later works and arrangements by Ibn Hisham and at-Tabari .
The Prophet Mohammed was born in Mecca around 570 . At the age of about forty (609) Mohammed first had visions in the cave of Hira. The archangel Gabriel (Ĝibrīl) commanded him to write down the word of God ( Allah ). At first he only shared his experience with a small circle of confidants, but soon gained followers. When they began to fight the old polytheistic religion, there was a break between Mohammed and the Koreishites. In 620 Mohammed and his followers submitted to the protection of the two Medinan tribes, the Aus and Khasradsch , who were looking for a mediator (Arabic: hakam ). In September 622, Mohammed and his followers moved from Mecca to Yathrib ( Medina ), an event that, as Hejra, marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar .
The move to Medina also marked the beginning of Muhammad's political activity. He had the respected position of a mediator in Medinan society and was also regarded as the head of the Islamic community ( Umma ). Islam experienced its first social form in Medina. The Medinan suras of the Koran make more reference to concrete regulations of the life and organization of the Islamic community. Mohammed led several campaigns against Mecca since 623 (victory of the Muslims in the battle of Badr (624), the battle of Uhud (625) and the battle of the trenches (627)) until an armistice was concluded in March 628. In 629, the Muslims began the pilgrimage to Mecca ( Hajj ) for the first time . In 630 the leaders of Mecca handed over the city to Mohammed, who then had the pagan idols removed from the Kaaba .
In the years before Muhammad's death in 632, the influence of Islam spread to the entire Arabian Peninsula. Contracts were concluded with the tribal leaders , some of which contained a tribute obligation , and some included the recognition of Muhammad as a prophet. The community order of Medina , handed down in Ibn Hisham's adaptation of Ibn Ishāq's biography of the prophet, is a contract that Mohammed concluded in 622 between the emigrants from Mecca and his helpers in Yathrib, later Medina . It defines a number of rights and duties and thus created the basis for the community concept of the ummah .
When Mohammed died in Medina on June 8, 632, he did not leave a male heir. His only daughter was Fatima .
The Era of the Righteous Caliphs (632-661)
The term "rightly guided caliphs" ( Arabic الخلفاء الراشدون, DMG al-ḫulafāʾ ar-rāšidūn ) refers to the Sunni view of the first four caliphs , who between 632 and 661 led the ummah , the community of believers, before its split. The four successors are Abdallah Abū Bakr (r. 632–634), ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb (r. 634–644), ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān , (r. 644–655) and ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib (r. 656–661 ). During these thirty years, Islam continued to expand, and at the same time disputes about the succession arose, which ultimately led to the division of Islam into Sunnah and Shia .
The Ridda Wars fall during the brief reign of Abū Bakr . The caliphate ʿUmar ibn al-Chattābs marks decisive victories over the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Sassanids and thus the expansion of Islam to Syria and Palestine ( Bilad al-Sham ), Egypt , parts of Mesopotamia and Iran . The decisive factor for the rapid conquest of the former Byzantine and Persian territories was not only the motivation and mobility of the Arab troops, but above all the fact that Byzantium and Persia were exhausted by the long and bloody Roman-Persian wars that had only ended in 628/29 . The Arab conquerors then profited considerably from the already existing higher cultural development in the former Byzantine areas and in Persia; Likewise, the effective Byzantine and Persian administrative practice was largely adopted or adapted.
The most important cultural achievement of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffāns was the final and still authoritative editing of the Koran , some twenty years after the death of the Prophet Mohammed. Around 651 the first wave of Islamic expansion came to a standstill in the west in Cyrenaica (Libya) and in the east on Amu Darya (northern Persia, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan). Asia Minor remained under Byzantine rule until the 11th century.
The election of ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib led to an open discussion on the question of succession. In 656 there was the camel battle , the Fitna civil war and in 657 the battle of Siffin on the central Euphrates between ʿAli and his rival Mu'awiya . With the murder of ʿAlī by Kharijites in 661, the series of "rightly guided caliphs" ends.
Timeline
Islamic Studies Concepts for the History of Origin
Modern Islamic studies questions traditional Islamic historiography . In the 1970s, the Revisionist School of Islamic Studies criticized the classic Islamic representation as being religiously and politically motivated. Especially for the early days of Islam, this resulted in a picture of the historical processes that partly deviated from the representations of the 8th and 9th centuries:
The Islamic scholar GR Hawting assumes that Islam did not arise in an environment of ignorance and pagan polytheism. Rather, the multiple references to the texts of the Bible require knowledge of Jewish and Christian teaching. The teachings of the Koran, for example, should contrast the Christian doctrine of the Trinity , which, according to the Islamic understanding of the unity of God, added inappropriate attributes to a more uncompromising concept of monotheism. In order to make the purity of Islamic teaching particularly clear, the pre-Islamic period was polemically presented as ignorant and addicted to pagan polytheism. In later Qur'an commentaries and in traditional Islamic literature, this polemic was taken literally and ascribed to Muhammad's Arab contemporaries. From the standpoint of comparative religious studies, Hawting questions the historical truth of the traditional portrayal of the pre-Islamic Arab religion.
The historical authenticity of the prophetic biographies of Ibn Ishāq and Ibn Hishām , which were only written in the 8th and 9th centuries, was questioned by Hans Jansen . It was assumed that the historical works were supposed to serve the purpose of religiously legitimizing the political rule of the Abbasid caliphs . However, the parish order of Medina is believed to be authentic. With the help of the historical-critical method which was History of the Quran explored. Some scholars question Mohammed as the author and accept later revisions and additions. Fred Donner assumes that Islam emerged as a "movement of believers", in which originally Christians and Jews were also included as equal members, and that a delimitation of the actual Islam only took place since the late 7th century. Individual authors such as Yehuda Nevo and Karl-Heinz Ohlig represent controversial positions with regard to the early days of Islam, such as the fact that Mohammed did not exist as a historical person or was unimportant for the development of Islam. Through linguistic analyzes of the Koran, Christoph Luxenberg proves his hypothesis that the book is written in a mixed Aramaic - Arabic language. As a result, he questions the traditional view of an oral tradition that was complete from the time of Muhammad to the writing of the Koran under ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān . It is based on an older written version. The Koran is based on a partially misunderstood translation of a Syrian, Christian- anti-Trinitarian lesson. This hypothesis, which is relevant from the perspective of critical Koran scholarship, is of lesser importance for the religious or political history of the Islamic world, which is shaped by the traditional understanding of the Koran.
The scientific interest is directed towards the historical development of the world region known today as the "Islamic world" or "Islamic cultural area", as well as the emergence of Islamic social and political structures in the conquered countries. During the first centuries, Islamic expansion was largely carried out by Arabs and is therefore synonymous with “Arab expansion”. In contrast to the descriptions of the early Islamic historians, it is now assumed that the weakness of the Byzantine and Persian Sassanid empires facilitated the conquests. In the early days, an Islamic minority ruled over a majority still predominantly Jewish or Christian. The new Islamic rulers initially took over the existing economic and administrative structures of their predecessors in the conquered areas. The earliest known buildings of Islamic architecture clearly show the adoption and cultural transformation of architectural and artistic design principles of the Syrian-Byzantine tradition. Buildings such as the Dome of the Rock , erected under the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik in Jerusalem, were analyzed in terms of their importance as early symbols of an Islamic consciousness of rule, as were the Islamic coinage that appeared a little later and made the caliphs' claim to power visible in everyday life.
Loss of religious unity
As early as 660, Muʿāwiya established a counter-caliphate in Damascus . The dispute between Muʿāwiya and ʿAlī led the Kharijite opposition movement in 661 to carry out attacks on Ali and Mu'awiya at the same time. Muʿāwiya survived, became a caliph, and established the Umayyad dynasty. The Battle of Karbala on October 10, 680 manifested the division of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites when Muhammad's grandson and son ʿAlis, Hussein , were killed. As a result, civil wars ( Fitna ) broke out up to 692 .
After the split, the Shiites were led by imams who were descendants of ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib and Fatima , the daughter of Mohammed. The question of legal succession remained controversial. By the 9th century, the main Shiite branches had emerged, the Imamites ("twelve Shiites"), Ismailites ("seven Shiites") and Zaidites ("five Shiites"). The Ismailis recognized as the rightful successor of Jafar al-Sadiq not Mūsā al-Kāzim , but Ismail ibn Jafar - hence their name. Ismail's son Muhammad was regarded by his followers as the seventh imam (hence the term "Seventh Shiites") and is said not to have died, but to have gone into a concealment from which he as Qaim ("the rising one", "the rising one") or Mahdi would return.
In the middle of the 9th century, Abdallah al-Akbar (d. After 874) began to appear as a representative for Mahdi Muhammad ibn Ismail. He announced the appearance of the hidden seventh imam, through whom the Abbasids should be overthrown, all religions of the law (besides Christianity and Judaism also Islam ) should be abolished and the cultless original religion should be established. He gathered a community around him and sent missionaries ( Dāʿī ) to all parts of the Islamic world . After Abdallah's death, his son Ahmad and grandson Abu sch-Schalaghlagh took over management. The latter found followers especially in the Maghreb , where Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī also worked. Abu sh-Schalaghlagh designated his nephew Said ibn al-Husain as his successor, who appeared as the real Mahdi. This in turn triggered a split in the Ismailis, as the Qarmatians and other groups continued to hold on to the expectation of the hidden Mahdi Muhammad ibn Ismail.
After Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī had won followers among the Berbers of the Maghreb, he overthrew the Aghlabid dynasty in Ifrīqiya , who had ruled what is now eastern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya. In doing so, he paved the way for Abdallah al-Mahdi , who founded the Fatimid dynasty in Ifriqiya .
Islamic expansion and dynasties up to 1000
Arab-Byzantine Wars (632-718)
- 635: Conquest of Syria ;
- 636: Battle of Jarmuk in today's Jordan ;
- 639: conquest of Armenia and Egypt ;
- 642–697 / 8: conquest of the Maghreb ;
- 674–678: First siege of Constantinople ;
- 717–718: Second siege of Constantinople ;
At the beginning of the 8th century, the Byzantine Empire was limited to Asia Minor , the city of Constantinople and some islands and coastal areas in Greece .
Conquest of the Sasanian Empire
After the death of Chosraus II , the Persian Empire, exhausted in the wars with the Byzantine Empire, found itself in a position of weakness in relation to the Arab invaders. At the beginning the Arabs tried to get hold of the peripheral areas ruled by the Lachmids . The border town of Al-Hīra fell into Muslim hands in 633. Under the reign of the last great king Yazdegerd III. the Persians reorganized and in October 634 they won a final victory in the Battle of the Bridge .
After the victory against Byzantium in the Battle of Yarmuk 636, ʿUmar was able to move troops to the east and intensify the offensive against the Sasanids. In southern Iraq there was (probably 636) the battle of al-Qādisīya , which ended with the defeat and the withdrawal of the Sasanian troops. The capital, Ctesiphon, had to be abandoned. In 642 the Persian army was defeated again in the battle of Nehawend . Yazdegerd III. was murdered in the course of internal power struggles in 651 in Merw . By the middle of the 7th century, all of Khusistan was under Arab control.
In 1980, the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein used the battle of al-Qādisīya for propaganda support of the invasion of Chusistan, which marked the beginning of the Iran-Iraq war (1980–1988).
Expansion to India
As early as 664, 32 years after Muhammad's death, the governor of Khorasan , al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra , advanced to Multan in what is now Punjab . The Umayyad armies reached the Indus in 712 ; further conquests were initially halted with the defeat of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim in the Battle of Rajasthan in 738. At the same time, trade contacts between Arabs and Indians expanded, with branches of Arab traders opening up in the port cities of the Indian west coast. The first mosque was built in Kasaragod as early as 642 . Conditions on the upper Indus were less peaceful, where the Muslim rulers in Persia repeatedly came into conflict with the rulers of Sindh without initially achieving territorial gains.
Of special importance was the after in today's Afghanistan town of Ghazni named Turkic dynasty of the Ghaznavids . It was 977 established and attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni ( 998 - 1030 ) in 17 campaigns, the Indus, the movable cavalry of the invaders proved superior with his elephants in battle the Indian Fußheer, but considerable caused by the climatic conditions of India supply problems especially for the invaders' horses. The Ghaznavids managed to establish themselves in the Punjab . At the same time, a first cultural bloom took place at the court of the Ghaznavids; The poet Firdausi and the scholar and doctor Al Biruni worked there , who wrote a book on the history of India ( Kitab Tarich al-Hind ) in addition to a famous theory of medicine . In addition to the armed conflicts, a cultural exchange can already be observed here.
In 1186 the Ghurids overthrew , in 1192 Muhammad von Ghur was able to establish a confederation of Indian Rajputs under the leadership of the Prince of Delhi , Prithviraj III. Defeat Chauhan in the Battle of Taraori . Muhammad then moved into Delhi. In 1206 he was murdered by his general Qutb-ud-Din Aibak , who thus founded the Sultanate of Delhi .
Expansion to East Asia
South East Asia
Islam reached maritime Southeast Asia in the 7th century through Arab traders from Yemen , who traded mainly in the western part of what is now Indonesia and Sri Lanka . Sufi missionaries translated works of their literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay ; For this purpose, an Arabic writing system was developed with the Jawi script, in which the Malay language can be written. In 1292 Marco Polo visited Sumatra on his return journey by ship from China , and reported from there that the vast majority of the population had converted to Islam.
In 1402 Parameswara founded the Sultanate of Malacca . From Malacca, Islam continued to spread to the Malay Archipelago . In 1511 the Portuguese conquered the seat of government with the city of Malacca, after which the sultanate fell apart. While Malacca remained a colonial center of the Portuguese in East Asia for 130 years, various smaller sultanates emerged on the Malay Peninsula, such as the Sultanates of Johor and Perak . In 1641 the Dutch conquered the Portuguese Malacca. It marked the beginning of the decline of the Portuguese colonial empire in Southeast Asia and the rise of the Dutch East Indies colony . In 1824 Malacca fell to the English.
China
Trade already existed between pre-Islamic Arabia and the south coast of China; There were also connections between the Central Asian peoples and the Islamic world, not least via the old trade route of the Silk Road . By the time of the Tang Dynasty at the latest , a few decades after the Hijra , Islamic diplomats also reached China. One of the oldest mosques in China, the Huaisheng Mosque , was built in the 7th century.
Umayyads and Abbasids
Umayyads (Damascus: 661–750, Córdoba –1031)
The Umayyads belonged to the Arab tribe of the Quraish from Mecca . The dynasty ruled from AD 661 to 750 as caliphs from Damascus and established the first dynastic succession of rulers in Islamic history (see table of Islamic dynasties ). The Umayyads of Damascus distinguish between two lines, the Sufyānids , who can be traced back to Abū Sufyān ibn Harb , and the Marwānids , who ruled from 685 , the descendants of Marwān ibn al-Hakam .
Under the Umayyad government, the borders of the empire were extended in the east to the Indus and in the west to the Iberian Peninsula , where the new province of Al-Andalus arose. After their expulsion from the Mashrek by the Abbasids , they founded the Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus in 756 , where they ruled until 1031, and since 929 again with the title of caliph. In the east the Indus was reached in the same year. Transoxania with the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand and the region of Khoresmia south of the Aral Sea also came under Islamic rule.
The Battle of Tours and Poitiers in 732 was viewed by the European side as "saving the West from Islam" by Karl Martell , but it was more likely a skirmish between Frankish troops and a smaller Muslim troop on a raid (ghazwa) against Eudo of Aquitaine . The fortresses of Narbonne , Carcassonne and Nîmes and parts of Provence initially remained Muslim.
Mint reform of Abd al-Malik (696)
The first decades of Umayyad rule are characterized by the active appropriation and transformation of ancient art and architecture that the conquerors found in the newly appropriated areas. The emerging political, economic and religious self-confidence of the Islamic rulers can be traced on the basis of coinage.
In the first fifty years of Islamic expansion , the Islamic conquerors initially continued to use the existing coins of the emperor Herakleios and his successor Constans II . Coins from these two emperors have been archaeologically proven in almost all Syrian sites from this time and must have been minted in Byzantium and exported to Syria. In the late ancient Iranian Sassanid Empire , a largely monometallic silver currency was used, the Eastern Romans minted gold , bronze and copper coins. In the earlier Sassanid provinces, after the Arab conquest, silver drachmas and gold dinars with portraits of Chosrau II or Yazdegerd III continued to be used. used on the obverse and a fire temple on the lapel . Only the date was changed, a short pious legend was added , often the Basmala , and the name of the ruler. Occasionally there are also Islamic symbols or portraits of Muslim rulers.
The import of coins from the Byzantine Empire came to a standstill around 655–658. From 696, the year of the Umayyad Abd al-Malik's coin reform , a bimetallic currency system consisting of gold ( dinar ) and silver coins ( dirham ) was used in his domain . The dinar, introduced in 696, is a gold coin modeled on the Byzantine solidus . The portrait of the Byzantine emperor was replaced by the image of the caliph , later completely by aniconical, purely epigraphic pieces.
The minting of one's own, standardized coins presupposes the existence of a well-organized and differentiated administration as early as Abd al-Malik's time. The new coins reached every inhabitant of the ruled areas, the distribution of the new coins without a picture demonstrates the power of the caliphs. The issuance of own coins facilitates the collection of taxes and thus the financing of the immense construction activity of the caliphs of Damascus in Bilad al-Sham as well as the salary of the standing army, which was paid in cash in dirhams according to wages set in registers.
Gold and silver coins of the Islamic rulers were already a common means of payment in the 8th century. They can be found in large numbers in Scandinavian hoard finds such as the Scottish Skaill hoard and grave goods from the Viking Age and bear witness to the far-reaching trade relations of the Islamic world.
Timeline
Abbasids (750–1258)
Legal scholars from the Abbasid period
· Abu Hanifa
· Mālik ibn Anas
· asch-Shāfiʿī
· Ahmad ibn Hanbal
· Jaʿfar as-Sādiq
Scientists and poets of Abbasidenreichs
· Hunayn ibn Ishaq
· Ibn Fadlan
· al-Battani
· at-Tabari
· al-Battani
· Rhazes
· al-Fārābī
· Alhazen
· al-Biruni
· Omar Khayyam
· al-Hallaj
· Al-Kindi
· Avicenna
The Abbasid dynasty ruled from 749 to 1258. It descends from al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muttalib , an uncle of Mohammed, and thus belongs to the Hashimite clan . It came to power in the course of the Abu Muslim revolution . At the beginning of their rule they conquered the Mediterranean islands including the Balearic Islands and 827 Sicily . Abu l-Abbas as-Saffah (died 754) was the first Abbasid ruler.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the first Islamic local dynasties were established in some provinces :
- the Arab Idrisids (789–985) in the western Maghreb, today's Morocco ,
- the Arab Aghlabids (800–909) in Tunisia and Tripolitania ,
- the Turkish Tulunids (868–906) and Ichschidids (935–969) in the Nile Valley (Egypt),
- the Persian Tahirids (821–873) and Samanids (873–999) in north-east Persia and Transoxania .
The borders of the empire remained stable, but there were always conflicts with Byzantium, such as 910 about Cyprus , 911 about Samos and 932 about Lemnos .
"The heyday of Islam"
As-Saffar's successor al-Mansur (r. 754–775) founded the city of Baghdad and made it the new center of the Islamic empire. Mansur's grandson Hārūn ar-Raschīd (ruled 786–809) is probably the most famous ruler of the Abbasid dynasty, immortalized in the fairy tale of the Arabian Nights . The caliph Al-Ma'mun (813-833) and some of his successors promoted the theological direction of the Muʿtazila , which was strongly influenced by Greek philosophy and placed free will and rationality in the foreground of their teaching, as well as the origin of the Koran . Intellectuals like Al-Kindi (800-873), ar-Razi (864-930), al-Farabi (870-950) and Avicenna (980-1037) are representatives of the Islamic intellectual life of their time as a golden age of Islam is called .
Timeline
Unity and diversity of Muslim society
A fundamental characteristic of Islamic society was and is the tension between the ideal of the unity of faith and the reality of cultural diversity in the vast Islamic world. This tension is also very present today. Since the time of the Prophet and his immediate successors, the religious message of Islam has reached different peoples with different traditions. It was and remains a challenge to establish and enforce common norms based on the most diverse traditions. Nevertheless, this diversity was and is a source of significant cultural vitality.
Standardization
The Koran and the sayings and actions ( Sunna ) of the Prophet handed down in the Hadith form the basis of the Islamic finding of norms ( Fiqh ). Further canonical sources of legal finding are the consensus of qualified scholars ( Idschmāʿ ) and the conclusion by analogy ( Qiyās ). Even individual scholars ( mudschtahid ) can set norms from their own judgment ( ijschtihād ). The Islamic legal theory ( Usūl al-fiqh ) deals with the sources and methodological foundations of norms. The resulting set of rules for a godly way of life, the Sharia , encompasses the religious and secular life understood as a unit. Failure to meet social obligations is therefore just as serious as an apostasy from Islam, as is denial of the oneness of God ( Tawheed ) or the legitimacy of the prophet's teaching.
Concept of state
In contrast to Christianity, for example, which had no political power in the first centuries of its existence, Islam already had uniform political and administrative structures in its earliest epoch. In the course of its rapid expansion, the Islamic community gained direct access to the concepts of ancient philosophy and its logical way of working and was able to fall back on existing administrative and economic structures. In a slow process, Islamic society developed under the influence of the pre-existing pre-Islamic cultures.
Preservation and enforcement of Sharia law, defense of the Ummah against external enemies and the spread of Islam in the “holy war” ( jihad ) require political power. Political action was therefore the fulfillment of religious duties. The loss of the religious unity of Islam made a detailed elaboration of the Islamic understanding of rule necessary. Since the 8th century, Islamic philosophers and legal scholars such as Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi (around 872–950) developed theories about the ideal community. In 10./11. In the 19th century, the Shafiite legal scholar Abū l-Hasan al-Māwardī (972-1058) and the Ashʿarite scholar Abū l-Maʿālī ʿAbd al-Malik ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Juwainī (1028-1085) presented fundamental considerations on the state model of the caliphate ( Imamat ). The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taimīya (1263-1328) developed the idea that the right to be based on statements of the Koran and the prophetic tradition (Sunna) and that a state has to guarantee the enforcement of Sharia law.
Urban and rural populations
The historian and politician Ibn Chaldūn (1332-1406) analyzed the political and social conditions in the Maghreb in the 14th century. In his book al-Muqaddima he analyzed in detail the relationship between rural Bedouin and urban settled life, which depicts a social conflict that is central to him . The historical development of medieval society in the Arab-Islamic world was determined by two social contexts, nomadism on the one hand and urban life on the other. With the help of the concept of ʿAsabīya (to be translated as “inner bond, clan loyalty, solidarity”) he explains the rise and fall of civilizations, where the belief and the ʿAsabīya can complement each other, for example during the rule of the caliphs . The Bedouins and other nomadic inhabitants of the desert regions ( al-ʿumrān al-badawī ) have a strong ʿAsabīya and are more firm in their faith, while the inner cohesion of the city dwellers ( al-ʿumrān al-hadarī ) loses more and more strength over the course of several generations . After a span of several generations, the power of the urban dynasty based on the ʿAsabīya has shrunk to such an extent that it becomes the victim of an aggressive tribe from the land with the stronger ʿAsabīya , who, after conquering and partially destroying the cities, establishes a new dynasty.
From the 10th century onwards, the contrast between the highly developed dynastic hereditary monarchies of Persian origin and the nomadic traditions of the Turkic peoples who immigrated in large numbers from this time onwards, with their principles of succession according to the seniority and the dependence of the ruler on the loyalty of his tribe, shaped the political development of the Islamic world. Under the Seljuq rulers Alp Arslan (1063-1072) and his successor Malik Şâh (1072-1092), both supported by their capable Grand Vizier Nizām al-Mulk , it was possible to unite the two different traditions in one political system.
In the course of the confrontation with colonialism, the political contrast between the urban-modern urban population and the rural population, which was more firmly attached to tradition, gained importance again, especially after the First World War, and was to shape the political events of many societies in the Islamic world. For the first time, colonial administrative structures included the entire population; This led to a new perception of one's own society within the national borders dictated by the colonial rulers, and ultimately to the emergence of nation-state concepts, which until the end of the 20th century were to shape the political discourse more than the appeal to the unity of the Islamic world.
Islamic elites
ʿUlamā '- the legal scholars
The Koran and Hadith had been widely recognized as the main sources of divine order since the 9th (3rd Islamic) century. The Sharia codifies the guidelines on piety and religious devotion. Since the 9th century a network of scholars of jurisprudence ( Fiqh ) had emerged, the ʿUlamā ' , whose task it is to interpret and enforce the details of the divine commandments. In contrast to the centralized hierarchy of the Christian Church, participation in the ʿUlamā 'is not tied to an ordination and has never been directed and monitored by a central institution. For many Muslims, the combination of divine guidance and guidance from the ʿUlamā '( Taqlid ) is sufficient as the basis of their religious life.
Sufis - the mystics
Some Muslims developed a need to experience the divine in ways other than law and interpretation. The Sufism has an emotional, more accessible way to religious experience and is sometimes viewed as a conscious reaction against the rationalist tendencies of jurisprudence and systematic theology. The Sufi masters ( sheikhs , pir , baba ) and their students offered a supplement and sometimes an alternative to the legal scholarship of the ʿUlamā '. In North India in the 11th, Senegal in the 16th, and Kazakhstan in the 17th century it was Sufi missionaries who introduced Islam to the population, also by adopting local traditions of “popular piety” more freely than legal scholars. Some of them opposed the teachings of the Sufis, but the movement never came to a complete standstill. In the last decades of the 20th century, Sufism found increasing interest again, especially among the educated middle class.
Ruler
A third stream of Islamic self-image, alongside ʿUlamā 'and Sufis, is the “ruling” Islam of the Islamic monarchs. With the loss of political unity at the end of Abbasid rule and the destruction of Baghdad in the Mongolian storm in 1258 , the office of caliph lost its original meaning. The form of government of the sultanate brought political power into the hands of rulers who based their power on the military and administration, and whose primary goal was to maintain their monarchy ( mulk ). Laws passed by the Sultan were guided by the interests of the state and enforced by the political elite. Formally, the sultan, after he had inherited or usurped rule, was installed by the caliph and recognized in the Baiʿa ceremony . The originally comprehensive social order of the Sharia turned into a negative principle, an order that the ruler should not break. In the eyes of the ʿUlamā 'the task of the secular ruler was to secure the society internally and externally so that the Sharia could be enforced and the community could prosper. The monarch guaranteed the existence of the ʿUlamā 'and established and promoted the universities . In order to be able to assert his interests against the āUlamā ', the rulers appointed muftis , whose task it was to prepare legal opinions ( fatwa ). Still, the question arose as to whether a secular monarch could be the legitimate head of the Islamic community.
According to al-Māwardī , the caliph had the right to delegate military power to a general ( amir ) in the outer areas of his territory, as well as to rule inside through deputies ( wasir ). Two hundred years later, al-Ghazālī defined the role of the imam as - according to the Sunni understanding - the legitimate ruler of the umma, who delegates real power to the monarch and calls on the faithful to obey and thus maintain the unity of the umma. In al-Ghazālī's ideas, elements of Classical Greek philosophy, especially from Plato's “Politics” and the ethics of Aristotle with the old Persian concept of the great king, find their way into Islamic social philosophy . In his work " Siyāsatnāma " Nizām al-Mulk , the Persian Grand Vizier of the Seljuk sultans Alp Arslan and Malik Schāh, describes the new concept of rule in the style of a prince's mirror .
An Islamic monarch had considerable resources at his disposal due to the taxes he received from zakāt and jizya , which enabled him to maintain court manufactories that shaped the culture and art of their time. From the point of view of ruling Islam, successful wars, representative art, magnificent architecture and literature ultimately served to represent the primacy of Islam. In this role, Islamic rulers created some of the most remarkable achievements of premodern Islamic civilization.
Conflicts of authority between the elites
The question of to what extent a separation of political and religious authority can be assumed from the time of the Umayyads (661–750) is controversial. Clearly, however, the lack of central leadership comparable to that of the Christian church led to a pronounced and at times paralyzing diversity in religious and legal issues. It becomes clear that the institution of the āUlamā 'had to protect itself from the ruler's encroachments on its authority in the judiciary. On the one hand, the plurality of the ʿUlamā ', which contradicts the ideal of religious unanimity, protected it from direct influence by the state. The fuzzy separation of political and religious legal authority is based on the idea, which has never been fundamentally questioned, that Mohammed and his successors finally determined the political order. This distinguishes the political order of Islamic societies from the development in Europe, where with the emergence of the idea of the separation of powers , formulated by John Locke , a separation of political and religious responsibility and the independence of the judiciary was ultimately achieved.
The tension between the charismatic ideal of the unity of religion and state and the experience of everyday political reality forms a latent source in Islamic culture for dynamic reforms, but also for rebellion and war in the name of the unity of Islam. Modern political thinking in parts of the Islamic world has picked up on this tension and sometimes exaggerated it to the point of terrorist violence .
Dhimmi - Christians and Jews
Especially during the early period of Arab expansion, a Muslim minority ruled over a population that was predominantly Christian. At the same time, important Jewish communities had existed in the now Islamic-ruled areas from time immemorial. Christian authors linked the conquest of the Christian territories in part with the apocalypse which was soon to come. Large parts of the conquered areas initially remained Christian or Zoroastrian. A Nestorian bishop writes: “These Arabs, whom God has given rule in our day, have also become our masters; however, they do not fight the Christian religion. Rather, they protect our faith, respect our priests and saints and make donations to our churches and monasteries. "
Since the late 7th century, the increasing self-confidence of the Muslim rulers increased the pressure to assimilate the Christian population . There was discrimination, the exclusion of non-Muslims from the administration, interference in internal Christian affairs and the confiscation of church property and individual attacks on churches.
In the Islamic legal tradition of the dhimma , monotheists such as Jews or Christians are called “ dhimmi ” ( Arabic ذمّي, DMG ḏimmī ) tolerated with limited legal status and protected by the state. According to this, dhimmi had the right to the protection of the sultan and to the free practice of their religion, for which they had to pay a special tax, the “ jizya ”, since they could not be subjected to the zakāt , which was only applicable to Muslims .
Polytheistic Religions
The religious jurisprudence counts "pagan", polytheistic religions in non-Islamic ruled countries to the Dār al-Harb and regulates the conditions under which a jihad can be conducted. This ideal was often opposed to political reality: especially in the early days, the ruling Islamic minority in the newly conquered areas faced a non-Islamic majority.
In the situation of the Sultanate of Delhi , the handling of the problem is exemplarily clear. On the one hand, Amir Chosrau often expresses himself disparagingly about Hindus in his works , on the other hand Muslims had to deal peacefully with followers of polytheistic religions ( " Muschrik ūn" ) such as Hindus and Jains in everyday life and trade . It is said that Muhammad bin Tughluq , as ruler, maintained good relations with his Hindu subjects and showed himself at their festivals. Jackson sees the destruction of Hindu temples by Muslim rulers and the installation of spoils from the temple buildings in mosques such as the Qutub Minar in Delhi more in the tradition of Hindu rulers who wanted to further weaken their rule by destroying the temples of their rivals. But it is also recorded that the Sultans of Delhi extended their protection to Hindu and Jain temples. At the latest at the time of Firuz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century, it is documented that some Hindu subjects paid a poll tax comparable to that of the jizya.
10-15 century
The West in the 10th – 15th centuries century
Al-Andalus (711-1492)
Between 711 and 1492, a large part of the Iberian Peninsula was under Islamic rule. Caliph al-Walid I founded a province of the Umayyad Caliphate (711–750) there. The Umayyad prince Abd ar-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya , fleeing from the Abbasids, landed with Berber troops in Almuñécar in Andalusia in 755 . In May 756 he overthrew the ruling governor of Al-Andalus Yusuf al-Fihri in Cordoba . With his elevation to the rank of emir (756–788) the political organization of the Umayyad Empire began in Spain. Abd ar-Rahman founded the margravates of Saragossa , Toledo and Mérida to secure the border against the Christian empires in northern Spain.
Al-Andalus was successively ruled by the emirs of Córdoba (around 750–929), the caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031), a group of “ Taifa ” (successor) kingdoms, then became a province of the North African Berber Almoravid and Almohad dynasties ; eventually it fell again into Taifa kingdoms. For long periods, particularly during the time of the Caliphate of Cordoba , al-Andalus was a center of learning. Cordoba became a leading cultural and economic center of both the Mediterranean and the Islamic world.
As early as the early 8th century, al-Andalus was in conflict with the Christian kingdoms in the north, which expanded their territory militarily as part of the Reconquista . In 1085 Alfonso VI conquered . of Castile Toledo. After all, after the fall of Cordoba in 1236, the emirate of Granada remained as the last Muslim-dominated area in present-day Spain. The Portuguese Reconquista ended with the conquest of the Algarve by Alfonso III. 1249/1250. Granada became a tribute to that of Ferdinand III in 1238 . ruled the Kingdom of Castile. Eventually the last emir gave Muhammad XII. January 2, 1492 Granada to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile , Los Reyes Católicos (the "Catholic Kings"), with which the Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula came to an end.
Timeline
- Emirs of Cordoba
- Caliphs of Cordoba
Maghreb
Almoravids (670–1149)
Kairouan in Tunisia was founded around 670 by the Arab general baUqba ibn Nāfiʿ , and was the first Muslim city to be founded in the Maghreb . After the 8th century, Kairouan developed into the center of Arab culture and Islamic law in North Africa. The city also played an important role in the Arabization of the Berbers . Kairouan was the headquarters of the Arab governors of Ifrīqiya and later the capital of the Aghlabids . In 909 the Fatimids , Ismaili Shiites , under the leadership of Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī, took power in Ifriqiya and made Kairouan a residence. The religious-ethnic tensions with the strictly Sunni population of the city, however, forced them to expand their capital to al-Mahdiya on the eastern sea coast; around 973 they moved the center of their caliphate to Cairo .
The Almoravids , a strictly Orthodox Islamic Berber dynasty from the Sahara, took over rule from the Zirids and expanded their area of influence to include today's Morocco , the western fringes of the Sahara, Mauritania , Gibraltar , the region around Tlemcen in Algeria and part of today's Senegal and Mali in the south. The Almoravids played an important role in the defense of Al-Andalus against the Christian north Iberian kingdoms: in 1086 they defeated the coalition of the kings of Castile and Aragon at the battle of Zallaqa . The rule of the dynasty lasted only a short time, however, and was overthrown by the rebellion of the Masmuda- Berber under Ibn Tūmart .
In 1146, the Almohads took the city of Fez and thus gained control of northern Morocco . When the capital Marrakech was also conquered in 1147, the Almohad caliph Abd al-Mumin eliminated the Almoravid dynasty by killing the last Almoravid ruler Ishaq ibn Ali in the capital Marrakech in April 1149 . The Almoravid rule came to an end in al-Andalus in 1148.
Almohads (1121-1269)
The Almohad dynasty was founded by Ibn Tūmart in 1121 under the Masmuda beers of the High Atlas . It stood in ideological contrast to the Almoravids . Ibn Tūmart's successor Abd al-Mumin (1130–1163) succeeded in overthrowing the Almoravid dynasty with the conquest of al-Andalus (1148) and Marrakech (1149). After Morocco , the Almohads conquered the empire of the Hammadids in today's Algeria (1152) and the empire of the Zirids in Tunisia (1155–1160), thus ruling the entire west of the Islamic world. With the resettlement of Arab Bedouin tribes from Ifrīqiya and Tripolitania to Morocco, the Arabization of the Berbers was also promoted in this part of the Maghreb.
Under Yaʿqūb al-Mansūr (1184–1199) the advances of Castile in al-Andalus could be repulsed in the Battle of Alarcos (1195). In the following years, some provinces gained autonomy under Caliph Muhammad an-Nasir (1199–1213). In al-Andalus, Islamic rule was shaken by the defeat in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) against the united Christian kingdoms. When Yusuf II. Al-Mustansir (1213-1224) came to power as a minor and disputes broke out among the Almohad leaders, the decline of the empire began. By 1235, the Almohads had lost control of al-Andalus to Ibn Hud , Ifrīqiya to the Hafsids , and Algeria to the Abdalwadids .
The Almohads continued the architectural style for mosques created by the Abbasids , which is characterized by the T-disposition of a prominent central nave and transept in front of the qibla wall . Examples are the Kutubiyya Mosque in Marrakech and the Tinmal Mosque in the Atlas Mountains .
In Morocco, the Merinids began to expand their power in order to establish a new dynasty after the conquest of Fez (1248). Although the Almohads were able to hold their own against the Merinids in Marrakech until 1269, they had largely lost their importance since the fall of Fez.
Meriniden (1196–1464), Abdalwadiden (1236–1556), Hafsiden (1228–1574)
After the fall of the Almohads, the Maghreb was ruled by three dynasties who fought each other. The Merinids (1196–1464) resided in Morocco. West Algeria was the zayyanid dynasty ruled (1236-1556) and the Hafsids (1228-1574) ruled eastern Algeria, Tunisia and Cyrenaica .
Timeline
Egypt
Turkish Tulunids (869–905), last reign of the Abbasids (905–935)
Around 750 a process began in which the peripheral areas broke away from the central rule of the caliphate. As early as 740–42 there was the Maysara uprising in the far west , some Berber groups made themselves independent, finally in 789 the Idrisids (789–985) broke away from the empire, in 800 the Aghlabids followed . In 868, the former Turkish slave Ahmad ibn Tulun (868-884) first became governor in Egypt, and in 870 he proclaimed independence from the caliphate . Since the tax revenue was no longer paid to the caliphs, it was possible to expand the irrigation systems and build a fleet, which promoted trade and improved protection against attacks by the Byzantine navy . In 878 Palestine and Syria were occupied. Ibn Tulun reinforced his rule by erecting representative structures such as the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo.
Under Chumarawaih (884–896), the Abbasids were able to regain northern Syria for a short time. In a peace agreement, Chumarawaih waived claims in Mesopotamia and agreed to pay tributes. For this, Caliph al-Mu'tadid (892–902) recognized the rule of the Tulunids in Egypt and Syria. Under al-Mu'tadid's rule, the Ismaili Qarmatians expanded into Syria. In 905 Egypt was subjugated again by the Abbasid troops, which started a long chain of clashes. Egypt came under the rule of the Ichschididen in 935 .
Ichschididen (935 / 39–969)
The Ichschididen can be traced back to the Ferghana area, whose princes bore the title "Ichschid". One of them entered the service of al-Mu'tasim. He was the grandfather of the founder of the dynasty, Muhammad ibn Tughj . In 930 he was made governor of Syria by the caliph, and in 933 also of Egypt. He initially continued to recognize the suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs , from whom he promised support against the Fatimids from Ifrīqiya and in the suppression of Shiite uprisings inside. From 939 he acted increasingly independently of the central administration and ultimately founded the Ichschididen dynasty. Ibn Tughj occupied Palestine, the Hejaz and Syria as far as Aleppo between 942 and 944 . In 945 he concluded an agreement with the Hamdanids on the division of rule in Syria.
The Fatimids succeeded in conquering Egypt in 969 under the Ichshidid ruler Abu l-Fawaris and overthrowing the last representative of the short-lived dynasty, the twelve-year-old Abu l-Fawaris.
Fatimids (969–1171)
Fatimids in North Africa:
· Abdallah al-Mahdi (910-934)
· Abu al-Qasim al-Qaim (934-946)
· Ismail al-Mansur (946-953)
· Abu Tamim al-Muizz (953-975)
Fatimid Egypt:
· Abu Tamim al-Muizz (953-975)
· al-'Azīz (975-995)
· al-Hakim (995-1021)
· Az-Zahir (1021-1036)
· al-Mustansir (1036-1094)
· al-Musta (1094-1101)
· al-Amir (1101-1130)
· al-Hafiz (1130-1149)
· al-Zafir (1149-1154)
· al-Faiz (1154-1160)
· al-'Ādid (1160 –1171)
In 909 Abdallah al-Mahdi proclaimed himself caliph and thus founded the Fatimid dynasty, which derived its name from Fātima bint Muhammad . Under his son al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llah , the conquest of the western Maghreb began in 917. Under Abu l-Qasim al-Qaim (934–946) Sicily was conquered and the coasts of Italy and France sacked. Ismail al-Mansur (946–953) succeeded the second Fatimid ruler, who died in 946 . After the end of the revolt of the Kharijite Banu Ifran (944-947), the third Fatimid caliph took the nickname "al-Mansur". In Kairouan emerged with el-mansuriya a new residence. After the reorganization of the empire by Ismail al-Mansur and Abu Tamin al-Muizz (953–975), the Fatimids succeeded in advancing to the Atlantic , but rule over Morocco could not be maintained.
In 969 the Fatimid general Jawhar as-Siqillī conquered Egypt and overthrew the Ichschidid dynasty. Caliph al-Muizz moved his residence to the newly founded city of Cairo in 972 and established the Zirids as viceroys in the Maghreb. By 978 Palestine and Syria were also subject; with the protectorate of Mecca and Medina they also gained control of the most important shrines of Islam.
Under her rule, Egypt's economy flourished by building roads and canals and promoting trade between India and the Mediterranean. Culture and science were also promoted by the Fatimids, with the establishment of the al-Azhar University becoming extremely important. It is still a Sunni center and one of the most important universities in the Islamic world. In the 10th century, an-Nuʿmān founded the Ismaili school of law , which, along with the four Sunni and the Twelve Shiite schools of law, is one of the six most important legal traditions ( madhhab ) of Islam.
Under Al-Hakim (995-1021) the previously tolerant attitude of the Ismaili Fatimids towards non-Muslims became significantly more severe. Public acts of worship by Christians and Jews as well as the consumption of alcohol were forbidden. Christian churches and monasteries were looted to raise funds for the army and the building of mosques. In 1009 the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem was destroyed. Around 1017, a sect emerged in Egypt that regarded al-Hakim as the incarnation of God. The Druze religious community later developed from this .
Az-Zahir (1021-1036) succeeded in pacifying the empire and suppressing some Bedouin revolts in Syria. The Fatimids under al-Mustansir (1036-1094) reached the height of their power when Ismaili missionaries seized power in Yemen and the Abbassids in Baghdad briefly lost their position of power in 1059.
In 1076 Syria and Palestine were lost to the Seljuks . The Fatimids could no longer prevent the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders during the First Crusade in 1099 and the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . After unsuccessful attempts to recapture them ( Battle of Ramla ), they came under increasing military pressure from the crusaders from 1130 onwards. With the conquest of Ascalon by King Baldwin III. of Jerusalem the last base in Palestine was lost in 1153. To forestall a conquest of Egypt by the Crusaders, Nur ad-Din , the ruler of Damascus, led a campaign into Egypt in 1163. His general Saladin overthrew the Fatimids in 1171 and founded the Ayyubid dynasty .
Even if, with the rise of the Orthodox Sunnis, especially in Iran since the 11th century, their influence diminished, the Ismaili communities continued to exist even after the end of the Fatimid dynasty.
As early as the beginning of the 11th century, the Zirids split off in Ifriqiya , who returned to Sunni Islam and recognized the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. The Fatimids used the Bedouins of Banū Hilāl and Sulaim against them , who devastated the Maghreb . The Zirids could only survive on the coast (until 1152).
Timeline
Ayyubids (1174-1250)
The Ayyubids were an Islamic-Kurdish dynasty that fought against the Christian crusaders under Saladin . In 1174 Saladin proclaimed himself sultan. The Ayyubids ruled Egypt until around 1250. They were able to recapture Tripoli (1172), Damascus (1174), Aleppo (1183), Mosul (1185/86) and Jerusalem (1187) from the Crusaders and ruled them during the 12th and 13th centuries. Century Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, the Hejaz , Yemen and the North African coast up to the border of today's Tunisia. After Saladin's death, his brother al-Adil I took power. Around 1230, the Ayyubid rulers in Syria sought independence from Egypt, but the Egyptian sultan As-Salih Ayyub managed to regain much of Syria - with the exception of Aleppo - in 1247. In 1250 the dynasty was overthrown by Mamluk regiments. The attempt by-Nasir Yusufs to win back the empire from Aleppo failed. In 1260 the Mongols sacked Aleppo and finally put an end to the dynasty.
Timeline
Mamluks (1250–1517)
Mamluken , also Ghilman , were military slaves of Turkish origin imported into many Islamic-dominated areas . Various ruling dynasties founded by such (former) military slaves are also known as Mamluks. So Mamluks came to power in Egypt in 1250 , extended them ten years later to the Levant and were even able to successfully assert themselves against the Mongols from 1260 onwards. In 1517 the Egyptian Mamluks were subjugated by the Turkish Ottomans , but still ruled Egypt on behalf of the Ottomans until the Battle of the Pyramids .
Crusades (1095-1272)
In the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms began the Reconquista to reclaim Al-Andalus from the Moors . In 1095 Pope Urban II called on the Synod of Clermont for the First Crusade , prompted by the first successes of the Reconquista and strengthened by the request of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos for help in the defense of Christianity in the east . The county of Edessa , Antioch on the Orontes , the region of the later county of Tripoli and Jerusalem were conquered. The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller crusader states played a role in the complex politics of the Levant for the next 90 years , but posed no threat to the Caliphate or any other powers in the region. After the end of Fatimid rule in 1169, we saw the Crusader states increasingly exposed to the threat of Saladin , who was able to recapture a large part of the region by 1187.
In the Third Crusade it was not possible to conquer Jerusalem, but the crusader states continued to exist for a few decades. The Reconquista in Al-Andalus was completed in 1492 with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada . The Fourth Crusade did not reach the Levant, but instead was directed against Constantinople . This further weakened the Byzantine Empire. After William of Malmesbury , the crusades had the consequence that the further advance of Islam towards Europe was stopped.
According to today's understanding, the crusades, which ultimately only directly affected a small part of the Islamic world, had a comparatively small effect on Islamic culture per se, but permanently shook the relationship between the Christian societies of Western Europe and the Islamic world. Conversely, for the first time in history, they brought Europeans into close contact with the highly developed Islamic culture , with far-reaching consequences for European culture.
The East in the 11th-15th centuries century
Seljuks (1047-1157)
Immigration of Turkic peoples
In the 8th century hiked a group of the Turkic peoples belonging to Oghuz , the Seljuks, from today's Kazakh Steppe after Transoxania and took the area around the river Syr Darya and the Aral Sea in possession. The tribal group was named after Seljuk (around 1000), Khan of the Kınık Oghuz tribe . Towards the end of the 10th century, the Seljuks had converted to Islam. In the clashes between the Turkish Qarakhanids and the Persian Samanids , Oghusen served as mercenaries in the armies. In 1025 the Ghaznawide captured Mahmud of Ghazni Seljuk's son Arslan; he died shortly afterwards.
Under the sons of Mîka'îl, Tughrul Beg and Tschaghri Beg , the Seljuks brought Khorasan under their rule in 1034 . 1040 they defeated in the battle of dandanaqan , one of the decisive battles in the history of the eastern Islamic world, the Ghaznavids . In 1055 Tughrul moved into Baghdad , ended the rule of the Buyid dynasty and claimed protection over the Abbasid caliphate and the title of sultan . Tughrul Beg succeeded in conquering large parts of Persia and, in 1055, Iraq . He made the city of Rey near what is now Tehran the capital of his dynasty. The emerging empire of the Greater Seljuks established the dominance of Turkic peoples in the Islamic world and marked a turning point in the history of Islamic civilization.
Greater Seljuk Empire
Alp Arslan (1063-1072) defeated the Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and thus initiated the Turkish settlement of Anatolia . Alp Aslan and his successor Malik Şâh (1072-1092) led the kingdom of the Greater Seljuks to its political and cultural climax. The areas of Jazira , northern Syria, right up to Khoresmia and the Amu Darya , were under direct administration by the Seljuks ; Turkmen groups in Anatolia, the Central Asian regions of the Karakhanids , while the Fatimids from southern Syria and Palestine (dem old picture al-Sham) were suppressed. Successful campaigns were carried out on the Arabian Peninsula as far as today's Yemen .
Introduction of Persian administrative structures by Nizam ul-Mulk
Both Alp Arslan and Malik-Shah owe a large part of their success to the capable politics of their Persian vizier Nizam al-Mulk , who later supported the Malik-Shah as tutor ( Atabeg ) during his twenty-year rule. al-Mulk ruled the empire with the help of Dīwan al-Wāzīr , the great council, which had its seat in the new capital, Isfahan . He secured the loyalty of the administrative authorities by filling the offices with his numerous sons and relatives. He introduced the Persian-Islamic style of administration with several Dīwānen in a dynasty that was only three generations separated from its Turkic nomadic origins. In contrast to the traditional succession of the Turkic peoples, which was based on seniority , in the Seljuk dynasty he established the Persian concept of the great king ( Shahinschah , Persian شاهنشاه, DMG šāhān-šāh , 'King of Kings'). The government was supposed to awe the subjects on the one hand, and on the other hand the ruler had to take into account the traditions of the still sedentary Turkmens who, according to the tradition of the steppe peoples, were his most important supporters.
Toghrul, like other Islamic rulers before him, recognized the importance of a standing army, which they maintained alongside their Turkmen supporters, who had to be summoned whenever necessary. The core of this army were mercenaries of Turkic origin, ghulām , but the army also recruited mercenaries from warlike tribes of the empire and its peripheral areas, such as the Arabs, Armenians and Greeks. The army was financed through land allocation ( Iqta ), but also through taxes. When the power of the Seljuk sultans declined in the 12th century, some leaders of the ghulām troops established independent spheres of power, such as the Atabegs in Azerbaijan or the Salghurid -Atabegs of Fars .
Nizam al-Mulk recorded his ideas on statecraft in a book, the siāsat-nāmeh . He founded a number of universities, named after him as Nizāmīya , in order to train scholars and officials in the Sunni tradition, and thus to form an attractive counterpoint to the Fatimid al-Azhar in Cairo, which is in the Ismaili-Shiite tradition . From 1086-1087 he had the south dome built over the mihrab niche of the Friday Mosque of Isfahan , which today is part of the world cultural heritage with the adjacent Grand Bazaar in the southeast , and is considered a key work of the architecture of the Islamic East due to its long architectural history .
Division of empire and end
After the murder of Nizam al-Mulk by the assassins and the death of Malik-Shah a short time later (1092), a succession dispute broke out. In 1118 the empire was divided into Khorasan / Transoxania and the two Iraq , in the area of western Iran and Iraq . Around 1077 Suleiman ibn Kutalmiş founded the Sultanate of the Rum Seljuks in Anatolia with the capital Konya. The Kerman-Seljuks dynasty, founded in 1048, goes back to Alp Arslan's brother Qawurd Beg .
The Sultan Sanjar (1118–1157), son of Malik-Shah II, who ruled in Khorasan, was defeated in 1141 near Samarkand by the Kara Kitai . The Khorezm Shahs conquered Central Asia and Iran with the help of Cypriot and Oghuz mercenaries by the end of the 12th century . In 1194 they eliminated the last Seljuk ruler of Rey . The Anatolian Sultanate of the Rum Seljuks existed until the conquest by the Ilkhan (1243). The Ottomans , who emerged at the beginning of the 14th century, put an end to the last Seljuk Sultanate in Konya in 1307.
Khorezm Shahs (1077-1231)
Khorezmia ( Persian خوارزم, DMG Ḫwārizm ) is a large oasis in western Central Asia . It lies on the lower reaches and the mouth of the Amudaryas , and is bordered in the north by the Aral Sea , the Karakum and Kyzylkum deserts and the Ustyurt plateau . Neighboring provinces were Khorasan and Transoxania in Islamic times . As early as 712, Khorezmia was subjugated and Islamized by the Arabs . From the 10th century onwards, the country was ruled by the Samanids , Mamunids, Ghaznavids , Altuntaschids , Oghusen and Greater Seljuks . In the 12th century, the land made fertile by a sophisticated irrigation system, the cities of which were conveniently located on the trade routes between the Islamic countries and the Central Asian steppe, experienced a period of economic strength. The simultaneous political and military weakness of the Qarakhanids and the Seljuks made it possible for the Khorezm Shahs from the Anushteginid dynasty to establish a powerful military empire.
founding
The dynasty of the Anushteginids was founded by Anusch-Tegin Ghartschai , a Turkish military slave ( Ġulām or Mamlūk ), who was appointed governor of Khoresmia by Malik-Shah I around 1077. In contrast to their usual custom, the Seljuks in Khorezmia allowed the office of governor to become hereditary: Anush-Tegin's son Qutb ad-Din Muhammad managed to consolidate his power to such an extent during his roughly 30-year reign that his Son Ala ad-Din Atsiz could inherit office and title from father in 1127/8. From 1138 he rebelled more and more against the Seljuks under their last great Sultan Ahmad Sandschar . As part of a consistently pursued expansion policy, Atsiz conquered the Ustyurt plateau with the Mangyschlak peninsula and the region on the lower reaches of the Syrdarja with the important city of Jand (Ǧand).
Atsiz's son and successor Il-Arslan was able to rule largely independently of the Seljuks after the death of Sultan Sandjar (1157), but Khorezmia was still tributary to the pagan Kara Kitai who had been expelled from China to the west until around 1210 , whose Gur- Khan Yelü Dashi Sandjar in the battle of Qatwan (September 1141) inflicted a defeat and thus subdued almost all of Turkestan .
Peak of power under Ala ad-Din Muhammad
Together with Uthman Chan, the Karakhanid ruler of Samarqand , Ala ad-Din Muhammad (1200-1220) succeeded in defeating the Kara Kitai around 1210 in the Battle of Taras . Around 1210 Ala ad-Din Muhammad subjugated the Bawandid dynasty of Mazandaran , as well as Kirman , where the Qutlughchanids, descended from the Kara Kitai, established a local dynasty in 1222–1306, Makran and Hormuz . By 1215, all non-Indian areas of the disintegrated Ghurid Empire - essentially today's Afghanistan with the cities of Balch , Termiz , Herat and Ghazni - had been conquered. In 1217 ad-Din Muhammad regained Persian Iraq, also subjugating the Atabegs of Fars , the Salghurids and the Atabegs of Azerbaijan . In addition, the Nasrid rulers of Sistan had to recognize the suzerainty of the Anushteginids. The empire of the Khorezm Shahs finally included the entire Iranian highlands , Transoxania and present-day Afghanistan . The Khorezm Shah even felt powerful enough to enter into an open conflict with the Abbasid Caliph an-Nasir .
Downfall at the start of the Mongol Storm
From 1219 the Mongols, united by Genghis Khan, invaded western Central Asia , with metropolises like Samarqand, Bukhara, Merw and Nishapur being destroyed. Muhammad's son Jalal ad-Din offered resistance from Azerbaijan, but was initially defeated by the allied Rum Seljuks and Ayyubids in the battle of Yassı Çemen near Erzincan in August 1230 and murdered a year later.
Mongol invasion
The Mongols had invaded Anatolia in the 1230s and killed Kai Kobad I , Sultan of the Rum Seljuks . After 1241, under Baiju , they began to conquer further areas of the Middle East from Azerbaijan . Together with Georgian and Armenian forces, they conquered Erzurum in 1242 . The Seljuk Sultan Kai Chosrau II was defeated by the Mongols in the battle of the Köse Dağ .
The Mongolian Khan Möngke commissioned his brother Hülegü with another campaign in the west. In 1255 he reached Transoxania . On December 20, 1256, Hülegü captured the assassin fortress Alamut , north of Qazvin . In 1258 the Mongols conquered Baghdad and ended the rule of the last Abbasid caliph Al-Musta'sim . In January 1260 the Mongols conquered Aleppo and Homs . After the death of Great Khan Möngke on August 12, 1258, Hülegü withdrew to Central Asia with most of the Mongolian army. The troops remaining in Syria under the general Kitbukha could still take Damascus and subjugate the last sultan of Syria from the Ayyubid dynasty , an-Nasir Yusuf . However, they were still subject to the Mamluks of Egypt in September at the Battle of ʿAin Jalūt , and again in December 1260 when a coalition of the Ayyubid emirs of Homs and Hama defeated them in the Battle of Homs. From then on, the Euphrates formed the border with the Mamluk Sultanate.
Ilchanat (1256-1335)
After the death of Great Khan Möngke in 1258, independent Mongolian states emerged in China and Iran. During his rule, the increased income from agriculture and trade had shifted the balance of power between the steppe people and the settlers, so that central rule was more difficult to maintain. Hülegü used the power struggle between his brothers Arigkbugha Khan in Mongolia and Kublai Khan in China in his favor. In 1269 Kublai Khan appointed Hülegü as the official ruler of the Mongolian Middle East under the title Ilchan. Thus, in addition to the Golden Horde , the Mongolian China of the Yuan Dynasty and the Chagatai Khanate , another Mongolian-ruled empire emerged.
Alliances
Hülegü first had to deal with Berke Khan , under whom an army of the Golden Horde had advanced into the Caucasus at the end of 1261. In 1262 Hülegü Berke struck back and was thus able to maintain his rule over northwestern Persia. Merke had converted to Islam and now formed an alliance with the Mamluks . The Mongols had been in diplomatic contact with the Pope and European rulers for a while; In 1262 Hülegü sent an embassy to the court of the French King Louis IX. and proposed an alliance against the Mailuks. The two opposing alliances continued throughout the rule of the Ilkhan. Hülegü also had to pacify revolts within his empire. In 1262 he conquered Mosul and put an end to the local Zengid dynasty under the Atabeg of Mosul.
Challenges, conversion to Islam
When Hülegü died in 1265, he left behind an empire that was internally torn apart after several decades of regional conflicts. Members of other branches of the Genghis Khan family still owned properties within the Ilkhanid territory. Former Mongolian generals ( noyan ) owned land and claims to power, which they inherited, and interfered in the administration of the land through Persian officials with whom they had alliances or clientele relationships. The women of the Mongolian dynasties also had their own income from land holdings and considerable political influence. All of this made it difficult for the central government to raise the funds it needed to maintain power. The political influence of the Noyan and the women of the dynasty was, as Rashīd ad-Dīn reports in his "History of the Mongols" ( Jami 'at-tawarich ), laid down in rules that were confirmed when a khan took office. Having a say in so many different groups meant that disputes between individual factions always also affected other interest groups who intervened in the conflict.
The greatest threat arose in the west in 1277 when the Mamluk Sultan Baibars I. Kayseri , the capital of the Sultanate of the Rum Seljuks in Asia Minor, conquered and began to mint coins in his own name. He entered into an alliance with Pervâne Mu'in al-Din Suleyman , who had come to prominence under Baiju . On October 30, 1281, the army of Hülegü's son Abaqa (1234-1282) was defeated by the Mamluks near Homs . With the death of Abaqa, another campaign to the west could no longer take place, and the expansion of the Ilchanate in the west was ended.
The descendants of Hülegü ruled as Ilchane over their conquests in the Near and Middle East for about a century . Ilchan Aḥmad Tegüder was the first Ilchan to convert to Islam . In 1284, Ahmad Tegüder was overthrown by Arghun , and Buddhism regained its influence. Under Ghazan , much of the Mongolian upper class converted to Sunni Islam. With the help of its famous Weser, the polymath Raschīd ad-Dīn Hamadāni, Ghana carried out a series of reforms that were seen as the crucial moment in the assimilation of the Mongols and their adaptation to Islamic society. The conversion, committed in an official act, ensured Ghazan the loyalty of the Mongolian troops, many of whom had already converted to Islam. After coming to power, he had numerous powerful leaders executed, including Taghachar and Nāwruz, the generals of Baidu . He maintained diplomatic relations with both the Mamluks and the European powers. His new title Pādischāh-i Islām underscores his independence from Mongolian traditions and his claim to a primacy in the Islamic world. His attempt to bring the holy places of Islam under his rule, however, failed due to the resistance of the Mamluks.
Rashīd al-Dīn Hamadāni, Ch'eng Hsiang, and the reforms of Ghazan
Raschīd ad-Dīn came from a family of Jewish doctors, and served Ghazan as advisor and vizier ( ṣāhib dīwān ). On behalf of his ruler, he wrote a "History of the Mongols" ( Dschami 'at-tawarich ), in which he also describes Ghazan's reforms and reproduces the text of many decrees. Among other things, taxes were now regularly levied on property, the value of which was shown on boards that were attached to the buildings. Neither envoys nor the military were allowed to lodge there at will. Abandoned land was cultivated again, the currency, weight and measurements were standardized. For their maintenance, the soldiers were allocated land according to their rank. The latter two measures show clear parallels to the Chinese administrative practice under Kublai Khan . One of his advisers, Minister ( bolad ) Ch'eng Hsiang, was still at Ghazan's court in Tabriz .
Late period
Ghazan's successor was his brother Charbanda, who took the name Öldscheitü on July 12, 1304 after taking office - according to the traditional Mongolian rite . He turned to the Twelve Shia , but without enforcing this direction of Islam in his territory. During his reign there was a period of relative political calm, so that in the spring of 1305 he was able to write to the French King Philip the Fair that he had restored the Mongol Empire. In 1306 he conquered Herat , in 1307 he led a campaign in Gilan which , with the death of the previous general, Amir Qutlugh Shah, made the rise of Amir Tschupan possible. An advance against the Chagatai Khanate in 1313 was unsuccessful.
Öldscheitü's successor was his twelve-year-old son Abu Sa'id (r. 1316-1335), but power was in the hands of Amir Tschupan . After Abu Sa'id's death, the Ilkhanate disintegrated. Individual provinces gained their independence under their own ruling dynasties, the most important of which were the Chobanids (in Persian Iraq and Azerbaijan), the Jalairids (in Arab Iraq), the Kartids (in eastern Khorasan), the Muzaffarids (in southern Persia) and the Sarbadars (in western Khorasan) were. From 1360 Timur conquered the region; his successors established the Timurid dynasty .
Timurids (1370–1507)
The founder and namesake of the dynasty was Timur (actually Temür, called "Timur-i Lang"; 1336–1405). Generally recognized as ruler in Transoxania in 1370, he first ruled as governor of the Chagatai khans . From 1380 he conquered the south of Khorasan, parts of Iran and Iraq and took over rule from the local dynasties such as the Kartids , Sarbadars , Muzaffarids and Jalairids . In 1391 and 1395 Timur defeated the Mongolian rulers of the Golden Horde on the Volga , whose empire then split into individual khanates . Timur ruled parts of Iraq, Iran , Azerbaijan , Uzbekistan , Armenia , Georgia , Syria and Turkey in 1394 . In the east his empire bordered the Chagatai Khanate of the Mongols. In 1398 Timur conquered the Sultanate of Delhi , in 1401 Damascus and again Baghdad. On July 20, 1402, Timur defeated an Ottoman army under Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara . Bayezid was captured and died in Mongolian captivity.
While Timur's campaigns led to considerable destruction, the capital Samarqand was magnificently expanded and, through the promotion of art and culture, became an important cultural center in Central Asia.
Under the Timurids there was a considerable cultural boom in Central Asia and Khorasan. The Turkic Congolian traditions mingled with the Iranian-Islamic culture. Literature arose in Persian and Chagatan , the two linguae francae of the Timurid elite, as well as in Arabic , the traditional language of the Islamic world. The official court, administrative and scholarly language of the Timurids was Persian. The Persian language and lyrical forms such as the Dīwāndichtung also influenced contemporary Turkish literature .
The architecture in cities like Herat, Maschhad or Samarqand is outstanding . In Samarqand there are still the Bibi-Chanum-Mosque , the madrasas on Registan -Platz and the grave street of Shah-i Sinda . In Herat, the Musalla complex should be mentioned.
In 1526 the Timurid Babur conquered the Indian sultanate of Delhi and founded the Mughal Empire , which lasted until the British conquered in 1858.
Great empires of the early modern period: 15. – 18. century
The three great empires of the “Islamic Middle Ages” are characterized by their long persistence compared to previous ruling dynasties, which alternated in rapid succession. A major reason for this was the introduction of modern firearms, which is why these empires are also referred to as " gunpowder empires ". The contrast between Ottoman Sunnism and Shiism , which was introduced as the state religion under the Persian Safavids, shaped the politics and history of both empires.
Ottoman Empire (1299–1922)
historical overview
The traditions of the early days of the Ottoman Empire ( Ottoman دولت علیه İA Devlet-i ʿAlīye , German 'the sublime state' , officially Ottoman from 1876 دولت عثمانيه İA Devlet-i ʿOs̲mānīye , German 'the Ottoman State' ) are only sparse, probably because at the beginning it was just one of the many Beyliks that arose after the end of the rule of the Rum Seljuks in Asia Minor. The namesake Osman I ruled the nomadic tribe of the Kynyk near Söğüt in northwestern Anatolia at the beginning of the 14th century , who were of Turkmen origin and Islamic faith. Around 1299 Osman declared the independence of his Beylik from the Iconium Sultanate . At the time of its greatest expansion in the 17th century, the Ottoman sultans ruled in addition to the heartlands of Asia Minor and Rumelia, the area around the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, large parts of the Balkans , with Syria , the area of today's Iraq and the Hejaz (with the holy cities Mecca and Medina ) the historical heartlands of Islam, North Africa with Nubia , Upper Egypt and westwards to the middle Atlas Mountains . The capital of the empire was Bursa from 1326 , Adrianople from 1368 , and finally Constantinople from 1453 .
For almost 500 years, until modern times, the Ottoman Empire ruled much of the Islamic world. The organization and history of its administration is precisely documented in the archives of the Topkapı Palace . Since Istanbul - in contrast to other cities - never again conquered and looted after 1453, and the sultan's residence was never destroyed, most of the documents have been preserved and are being researched in more and more detail. The Ottoman Empire waged numerous wars with the Holy Roman Empire in the west, the Persian Empire under the powerful Safavid dynasty , and from the 18th century with the Russian Empire . The main opponents in the Mediterranean were the Republic of Venice , Spain , the Republic of Genoa , the Papal States and the Knights of Malta . In the Indian Ocean, the empire wrestled with Portugal for priority in long-distance trade with India and Indonesia. The history of the Ottoman Empire is closely linked to that of Western Europe due to the continuously intensive political, economic and cultural relations.
In the course of the 18th and especially in the 19th century, the empire suffered considerable territorial losses in disputes with the European powers as well as national independence efforts in its European heartlands. Its territory was reduced to European Thrace and Asia Minor. The defeat of the Habsburg and Hohenzollern monarchies , with which the Ottoman Empire allied itself in World War I , led within a few years to the almost simultaneous end of three large monarchies that had shaped the history of Europe for centuries. In the Turkish Liberation War , a national government under Mustafa Kemal Pasha prevailed; In 1923 the Republic of Turkey was founded as the successor state.
Timeline
Safavid and Mughal empires
Safavid Empire (1501–1722)
Shahs of the Safavid dynasty
· Ismail I , 1501–1524
· Tahmasp I , 1524–1576
· Ismail II , 1576–1577
· Mohammed Chodabande , 1577–1587
· Abbas I , the Great 1587–1629
· Safi I , 1629 –1642
· Abbas II. , 1642–1666
· Safi II. (Sulaiman I), 1666–1694
· Sultan Hosein , 1694–1722
· Tahmasp II. , 1729–1732
· Abbas III. , 1732-1736
· Sulaiman II. , 1749-1750
· Ismail III. , 1750-1765
In 1499 a new dynasty came to power in the Persian Empire , the Safavids . Its founder, Shah Ismail I (1484–1524), is regarded as the first national ruler of Persia since the Arab expansion and established Shiite Islam as the state religion.
Persia experienced a cultural heyday under the rule of the Safavids; Masterpieces of Islamic art and architecture were created in the court manufactories .
The name of the Safavids is derived from Sheikh Safi ad-Din Ardabili (1252-1334), who in 1301 founded a Sufi order , the Safawiyya in Ardebil. Ismail I. succeeded in conquering Tabriz and overthrowing the Turkmen Aq Qoyunlu in 1501 . After the north-east of Iran was secured with a victory over the Uzbeks at Herat (1510), a conflict with the Ottomans in the west broke out. They defeated the Safavids in the battle of Tschaldiran in 1514 and conquered the capital Tabriz. Ismail's successor, Tahmasp I (1524–1576), was also in conflict with the Ottomans and Uzbeks. While he Khorasan could claim, Iraq and went Azerbaijan after 1534 to the Ottomans lost.
Abbas I, "the Great" (1587–1629) succeeded in consolidating the empire. Under him, Bahrain was occupied in 1601 . In 1603 the Ottomans were expelled from Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia , and Iraq was recaptured in 1623. This brought the Shiite pilgrimage centers of Najaf and Karbala back under Persian control. In 1595 the attacks of the Uzbek Abdullah II were stopped. In terms of economic policy, the infrastructure was expanded, particularly in the new capital, Isfahan , which now had an excellent road system and representative building complexes and squares such as the Meidān-e Emām , masterpieces of Persian architecture .
Under the successors of Abbas I, the central administration lost influence. Under Shah Abbas II (1642–1666) the empire reformed and consolidated. Close trade contacts arose with the European naval powers England and Holland . In 1649 Kandahar was occupied in Khorasan, which was claimed by both Persia and the Indian Mughal empire .
Towards the end of the 17th century it came under Sultan Husain (1694-1722) to economic decline. Since at the same time the Sunnis in the empire were to be forcibly converted to Shiite Islam, an uprising of the Pashtun Ghilzai broke out in 1719 . They conquered Isfahan in 1722 and deposed the incumbent Shah. This new Hotaki dynasty could only last a few years. His successor Tahmasp II and his general Nadir Shah were able to regain power in 1729. But Tahmasp II and his son Abbas III stayed. politically subject to the influence of the Afsharids . Nadir Shah overthrew the dynasty in 1736. In some provinces the Safavide Ismail III. claim until 1773.
As the second major Islamic power alongside the Ottoman Empire, the two empires were repeatedly involved in armed conflicts during the 16th and 17th centuries. In the Ottoman-Safavid Wars ( 1532–1555 , 1532–1555 and 1623–1639 ) it was not only about territorial disputes in Asia Minor , Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , but also about the religious contradictions within Islam: mutual religious tolerance and the guarantee of The safety of pilgrims on the way to the holy places of Islam and Shia was the subject of the peace treaties of Amasya (1555), Istanbul (1590), and Qasr-e Shirin (1639).
Mughal Empire (1526-1858)
The Mughal Empire existed on the Indian subcontinent from 1526 to 1858 . The heartland of the empire lay in the north Indian Indus - Ganges plain around the cities of Delhi , Agra and Lahore . At the height of its power in the 17th century, the Mughal Empire spanned almost the entire subcontinent and parts of present-day Afghanistan .
The first Mughal Mughal Babur (ruled 1526–1530), a prince of the Timurid dynasty from Central Asia , conquered the Sultanate of Delhi , starting from the territory of the present-day states of Uzbekistan and Afghanistan . Akbar I (ruled 1556–1605) is considered the most important Mughal ruler . Under Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) the Mughal empire experienced its greatest territorial expansion. Several severe military defeats against the Marathas , Persians and Afghans as well as the intensification of the religious differences in the interior between the Muslim "ruling caste" and the subdued majority of the rural Hindus weakened the Mughal Empire in the course of its history. In 1858 the last Delhi Grand Mughal was deposed by the British. Its territory became part of British India .
18th century: emergence of regional Islamic reform movements
In the 18th century, reform-oriented groups in the form of local networks around individual founders emerged in various parts of the Islamic world. Earlier research had viewed Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition as a historical turning point at which reform movements within the Islamic world were initiated through contact with modern ideas and advanced technology from Western Europe. With a more detailed knowledge of the sources, research approaches that saw reform efforts emerging from religious and social challenges as early as the 18th century without an intensive intellectual debate with Western Europe taking place at that time, gain in importance.
The regional inner-Islamic reform efforts are significant in the political history of Islam above all because today's neo-fundamentalist and terrorist organizations sometimes refer to the founders of these movements. For example, in the founding manifesto of the Islamic State Organization published by Abū Muhammad al-Maqdisī , a transnational continuity of the tradition is assumed, which is largely due to the informal networks of scholars in the “province of al-Ḥaramayn” (in Mecca and Medina) in many parts propagated in the Islamic world.
Reform Movements in Sufism
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Already in the 13th century the Sufi order ( Tarīqa ) of the Schadhiliyya had been founded in the Maghreb . Its most important representative was Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi (1760-1837). Some of his disciples first spread his teachings as Idrisiyya. The most influential students Ibn Idris included Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi (1787-1859), who in Cyrenaica the Sanussiya - founded Order, Muhammad al-Majdhub as-Sughayir (1796-1833), the influential in eastern Sudan after 1815 Chatmiyya brotherhood founded and Ibrahim al-Raschid (1813–1874), who formed his own tariqa, the Raschidiyya , in his home country Sudan .
Yemen: Ash-Shaukani
Muhammad ibn ʿAlī asch-Shaukānī (1760-1834) was from 1795 to 1834 chief Qādī in the Zaidite Imamate of the Qāsimids in Yemen . He advocated individual finding of truth ( Idschtihād ) over imitation ( Taqlīd ). Rashīd Ridā regarded him as the innovator of the 12th Islamic century . In his numerous writings, especially in Al-Badr al-Ṭālỉ , he criticizes the Wahhabi view of Islam from a religious point of view, as well as because of its close political connection with the ruler Muhammad ibn Saud , but he carefully selected the political tensions in his choice of words between the state of Saudi and the Shiite- Zaidite imamate of Sana'a not to strengthen. He stated that the execution of a hadd sentence , which has led to outrage again today in the case of Amina Lawal and Safiya Hussaini in Nigeria, depends both on the admission of the guilty and on a formal court judgment. A person should not be condemned as apostate from Islam as long as he or she has not made this explicit claim and publicly announced it.
Cyrenaica: al-Sanūsi
The Sanusiya , founded in 1837 by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanūsi , emerged as a religious reform movement with the aim of renewing Islam by returning to the pure teaching of the Koran and Sunna . In his writings, al-Sanūsi tries above all to legitimize Sufism against the Wahhabis' understanding of Islam, as well as to interpret the Ḥadith and the ritual and organizational aspects of the Tarīqa. From the headquarters in Al-Baida in southwestern Libya, far from the influence of the Ottoman or French authorities, the Sanusiya spread mainly in Cyrenaica and other regions of Libya. After his death in 1859, his son Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi (1859-1902) took over the leadership of the brotherhood. His grandson Muhammad Idrīs al-Sanūsī (1890-1983) was King of Libya from 1951 to 1969 .
India: Shāh Walīyullāh ad-Dihlawī
Shah Walīyullāh ad-Dihlawī (1703–1763) from Delhi was an eyewitness to the conquest of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739. He was a disciple of the Sufi master Muhyī d-Dīn Ibn ʿArabī , whose views were fiercely opposed by Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb . His own teaching was based on the idea of unity, not only of creed, but also of social reality. He conveys his insights in the form of descriptions of his visions of the Prophet Mohammed:
“[God wants] to bring unity through you into the blessed community ('yajm' shamlan min shaml al-umma al-marḥūma bika '), so be careful not to accuse a true person of being heretical unless a thousand friends complain heresy on him. [...] "
His teaching is characterized by the fact that he assumes the formal exercise of shirk ( qawālib ) and possible signs of its presence ( maẓān ), but leaves the verdict open.
The Ṭarīqa-yi Muḥammadīya ties in with the teachings of ad-Dihlawīs and the Yemeni Qādī al-Qudāt of Sanaa ʿ Alī aš-Šaukānī (1760–1834). She is regarded as a model for the Ahl-i Hadîth , which is still important to this day .
Arabian Peninsula: Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (1702 / 3–1792) taught a special understanding of Tawheed , the active commitment to the oneness of God ( tawheed al-ulūhīya ), which the believer puts into practice through his actions. According to his teaching, only the fulfillment of the tawheed al-ulūhīya makes a person a Muslim and distinguishes him from the unbeliever. The tauhīd al-ulūhīya is destroyed by any form of shirk , "addition", which was understood much more broadly by al-Wahhāb than by the Sunni scholars of his time.
In 1744 al-Wahhāb and the Emir Muhammad ibn Saud concluded an alliance that was sealed by an oath of allegiance . The pact aimed to establish a state. Al-Wahhāb was supposed to administer religious affairs as imam , while Ibn Saʿūd was to be responsible for military and political affairs. The rulership of Ibn Saʿūds was religiously legitimized through the connection of faith and power.
In today's Saudi Arabia , the Wahhabis named after him , followers of traditional and purist Islam, enjoy state funding. The Wahhabis refer to themselves as Salafis or simply as "Sunni" ( ahl as-sunna ). The Islamic World League has the task of spreading Wahhabi ideas worldwide. The Ahl-i Hadîth group and the Al-Qaeda network are close to the Wahhabis. The ideology of the Taliban and the organization “ Islamic State ” also shows similarities with Wahhabism.
Nigeria: Usman dan Fodio and the Sokoto Caliphate
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Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) was a military and religious leader of the Qadiriyya - Tariqa from the Fulbe people . He first appeared as a religious reformer and devoted himself to a purer form of Islam. In his opinion, the society of his day suffered from the wrong practice of Islam and from social injustice. In 1804 he declared a jihad and in the same year defeated a Hausa army . In the years that followed, Usman conquered most of the Haussa states and created a Fulani empire in northern Nigeria, also known as the Sokoto Caliphate . He chose the city of Kano as his seat of power . His student Modibo Adama founded the emirate of Adamaua . In 1808 and 1810 Usman suffered defeats against the kingdoms of Bornu and Kanem . In 1903 Sokoto was defeated by the British under Frederick Lugard . The Konni region, detached from Sokoto , was added to French West Africa .
The terrorist groups Boko Haram and Ansaru , which has split off from them , refer to the Sokoto caliphate. In March 2015, Abu Bakr Shekau, the leader of the Boko Haram, announced that his group had sworn allegiance to the Islamic State organization and its leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi .
19th century
Political Reforms in the 19th Century
From the early 19th century until the fundamental reorganization after the First World War, there were three main centers that shaped Islamic society in the Middle East: Egypt (de facto independent from the Ottoman Empire), the Ottoman Empire itself, and Iran under the rule of the Qajars .
The social and political order in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt emerged in a process that had grown over almost three centuries on the basis of Ottoman-Islamic values and customs. The political system of the empire was never static or uniform in all regions, but over this long period of time a common understanding of the fundamental goals of Ottoman rule and the manner in which it was exercised had developed in the individual regions. At the end of the 19th and in the first two decades of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire was once again in a process of reform. The interruption and ultimate destruction of the established rulership and social structures during and after the reform era brought deep and disorienting cuts for the peoples of the Middle East. In the 19th century it was not the intention of the ruling Islamic dynasties to “westernize” the countries of the Middle East, but initially only to introduce technical and administrative improvements from Europe, especially with a view to reforming the armed forces. Only with an increasing number of European-trained administrative officials and military leaders did the process of change accelerate and spread beyond purely military aspects into other areas of public life.
Individuals were critical of these processes of change, or at least wished they were more compatible with the principles and customs of Islamic life. Among these stand out in the 19th century the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II, as well as three reform movements that emerged from rural life: the Wahhabis, Sanusi, and the Mahdiyya. In Egypt, Muhammad Abduh spread his ideas and spread them through the printing press throughout the Islamic world. The era of mass communication initiated by the printed word also gave birth to the more secular ideas of the Islamic Awakening. In the Ottoman Empire, the young Turks trained in the modernized educational institutions, mainly military officers and administrative officials, came to power and tried to reform their state and thus save it. In Iran there was a constitutional revolt between 1905 and 1911. The First World War with its changing alliances, and finally the division of the Arab provinces of the defeated Ottoman Empire into British and French spheres of influence, hit the Arab countries largely unprepared. For almost a quarter of a century the leaders of these countries were busy gaining full independence from Europe and finding new identities for their states. In the period between the world wars, the prevailing ideologies were regionalism, pan-Arab nationalism, and the idea of Islamic solidarity.
Colonial appropriation of the Islamic world
In the course of the 17th century, merchandise such as cloth, indigo, tea and porcelain replaced spices as the most important commodities. During the Seven Years' War , the British East India Company gained the upper hand over France in the Battle of Plassey and took control of Bengal , where in 1756 they claimed the Mughal ruler's tax revenue for themselves. The company installed a governor general and reformed the administration. From 1818 the company was the dominant power in India until it was disbanded after the Sepoy Uprising of 1857.
In 1874 Great Britain signed treaties with Malay sultans, who increasingly came under the influence of colonial power, until Malaysia was completely under colonial rule by the beginning of the 20th century. In nearby Indonesia, the Dutch East India Company had dominated the spice trade since the 17th century and expanded its influence to the entire Malay archipelago by the beginning of the 20th century . The Philippines were since 16./17. Spanish occupied in the 19th century; after the Spanish-American War , the United States took power in the south.
In 1650 the Russian Empire annexed Siberia, and in 1715 the Kazakh steppe was invaded. By the end of the 19th century, the empire had brought what is now Turkmenistan , Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan under its rule. France had colonized much of West Africa and the Maghreb since the mid-19th century. Great Britain annexed East Africa, Nigeria, Egypt and Sudan, Italy seized Libya and Somalia. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War, Great Britain also took control of the fertile crescent and the Gulf region. France occupied Syria and what is now Lebanon.
Intensification of communication
The expansion of new traffic routes and communication networks ( steam navigation , construction of the Suez Canal , expansion of the railway and telegraph network ), although primarily motivated by the economic and political interests of the colonial rulers, opened up the possibility of faster and more intensive communication between the individual regions of the Islamic world . Book printing, which emerged in the Islamic world from the early 19th century, and especially the newspaper industry, also contributed to the mass dissemination of ideas and information. This ultimately paved the way for a new reform-oriented current within Islam.
Expansion of traffic routes, introduction of telegraphy
The network of trade and transport routes was expanded. Steam shipping emerged in the middle of the 19th century, and the Suez Canal opened in November 1869 . Only a few years later, the railway network also grew . The new means of mass transportation primarily served to keep the colonizers in power, as they could be used to move troops quickly from one region to another, as well as for colonial trade. At the same time, for example, they made the Hajj to Mecca possible for a growing number of pilgrims , thus intensifying contacts between the individual countries that are now under colonial rule. Telegraphy also developed parallel to the transport networks, mostly along the railway lines .
Printing and newspaper printing
Book printing played an essential role in the cultural development of Europe , as it enabled the mass dissemination of information and thus ensured that new ideas and information could spread very quickly and widely. Book printing is seen as one of the driving forces behind the Renaissance as well as the Age of Enlightenment and - despite the almost simultaneous censorship - played an important role in the rise of the bourgeoisie . In contrast, printing in the Islamic world spread rather late and hesitantly.
After the Alhambra Edict of July 31, 1492 and the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal in 1496/97, many Jews left the Iberian Peninsula and emigrated to the Ottoman Empire, where they were welcomed by a decree of Bayezid II . These so-called Sephardim ( Hebrew סְפָרַדִּים' Sfaradim ,' who come from Sepharad (i.e. the Iberian Peninsula) ') also brought printing to Istanbul. The ʿUlamā 'met the new technique with suspicion, also because the recitation of the Koran was viewed as a meritorious religious act and oral tradition played an important role in religious training. The first Koran with movable type was printed in Venice in 1537/38 ; however, the work did not attract much interest. A printing press was finally set up in Istanbul in 1727, but was shut down again around 1740 at the instigation of the ʿUlamā '. Sultan Bayezid II banned printing in Arabic on the death penalty in 1483. Only by the Jewish (1515 Saloniki , 1554 Adrianople , 1552 Belgrade , 1658 Smyrna ) as well as the Greek and Armenian communities was printing in the respective alphabets. 1727 allowed Sultan Ahmed III. the establishment of a printing press with Arabic letters, which published some secular works in Ottoman . The printing of religious scriptures was still prohibited.
Book printing did not regain importance until the early 19th century. The court chancellery of the Ottoman Empire issued all official documents in calligraphic handwriting until the end of the period.
Napoleon Bonaparte carried some printing presses on his Egyptian expedition (1798–1801) in order to have his proclamations printed. A Muslim press in Cairo was already publishing textbooks around 1820. After a brief resistance, al-Azhar University also used the new technology, which made Cairo one of the centers of Islamic printing. Mecca received a printing press in 1883. Lively press activity also began around 1820 in the Urdu- speaking regions of northern India. The publication of books did not cause the ʿUlamā 'to lose its meaning. However, a new kind of Islamic scholarship and religious authority developed, whose views were discussed above all in the increasingly numerous newspapers, and which was to gain in importance with the programs for mass education in the middle of the 20th century.
Territorial reorganization within national borders
At the beginning of the 20th century, the once proud empires of the Islamic world were largely in the hands of European colonial powers. The Muslim states that had escaped colonization (Ottoman Empire, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Afghanistan) were nevertheless under the influence of Europe. Part of the permanent legacy of colonialism is the reorganization of the area of the Islamic world according to nation states within internationally recognized borders.
The boundaries of areas that have been under the rule of their own dynasties since ancient times, such as Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Arabia, Iran or Afghanistan, were defined more precisely during or in the course of the colonial period. The borders of the majority of the states represented in the Organization for Islamic Cooperation were negotiated between colonial powers without the participation of the population concerned. Sometimes these boundaries cut up large historical areas. For example, the Durand Line agreed to delimit British India from the emirate of Afghanistan divided the historic tribal areas of the Pashtuns . The division between Iraq and Syria also ignored the historical togetherness of this region. In the Persian Gulf, British colonial rule converted historical grazing rights into property rights for local tribes and was thus able to secure their loyalty. Thereafter, these countries and their natural resources were considered the property of the ruling princely dynasties.
The non-Arab countries of the Islamic world - as in Iran, Turkey, India, Indonesia, or Malaysia - could mostly refer to a more precisely delimited linguistic or historical tradition that made it easier for them to develop a national identity. This was not the case in the Arab countries. Here, the reality of the nation-states was more in contrast to the perceived cross-border identity of the “ Arab nation ” as a comprehensive cultural nation . Nevertheless, attempts during the 1950s to 1970s to unite individual nation states as a federation or a real union should fail: The United Arab Republic , a union between Egypt and Syria, only existed for three years, from 1958 to 1961.
New Islamic Public
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, parallel to European colonization, reform movements emerged in the Islamic world that actively dealt with Western culture. Two major currents of thought that are often indistinctly delimited from one another can be distinguished: One that is more oriented towards modernity and one that is traditionalist and less influenced by modernity. As a legacy of the reform movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the idea of a "socialized" Islam encompassing all aspects of modern life remained, as well as the perceived need to preserve it and defend it externally. These two concepts shape the politics and identity of Islamic countries to this day.
In the discourse about the reorientation of Islamic society ("umma"), secular and Islamic actors faced each other in the dispute over the power of definition. The traditional ʿUlamā 'of the mosques and Tarīqa countered lay people from a newly formed group of intellectuals with their social understanding and created their own norms of behavior in the political public through the press, parties and associations, which clearly differ from the customs of traditional Islamic religious and legal studies distinguished. Three opposing concepts were effective here:
- Social change in values: colonial - traditional
- Contrast between urban and rural populations (degree of mechanization)
- social network of relationships: Islamic - colonial
Different political traditions developed in different time and place-bound forms: The nationalists, who were oriented towards the state borders newly created by the colonial powers, made use of European-modernist ways of thinking and based themselves on the administrative structures created by the colonial rulers. Just like them, the representatives of the Salafiyya also felt that they belonged to the urban culture (the focus was on the newly created modern districts), but their concepts and language tended to relate to traditional cultural networks. At the same time, the old social network of the medina continued to exist and was separated from the colonial outside world. Only in a few tribal cultures of the Najd , the Cyrenaica and in the Anti-Atlas did Islamic interpretation of tribal cultures ensure social integration. The differences between the individual groups intensified, especially after the upheavals in Islamic societies after the First World War.
Secular reform ideas: Rifa'a at-Tahtawi
One of the first Egyptian scholars who came into close contact with and reported about modern Western civilization was Rifa'a at-Tahtawi (1801–1873). As a spiritual guide to an Egyptian embassy of Muhammad Ali Pasha , he stayed in Paris from 1826 to 1831 . His report on his stay (Taḫlīṣ al-ibrīz fī talḫīṣ Bārīz), which also contains the main features of possible reforms in his homeland, appeared in 1849. It is one of the few documents of the 19th century from which the Islamic view of the West at that time becomes understandable. Although at-Tahtawi had a traditional religious education, his reform ideas show no need for a change in religious thought or education. He is only interested in building modern administrative and economic structures based on the French model and only refers to Islam when he wants to emphasize that Muslims can adopt practical knowledge and insights from Europe. His views reflect the efforts of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who made no efforts to reform al-Azhar University, but instead set up an independent educational system in parallel.
Religiously motivated reform concept: Hayreddin Pascha
Hayreddin Pascha (1822 / 3–1890) was a Tunisian and Ottoman statesman. 1852–1855 he represented the interests of the Beis of Tunis at the court of Napoléon III. in Paris, where he learned the French language and European culture. He was Minister of the Navy, later President of the High Council of Tunis, 1872 President of the International Commission, which was supposed to regulate the financial situation of Tunis, and in 1873 first Minister. He reformed the administration and judiciary of the province, the principles of which he had laid out in French ( Réformes nécessaires aux États musulmans , Paris, 1868). In 1878 he was called to Istanbul by Sultan Abdülhamid II and appointed Grand Weser, but his reform efforts failed due to resistance from War Minister Osman Pascha . In contrast to at-Tahtawi, Hayreddin Pasha formulated a religious justification for his ideas by safeguarding the collective interest ( maṣlaḥa ) of the Muslims, whereby he also applied the concept of ijschtihād , independent reflection, to public affairs. Sayyid Ahmad Khan played a comparable role in British India , and Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani , who is regarded as a pioneer of pan-Islamism and anti-colonialism , as a liberal reform theologian and modernist, but also as one of the spiritual founders of political Islam and Salafism - Movement of the late 19th and 20th centuries.
Welfare and educational organizations: Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama
In 1912 the Muhammadiyah was founded in Yogyakarta , which, with an emphasis on ijtihād, is more dedicated to the welfare and education of Muslims.
In 1926, the Nahdlatul Ulama was founded in Indonesia . In the 1930s, their religious boarding schools ( pesantren ) curricula included math, science, English, and history. In the 1980s, their boarding schools also offered degrees in economics, law, education, and medicine. From the 1990s, the organization under Abdurrahman Wahid positioned itself as a decidedly anti-fundamentalist and propagated democracy and bourgeois pluralism.
Traditionalists: All-India Muslim League and Dar ul-Ulum Deoband
In 1906, the All-India Muslim League was founded in Dhaka , whose original aim was to protect Muslim minorities in regions of India where the majority of Hindus lived. In 1916, Mohammed Ali Jinnah was elected its president in British-ruled India. A party developed from the Muslim League, which since 1936 increasingly separated itself from the Indian National Congress . On the basis of the Lahore resolution , Jinnah achieved the partition of India in 1947 into India , which is predominantly inhabited by Hindus, and the Muslim state of Pakistan in the Indus Valley and the mouth of the Ganges.
A strictly traditionalist way of thinking is represented by Dar ul-Ulum Deoband , one of the most influential Islamic universities alongside al-Azhar University . Since their founding in 1866 in the city of Deoband in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh , the Deobandi have been devoting themselves to the revival of society and education, but also to Islamic piety. In the 1990s, the Afghan Taliban also invoked the Deoband school.
Special way: Ahmadiyya
Also in British India , Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the special community of Ahmadiyya in the 1880s . It also sees itself as a reform movement of Islam and adheres to the Islamic legal sources - Koran , Sunna and Hadith - whereby the teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad are also significant. Most Muslims regard the Ahmadiyya teaching as heresy and reject it.
Pan-Islamism: The Idea of Islam and Salafiyya
Islāh was first used as a term for political-religious reforms by the Egyptian reform thinker Muḥammad ʿAbduh (1849-1905). This had worked with Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani until 1887 . Together they edited the magazine al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā ("The solid bond"). For the first time, the pan-Islamic idea of Islam as a “religious bond that is stronger than that of nationality and language” reached a broad public. From 1876 ʿAbduh published the newspaper al-Ahrām . In the magazine al-Manār ("The Lighthouse"), which he published from 1898 together with Raschīd Ridā (1865-1935), he worked out his reform ideas. "Al-Manār" appeared for almost 40 years and found readers all over the Islamic world. The article series ʿAbduhs published there appeared summarized in his work Tafsir al-Manār .
Ultimately, ʿAbduh understood Islam as a means of “reforming the human race” ( iṣlāḥ nauʿ al-insān ). In his writings he attached particular importance to a reform of the traditional educational system of the Madāris , who had come to a disadvantage in Egypt due to the establishment of a parallel, secular educational system by Muhammad Ali Pasha . His main endeavor was the compatibility of traditional and modern, secular institutions and thus the Islamic justification of European institutions as introduced by the nation state. He falls back on the concept of the collective interest or common good ( maṣlaḥa ), which he accorded paramount importance in the interests of Muslims ( al-maṣlaḥa shar ).
The idea of Islam became of particular importance for the future because it sought to understand and justify all aspects of modern life from the teaching of Islam. After the death of ʿAbduh, Rashīd Ridā continued "al-Manār". The thematic focus under his editorship was on the dispute with the colonial powers, whereby Ridā's hope that the Ottoman Caliphate could act as the protective power of Islam was not fulfilled. He continued to devote himself to preserving Islamic identity and, from the mid-1920s, placed his hopes in the new Saudi ruler, ibn Saud .
Financial crisis and loss of territory in the Ottoman Empire
Tanzimat reform
Sultan Mahmut II (1808–1839) had initiated the first efforts to reform the political system with the dissolution of the Janissary Corps (1826) and the abolition of the feudal system ( Tımar ) (1833 / 1834–1844). From 1839, Abdülmecid I (1839–1861) and later Abdülaziz (1861–1876), supported by Grand Viziers Mustafa Reşid Pascha (died 1858), Ali Pascha (died 1871) and Fuad Pascha (died 1869), ran the Tanzimat -Reforms through. The aim was a comprehensive modernization of the administration, military, judiciary and economy.
The most important reform edicts were the Hatt-ı Şerif (Noble Handwriting) by Gülhane (1839), the Hatt-ı Hümâyûn (Grand Manorial Handwriting) (1856) as well as the constitution of 1876 , with which gradually the equality and equal treatment of all subjects regardless of their religion was introduced.
Financial crisis
The financial burden of the Crimean War became so great that the first foreign loan (for £ 3 million at 6%) had to be taken out in London in 1854, and another in 1855 (over £ 5 million at 4%). In 1875 the national bankruptcy followed . By the so-called Muharram decree of December 20, 1881, the Conseil d ' Administration de la Dette Publique Ottomane ( Turkish düyūn-ı ʿumūmīye-ʾi ʿOs̠mānīye meclis-i idāresi ,' Administrative Council of the Ottoman National Debt ' ) was founded. Great Britain and France thus prevented Ottoman Turkey from succumbing to Tsarist Russia's expansionist efforts towards the Mediterranean. In the Berlin Treaty of 1878 , the European states once again committed themselves not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire .
Loss of territory
After the national bankruptcy in 1875 and the establishment of the Ottoman Debt Administration, European states took de facto control of all government decisions that had financial implications. Even Tunisia was deeply in debt. It was occupied by French troops in 1881. Egypt's cotton and the Suez Canal , which opened in 1869, were of great economic importance for Europe. In the wake of the nationalist uprising of the Urabi movement (1879–1882), Egypt was occupied by Great Britain . With Tunisia and Egypt, the European powers had begun to define their spheres of interest in the Ottoman Empire before its end. Spain and France shared Morocco . After the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) , Italy occupied Tripolitania , Cyrenaica and the Dodecanese . The race for Africa had produced initial results. At the same time, the loss of territory by the Ottoman Empire led to growing concerns among the Arab population that the empire could also surrender its Arab territories to the European powers.
Protests against excessive taxes led to calls for reforms in the provinces of Armenia. Great Britain supported this cause, but it failed because of Russia's contradiction: Full Armenian independence could have made a war with the Ottoman Empire necessary to implement the plan. In the autumn of 1895 a series of massacres began, especially against the Armenians , which dragged on throughout Asia Minor and in the capital for many months. In some cases, Armenian activists provided the pretext; the background, however, was to resolve the “Armenian question” by decimating and intimidating those affected.
20th century
Salafiyya and Wahhabism
The reform movement of the Salafiyya at the end of the 19th / beginning of the 20th century was influenced by the ideas of al-Afghani and bAbduh . After ʿAbduh's death in 1905, Rashīd Ridā continued to run the magazine al-Manār on his own. In 1924 he published in al-Manār a collection of writings by some scholars from the central region of the Arabian Peninsula, the Najd . Already with asch-Shaukānī , and increasingly since the 1880s, the teachings of the Hanbali dogmatist Taqī ad-Dīn Ahmad ibn Taimīya (1263-1328) had again found attention. Ibn Taimīya's teaching became a link between the wahhabiyya and parts of the salafiyya .
Overall, the theological and social differences between the two currents were too great to lead to a complete union. The opening of Salafiyya to Wahhabiyya, however , rehabilitated ibn Saud in the Islamic public: He had invaded the Hejaz in 1924 and occupied the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Central Arab militias ( Iḫwān ) plundered Mecca and destroyed numerous, according to their understanding, idolatrous ( shirk ) monuments. The Islamic World Congress in Mecca (1926) led to the division of the Salafiyya in the dispute over the legitimacy of the rule of ibn Saud and his patronage over the holy cities. A pro-Saudi, monarchist wing, which also included Raschīd Ridā, was opposed to a faction with a republican mind. In the period that followed, the pro-Saudi attitude became one of the most important currents in Islamic politics. The heterogeneous group of neo-fundamentalist modern Salafists with a jihadist- militant character also refers in part to this.
Fall of the Ottoman Empire
Revolution of the Young Turks 1908
In the years 1905–7, crop failures worsened the economic crisis in the Ottoman Empire. The officials' salaries could no longer be paid. The Greek and Bulgarian rebels in Macedonia took advantage of this situation. In June / July 1908 an armed conflict loomed between the constitutionally -minded Young Turks and the Ottoman military. Sultan Abdülhamid II finally gave in to the pressure and put the constitution of 1876 suspended in 1878 back into force on July 23, 1908. A new government was formed under Kıbrıslı Kâmil Pasha . In the history of the Ottoman Empire, the last era of the empire, the " Second Constitutional Period " ( İkinci Meşrutiyet ) began.
The political power of the Young Turks government relied primarily on the military. In return for the guarantee of military power, spending on the military was increased to such an extent that there were hardly any funds left for building civil institutions or for reforms. The armament was financed mainly through loans from German banks, the weapons were supplied by the German companies Friedrich Krupp AG and Mauser .
| year | Ottoman Empire | Absolutely | Egypt |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1889 | 42.1% | 7.8 million T £ | 4.2% |
| 1900 | 39.0% | 7.2 million T £ | 5.8% |
| 1908 | 34.6% | 9.6 million T £ | 5.0% |
| 1911 | 35.7% | £ 12.6 million | 5.8% |
Balkan Wars and World War I
The first Balkan War (1912–1913) marked the beginning of almost ten years of war in the Ottoman Empire. In the peace treaty of London the empire renounced almost all of its European territories . During the First World War , the Reich tried to counteract the threatening split in the Islamic world by intensifying Islamic propaganda. On November 15, 1914 announced Shaykh al-Islām the Jihad . Opposing propaganda quickly indicated that this had probably happened under German influence. The Ottoman Empire had joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in a " brotherhood in arms ". However, the Ottoman propaganda found little echo in the Islamic world; rather, doubts about the legitimacy of the Ottoman war and even the cultural sovereignty of the country increased.
For centuries the Ottoman Empire only knew Islamic and non-Islamic subjects; ethnic origin only played a subordinate role. Under the rule of the Young Turks, a policy of massive “ Turkization ” began. Citizens of the country should only see themselves as Turks. On April 24, 1915, the Ottoman government arranged for Armenian civilians to be arrested and deported to Constantinople. This policy ultimately resulted in the murder of around 600,000 to 1,500,000 Christian Armenians . About two thirds of the Armenians living on the territory of the Ottoman Empire died as a result of the deportations, which is considered to be the genocide of the Armenians . Genocide of the Assyrians and Arameans also occurred among the Arameans / Assyrians , and the Pontic Greeks were persecuted . On August 1, 1915, the Ministry of the Interior revoked the Armenian Patriarchate and the legal status of the Armenians on the grounds that there were no longer any Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. Especially after the withdrawal of Ottoman troops, Arab newspapers such as al-Manār in Cairo were rather critical of the war and were appalled by the "slaughter and mass murder of the Armenians" under the Young Turks' government. The First World War ultimately not only led to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, but also to the end of the centuries-old alliance of Arabs and Turks in the Islamic world. After Mehmed V died on July 3, 1918, his brother Mehmed VI followed him . Vahideddin after. He responded to all demands of the victorious powers. In November 1918 they occupied a large part of the Ottoman Empire. The " Young Turkish Triumvirate " ( Cemal Pascha , Talât Pascha and Enver Pascha ) was dismissed and fled. After the abolition of the sultanate in November 1922, Mehmed VI left. Constantinople and went into exile.
Division of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War
With the division of the empire in the French-British Sykes-Picot Agreement , new nation states arose after the end of the First World War, but also conflicts that were to determine the further course of history in the 20th century.
As early as 1916, the Hashemite emir of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali, had proclaimed himself king of Arabia. He was eventually recognized as King of the Hejaz . The Lebanon was from 1860 to 1916 an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire. From 1920 he was a French mandate area . As État de Grand Liban , the area was part of the League of Nations mandate for Syria and Lebanon and was significantly expanded by areas in the west. While the coastal region was predominantly inhabited by Christian Maronites , the newly allocated areas of the Lebanon Mountains , the fertile Bekaa plain , the Anti-Lebanon mountain range and the Hermon were mostly Muslim. In 1926 Lebanon achieved a certain degree of independence as a republic, and in 1943 the state declared itself independent.
According to the resolutions of the San Remo Conference (1920), Jordan was initially annexed to the British Mandate of Palestine . In 1923 the areas east of the Jordan were combined under the British Protectorate in the emirate of Transjordan . Abdallah ibn Husain became head of state. With the end of the British mandate in 1946, Jordan gained full independence. Abdallah ibn Husain accepted the title of king. In the Balfour Declaration of 1917 it was formulated that Great Britain would have a positive view of a “national home” for the Jews in Palestine .
Mesopotamia was of particular economic and political importance for Great Britain because of its oil deposits and its location on the old trade routes to India . The area was divided into three provinces (Vilâyet) in the Ottoman Empire. In Baghdad Vilayet lived Jews, Christians and Muslims in Mosul Vilayet were Kurds , in Basra Vilayet Shiite Muslims, the majority population. Mediated by Gertrude Bell , Great Britain tried to combine the three Vilâyet into an autonomous Kingdom of Iraq that was loyal to Great Britain . The kingdom was to be ruled by the Sunni King Faisal I , son of Hussein ibn Alis , the Emir of Mecca and King of the Hejaz, who fought together with the British officer TE Lawrence in the Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire. The domestic political situation of the Kingdom of Iraq , which existed from 1921 to 1958, remained difficult because the dynasty was neither ethnically nor religiously rooted in the population. In 1958, the king was a military coup deposed and proclaimed a republic. The situation in the artificial state structure remained uneasy until the invasion of American troops in 2003 and until today under the terror of the organization "Islamic State" .
The Treaty of Sèvres , which was overtaken by the events of the war and never ratified , provided for autonomy for Kurdistan under Article 62 , as well as a possible state independence of the Kurds in southeastern Anatolia in Article 64 . In addition, the Assyrians / Chaldeans , who have lived in this area for centuries, have been given explicit minority protection. The Armenians should also get an independent state. This decision was no longer included in the Treaty of Lausanne , so that the Kurdish people only enjoy partial autonomy within the Iraqi Autonomous Region of Kurdistan . Efforts to found an independent Kurdish state have so far failed.
Islamic areas under Soviet rule
The region Turkestan corresponds to a not clearly defined Central Asian region stretching from the Caspian Sea in the west to the former Russian-Chinese border in the desert Gobi extended to the east. While eastern Turkestan remained assigned to the Chinese province of Xinjiang , parts of western Turkestan had been annexed by the Russian Empire in the 18th century.
Islam played a unifying role in the ethnically inhomogeneous society of Turkestan. The Persian and Chagatai Language lost with the integration into Russian administrative structures under military dominance position as the leading literary language in favor of Russian . Similar to the situation in other regions under colonial administration, the elites of Turkestan pursued a policy of approximation and participation in the ruling state power, but at the same time led to a general feeling of alienation from Islamic roots.
In 1916, an uprising broke out after a decree by the Russian Foreign Minister Boris Stürmer was supposed to include Muslim men in military service for the first time. The uprising was quickly put down by military means, but it led to an irreconcilable antagonism between the tsarist empire and the urban nationalists of Turkestan, who joined the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution . Between 1917 and 1920 there was the autonomous Alasch Orda state in the northern steppe zone of Western Turkestan , south of which the Kokander autonomous area founded by members of the Alasch party . In the west the Soviet People's Republics Bukhara and Khorezmia as well as the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Turkestan were formed. From this further new republics emerged between 1924 and 1936.
In contrast to the nationalists of the big cities (Samarqand, Tashkent), the Basmači militia was influenced by traditionally minded scholars and Sufi orders , who resisted Soviet rule in the areas around Ferghana , Khiva and Bukhara . There Enver Pasha attempted to win the Basmachi movement for the Pan-Turkish idea and with their help to establish a new caliphate based in Samarkand . However, he did not succeed in organizing the individual resistance groups of the Basmachi militarily. On August 4, 1922, Enver Pasha was shot dead by Red Army soldiers near Dushanbe .
In 1927, a year before the Turkish script was converted, the Communist Party had enforced a Latin script that was binding for all Muslim peoples, thereby severing the cultural ties between Turkestan and the Islamic world. From 1928, especially in Tatarstan, a policy of active “de-Islamization” began. Especially after 1932, leading intellectuals were arrested or executed, large numbers of Islamic courts and schools were closed, the legal institution of the Waqf was abolished and family law was de-Islamicized. Collective deportations and the Russian policy of colonization largely ousted Islam from public life until the early 1940s.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union , the states of Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan emerged in western Turkestan . In April 1990, it was mainly the Uyghurs in Xinjiang who rebelled against the Chinese central government, demanding independence from China and the establishment of an independent Turkic republic. The uprising was put down by Chinese troops.
Islamic nation-states in the 20th century
Republics
Turkish Republic
The idea of the secular national state has been implemented most consistently in the history of the Republic of Turkey . It was the goal of the founder of the state, Kemal Ataturk , to transform the multi-ethnic state of the Ottoman Empire into a nation state ( Turkish milliyet ). The basis was the common language and history of the country. The language and writing reform as well as the Turkish thesis of history served to strengthen Turkish nationalism. Islam has been replaced by a secularist, nationalist identity. However, the existence of non-ethnic Turks has been denied and suppressed. Turkey granted minority rights only partially. Every citizen who called himself a Turk was accepted as such. Kemal's nationalism rejected both Turanism and Pan-Islamism .
Rif Republic in Northern Morocco
The republican tradition in Morocco was rooted in the independence of individual Berber tribes. After the First World War, Morocco was colonized by French and Spanish colonists. The French consul general Hubert Lyautey set up a French administrative structure parallel to the Moroccan one and was able to achieve tax sovereignty over most of the Berber tribes with military support. Spain, too, tried on the basis of the Treaty of Fez of March 30, 1912 and the Franco-Spanish Treaty of November 27, 1912, to extend their rule to the entire area in northern Morocco that was assigned to them. In 1926 they finally succeeded in conquering the entire protectorate area starting from their old bases on the coast . They also used chemical weapons against their opponents .
Led by ʿAbdu l-Karīm al-Ḫaṭṭābī (1882–1963), the Moroccan opposition movement founded the “Confederative Republic of the Tribes of the Rif ” in September 1923 and gained control of northern Morocco in the Rif War (1921–1926) . With the intention of completely liberating Morocco from colonial rule, the Kabyle troops invaded the French protectorate in 1923. The French army under Marshal Philippe Pétain , however, stopped their advance in front of Fez and Meknes , while at the same time Spanish soldiers oppressed the army of al-Ḫaṭṭābīs from the north. On May 25, 1926, al-Ḫaṭṭābī surrendered and was exiled with some relatives to the island of Reunion.
In contrast to Kemal Ataturk , al-Ḫaṭṭābī could not establish a permanent republican order. The reason for this is the lack of political representation comparable to a national congress. This could have included not only the traditional institutions of the Berber tribes based on tribal ties and aristocratic relationships, but also the European educated and nationalistically minded city citizens. They saw their mostly Arab culture better protected under the French protectorate than in a Berber republic, and more likely to support the ideas of the Salafiyya . This group viewed the traditional Islamic scholarship of the al-Qarawīyīn University and the Sufi centers as their opponents rather than the French colonial power, whose language had been the prestigious language of modernity since the 19th century.
Monarchies
Saudi Arabia
1744 called Muḥammad Ibn Saʿūd (1726-1765), who had entered into a close alliance with Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb , the " Emirate of Naǧd ". Led by imams , it lasted until the Ottoman conquest under Ibrahim Pasha in 1818. Emir Abd al-Aziz II. Ibn Saud (ruling from 1902) once again used Wahhabi fundamentalism for military expansion in Arabia. The conquered areas were united to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on September 23, 1932. In the constitution of 1992 absolutism was established as a form of government. The Hanbali Islam in the strictly conservative expression of Wahhabism plays a major role in Saudi Arabia. Due to the strict interpretation of Sharia law in the judiciary , the rights of women and religious minorities in the country are restricted.
Jordan
After the First World War, Jordan was annexed to the British Mandate of Palestine in accordance with the decisions of the Conference of San Remo (1920) . In 1923 the areas east of the Jordan were combined under the British Protectorate in the emirate of Transjordan . Abdallah ibn Husain became head of state. With the end of the British mandate in 1946, Jordan gained full independence. Abdallah ibn Husain accepted the title of king.
Under the Constitution of 1952, Jordan is a constitutional monarchy of the Hashemite dynasty . The king is head of state, commander-in-chief of the armed forces and appoints the prime minister and the council of ministers. The parliament consists of the House of Representatives with 110 members elected for four years (9 seats reserved for Christians , 3 for Circassians and 6 for women) and the Senate with 40 members who are appointed by the king for eight years. Women and men have the right to vote from the age of 18. The state religion is Islam, other religious communities can be recognized. In the legal system, which is based on the British model, there are not only civil courts but also sharia courts , which can be invoked in private law disputes among Muslims.
Morocco
In 1956 Morocco gained independence from France and Spain. In 1957 Mohammed V (1927–1961) accepted the title of king. His son and successor Hassan II pursued a foreign policy orientated towards the West with strong ties to France and the Europe of the later EC . In 1971/72 and 1983 attempts to establish a republic failed . Morocco is a constitutional monarchy, the current head of state since July 24, 1999 King Mohammed VI. is from the Alawid dynasty .
Nation states around the middle of the century
Arab socialism and pan-Arabism
As significant as the religious reform movements within Islam were to be in the long term, many countries with an Islamic majority were led by a new class of secular nationalists in the middle third of the 20th century. The most significant innovations of this period include the expansion of general education, the organization of public welfare, and new forms of political organization. Although the new leaders professed their belief in Islam, they oriented their policies more towards the concepts of Arab socialism , emphasizing national identities.
In 1919 the first Arab communist parties emerged in Palestine. Egypt's first socialist party was founded in 1921, and in 1922 Husni al-Urabi founded the first communist party, a member of the Comintern . In the 1920s the movement split into social democratic, national and Islamic directions. The nationalist Arab Socialists, supported by the military, became the central trend after 1936. In 1941–1947, Michel Aflaq and Salah ad-Din al-Bitar founded the Ba'ath Party , which in 1953 merged with Al-Haurani's Arab Socialist Party. One of the largest communist parties outside the Eastern Bloc was active in Indonesia in the 1950s .
Arab socialism reached the peak of its public impact in the mid-1950s, when officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser came to power in Egypt in a coup. The “Charter of National Action” of Egypt (1962) and the Egyptian Constitution of 1964 were fundamental here. Gamal Abdel Nasser, after taking power in 1954, represented the concept of pan-Arabism or “Arab nationalism”. The Arab nationalists movement was also based on the ideology of Nasserism . The attempt to unite Egypt and Syria to form the United Arab Republic , however, failed after a short time.
In response to the founding of the United Arab Republic, the Iraqi King Faisal II and his Jordanian cousin Hussein I founded the Arab Federation in February 1958 , which only existed for six months. Another representative of the pan-Arab idea was Libya's revolutionary leader Muammar al-Gaddafi , who spoke out in favor of a federation of Arab republics , but also proposed numerous Libyan-Arab-African unification projects. From 1975 Gaddafi published his goals and views in his Green Book .
After the Six Day War in 1967, Arab nationalism lost ground to Islamic fundamentalism . With the increasing power of the Nasserists and later the Baathists, Arab nationalism developed into an instrument of oppression against the national minorities in the Arab countries.
Independence of the Maghreb states
Sonderweg in Iran under the Pahlavi dynasty
Since the Constitutional Revolution of 1906, the political order in Iran has been based on the constitutional monarchy . This constitution was in effect until the Islamic Revolution. The parliament consisted of two chambers, the Majles and the Senate . The deputies of the Majles (Majles Schora Melli) were elected by the people, the deputies of the Senate were each elected half or appointed by the Shah . Both houses were involved in the legislation. However, the active political role in the legislation was played by the Majles. According to the constitution, the Shah was the monarch at the head of the administration, the diplomatic service and the military. He had the right to appoint and dismiss ministers and to enforce the laws passed by the parliamentary chambers by means of his own decrees and implementing provisions.
On October 31, 1925, the Iranian Majles Reza Chan proclaimed the ruler of Iran as Reza Shah Pahlavi . During his reign, the military had extensive powers. Funded by the proceeds from oil production, Reza Shah carried out a series of reforms between 1926 and 1928, based on the military. This also included the ban on the traditional nomadic way of life and clothing, as well as a legal system that was independent of Islamic law. In the military dictatorship of the Pahlavi dynasty, popular approval was neither intended nor expected.
The White Revolution was a reform program that was presented by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi based on plans by Ali Amini on January 11, 1963, and passed in a referendum on January 26, 1963 . It should modernize Iran and improve the social situation there. A special task was the implementation of a land reform , with which the feudal system was to be abolished and land to be redistributed from the large landowners to the farmers. Women's rights were strengthened, state industrial companies were to be privatized, and workers and employees were to share in the profits. Illiteracy should also be combated.
Middle East conflict
Political Organizations
Framework conditions: population growth, urbanization, literacy
Around the middle of the 20th century, there was a very strong increase in the population in many Islamic countries, as well as increasing migration to urban agglomerations. In particular, the successful programs for mass education, access to communication media and growing visible consumption also led to an increasing disappointment of large sections of the population who felt excluded from this development. The reforms of social life also led to the destruction of the social structures that had previously ensured the survival of the urban poor and the rural population: In many countries, religious institutions and educational establishments were excluded from the reforms, where those disappointed with the promises of modernity now increasingly turned to.
Political Organizations
Progressive urbanization, increasingly intensive communication by means of printed media, as well as the significantly expanded access to education in the middle of the 20th century had considerable consequences for the Islamic world: in Indonesia, for example, the rate of illiteracy fell from 60 to 10% between 1965 and 1990, im During the same period, the rate of university graduates rose from 4 to 30%. Islamic student organizations have existed in almost every university in the Islamic states since the early 1980s. These were shaped by the reform ideas of the early 20th century: The Dar ul-Ulum Deoband made intensive use of cheap printing technology to disseminate their ideas and the fatwas of their center for religious opinion -forming ( dār al-iftā ). The Salafiyya movement, which emerged from the reform concepts of al-Afghani and Abduh, mainly reached the intellectuals of North Africa and the Middle East through its books and magazines.
In the 20th century, organizations such as the Tablīghi Jamāʿat and the Nahḍat al-ʿulamāannen gained millions of members; The latter founded its own political party in Indonesia in 1945, the Masyumi , which existed until 1984. The Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa has existed as the political arm of Nahḍat al- ʿulamāʾ since 1998 . During the 1970s, al-Azhar University was a major intellectual center for movements in West Africa. Since the Islamic Revolution in Iran, the Islamic Theological College of Qom has gained in importance, especially for the spread of Shiism in Senegal, Nigeria and other African countries. The leading Islamic thinker Raschid al-Ghannuschi received his education at the University of Ez-Zitouna in Tunis. Like him, the Indonesian scholar Nurcholis Madjid came from a simple, religious background.
Consequences of the Great Depression in 1929 and the Conception of an Islamic Economy
The economic crisis of 1929 hit those Islamic countries particularly hard whose production of goods had been converted from a predominantly subsistence economy into a production of raw materials and "colonial goods" oriented towards the needs of the European powers. The general decline in the price of raw materials resulted in a considerable drop in consumption in Islamic countries. This led to an impoverishment of the service sector , heavy losses in the agricultural sector and ultimately to the rural exodus of the rural population. Informal settlements ( ʿašwāʿīyāt ) emerged in the cities ; the first closed slum was built in 1934 in Casablanca. For the residents of these quarters, this meant breaking away from the previous rural tradition, as well as withdrawing from colonial society and the discourse of the urban Islamic elite.
| country | Export product | 1928 | 1930 | 1932 | 1935 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Egypt (£ 1000) | cotton | 45,138 | 23,788 | 17,866 | 26,413 |
| Turkey (1000 TL) | tobacco | 54,196 | 43,160 | 27,140 | 18950 |
| Algeria (£ 1000) | Grain | 18,756 | 8,285 |
The Shiite Grand Ayatollah and economic theorist Muhammad Baqir as-Sadr (1935–1980 / 81) took up Maududi's ideas . In his work "Our Economy" ( Arabic اقتصادنا, DMG Iqtisaduna ) he lays the theoretical foundations for an Islamic banking and economic system as an Islamic alternative to both capitalism and socialism . He rejects socialism because Islam distinguishes between people and Allah as ruler, so a distinction must be made between public and private property. Likewise, it is opposed to capitalism, since all property is ultimately given by God, so that the rights and obligations for both private and public property are determined by Islam. An Islamic economy, on the other hand, is derived from religion and is therefore justified independently of any other economic system.
Islamic fundamentalism
The orthodox Islamic reform movements and Islamic modernism form the intellectual background on which a new group of publicists, journalists, students and academics developed a radical Islamic ideology that consciously opposed the secular ideologies of liberalism and nationalism. This way of thinking was encouraged by the experience of being uprooted from traditional rural structures and the lack of participation in the consumption of the established colonial urban society. In this situation they used the Islamic symbolism and language that had already been worked out by the Salafiya and especially through the works of al-Afghani , ʿAbduh and Ridā . They equated their situation with the early Islamic period and interpreted their withdrawal from the society of urban colonial modernity as Hejra .
Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi and the Jamaat-e-Islami
A forerunner of this fundamentalist way of thinking was the Pakistani journalist and politician Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi (1903–1979), founder of the Jamaat-e-Islami party and an important contributor to the Pakistani constitution . In his opinion, a revival of Islam is impossible without the establishment of an Islamic state of God ( ḥukūmat-i ilāhiya )
Hasan al-Bannā, the Muslim Brotherhood and Sayyid Qutb
Two decades later, after his works had been translated into Arabic in the 1960s, Maududi's ideas gained considerable social significance under the impact of social changes: In 1928, Hasan al-Bannā founded the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt . The brotherhood only achieved ideological unity with the works of Sayyid Qutb .
Qutb applied the term jahiliyya , the state of pre-Islamic “delusion” to the current situation in the Islamic world. His term hākimiyyat Allah denotes the absolute sovereignty of God, which opposes any form of nation-state, democracy or popular sovereignty. His books signs on the way ( Arabic معالم في الطريق, DMG maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq ) and In the shadow of the Koran (في ظِلال القُرآن / Fī ẓilāl al-qurʾān ) made a decisive contribution to shaping the following Islamist groups.
Islamic awakening
From a Western perspective, the two most important events that sparked the resurgence of Islam were the oil embargo and the rise in oil prices in the mid-1970s, and the Iranian revolution in Iran in 1979, which resulted in an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini . Saudi Arabia , Kuwait and Libya used some of the profits from the oil trade to fund Islamic books, madāris and mosques around the world. After the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan , the United States , Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States formed a coalition, and a large part of the funds raised went to support the Afghan Muǧāhid . After the Islamic Revolution, Iran supported Shiite groups, especially in southern Lebanon. More important for the Islamic world, however, was the realization that the westernization of the Muslim countries is not irreversible.
Petroleum export and arms import
With the economic boom that began in the 1960s, global oil consumption rose by around 80% between 1965 and 1973. In response to the Yom Kippur War (October 1973), the OAPEC states announced an increase in crude oil prices on October 16, 1967 and shortly afterwards suspended oil deliveries to the USA and the Netherlands because of their support for Israel . This led to the 1973 oil price crisis in the countries of the Western world and showed that the political disputes in the Middle East conflict were directly related to the development of the world economy. In the decades that followed, both the production volume and the price of crude oil rose almost continuously.
.svg)
| Rank (2012) |
country | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Saudi Arabia | 192.2 | 509.8 | 342.6 | 455.0 |
| 6th | Iran | 191.6 | 74.2 | 162.8 | 189.4 |
| 7th | UAE | 36.9 | 84.2 | 107.5 | 123.1 |
| 8th. | Kuwait | 151.8 | 86.8 | 46.8 | 109.1 |
| 9. | Iraq | 76.3 | 131.1 | 105.3 | 128.8 |
| 16. | Qatar | 18.1 | 23.7 | 21.1 | 36.1 |
| 18th | Algeria | 48.2 | 51.8 | 57.5 | 66.8 |
| 19th | Libya | 159.5 | 88.3 | 67.2 | 69.5 |
| 21st | Oman | 16.4 | 14.1 | 34.2 | 47.6 |
| 23. | Indonesia | 43.1 | 79.0 | 74.4 | 71.5 |
| 26th | Egypt | 16.4 | 29.8 | 45.5 | 38.8 |
| 36. | Turkmenistan | 15.0 | 8.0 | 5.7 | 7.2 |
| 38. | Yemen | 0.0 | 0.0 | 8.7 | 21.3 |
| 39. | Syria | 4.2 | 7.9 | 20.2 | 27.3 |
The increasing income from crude oil production not only influenced the international markets, but also accelerated restructuring processes within the Islamic countries. The increasing demand for labor led to the immigration of workers from the Arab world, Pakistan and later the Philippines. The workers transferred part of their wages back to their home countries and influenced the markets there. The structure of migration, media and capital transfers within the Islamic world was reoriented and now re-focused on the Gulf States and Libya, with the puritanical Wahhabism of Saudi Arabia in particular gaining importance in the discourse on societal values.
In the early 1970s, political power in Islamic countries such as Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia was largely based on the military. The share of military spending in the national budget was between 30 and 60% in these countries as well as in the Gulf States, Syria, Pakistan and Northern Yemen. From 1972 to 1976, spending on arms purchases rose dramatically, especially in the Middle East, remained almost constant in 1976–1980, and then rose again as a result of the Iran-Iraq war. In 1982 the Middle East was the world's main buyer for arms. 42% of all arms shipments and 51% of shipments to developing countries went to the Middle East this year. In 1982, the countries of this region and the Gulf States dominated the list of the ten countries with the highest military expenditure compared to the total national budget. The foreign exchange for these weapons purchases mostly came from trading in oil, so that part of the capital invested in buying oil flowed back into the western countries.
The effects of these massive arms purchases were serious: on the one hand, the military in the affected countries was often withdrawn from democratic control and served to maintain power for authoritarian regimes, on the other hand, ethnic or social groups within a society were increasingly able to arm themselves.
Islamic Revolution in Iran 1979
Gulf Wars
Historical background
Modern Iraq emerged when large parts of the former Ottoman Empire were divided up between the victorious powers Great Britain and France after the First World War through the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. The newly formed Iraq also inherited the border conflicts on its eastern border. The Iraq , Transjordan and Palestine came under British, Syria and Lebanon under French mandate administration.
Kuwait belonged before the First World War to Basra Vilayet , an administrative unit within the Ottoman Empire , the territorial but not with the territory of the southern Iraqi province of Basra is identical. Kuwait never belonged to the state of Iraq, which was only founded after the First World War. After the emirate gained independence from Great Britain in 1961, Iraq tried in vain to prevent its entry into the UN and the Arab League . In 1963 Iraq recognized Kuwait's independence, but subsequently border disputes arose again and again because the border between the two states was never clearly defined.
Course and consequences
In the first Gulf War (1980–1988), Iraq under Saddam Hussein had good relations with the United States and Europe , especially France and Germany . Against the background of possible Soviet influence, but mostly out of fear of an expansion of the Islamic revolution in Iran to the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq received military and technological support in the first Gulf War between Iran and Iraq. Serious human rights violations such as the poison gas attack on Halabja (March 1988) did not lead to effective protests from the western world.
In the Second Gulf War (1990–1991), a coalition of a total of 34 countries, including the United States and the Arab League, thwarted the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq. The background to the war was Iraq's attempt to reduce the burden of its foreign debts (especially with the neighboring states of the Arab League) by putting pressure on the organization of oil-exporting countries and in particular on the creditor state Kuwait. The historically inadequate demarcation between the two countries played a propaganda role. From a political point of view, the end of the Cold War was of immediate importance. In addition to the damage caused by the war, the war itself had an impact on numerous aspects of international and Iraqi politics, above all on the conduct of the war and the political role of the media in the Western states involved.
In contrast to the Second Gulf War, the Iraq War (2003–2011) was not supported by a UN mandate , but is viewed as an illegal military invasion of the United States , Great Britain and a “ coalition of the willing ” into Iraq. The reason was - in addition to a required immediate reaction to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 , the alleged production of chemical and biological weapons, which were supposed to justify a preventive war. Even after the officially announced end of the war in 2003, Iraq remained occupied until 2011 . The expansion of the Islamic State organization during the 2014 Iraq crisis is seen in part as a consequence of the Iraq war.
Islam as an ideology
The political formation in the period of the Islamic Awakening took place against the background of a declaration of bankruptcy by both the socialist and capitalist states, but above all in a deliberate demarcation from the aggressively secular, Marxist-totalitarian regimes of the 1960s and 1970s in the countries of the Middle Ages East. The appropriation of the political myth of the revolution , paradoxically a term that stems more from Western history, no longer remained mere theory, but resulted in revolutionary radicalization. In contrast to the traditional legal understanding of ʿUlamā ' , a new understanding of Islam had developed among the intellectuals of the Islamic world: religion served as a system of ideas and values according to which society could be transformed. As an ideology, Islam was no longer in competition with other religions such as Judaism or Christianity, but with secular worldviews. The idea that all ideologies ultimately culminated in Islam as the desired final social state can already be found in Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi's work , whose idea of an Islamic state of God ( ḥukūmat-i ilāhiya ) underlies the state idea of Pakistan . The implementation of this ideology in social reality has been called “Islamization” or “following Sharia”. In 1971, the Libyan politician Maḥmūd Nākū 'coined the catchphrase “Islam is the solution” ( al-islām huwa al-ḥall ), which was subsequently taken up and propagated by Mahmud Taleghani and Gamal al-Banna , among others .
Egypt
The search for an authentic Islam had led Sayyid Qutb to a fundamentalist understanding of Islam, according to which religion was the exclusive basis and lawfulness of politics. The true believer must reject all human laws and governments. He had to withdraw from the deluded world of the Jāhilīya and restore the true Islamic society according to the old patterns of the original Arab expansion: through retreat ( hejra ) and return following the example of the prophet, jihad , and the achievement of power.
The utopia of a unified Islamic state is to be understood against the background of the equally monolithic, secular Egyptian state under Gamal Abdel Nasser . The new idea of the rule of God ( ḥākimiyya ) on the basis of the Sharīʿa represents a further development of the ideas of Maududi , who coined the term "ḥākimiyya", in whose concept of an Islamic constitutionalism the revolutionary war to recapture the blinded Jāhilīya had played no role. The idea of a revolution can be found neither with the medieval Hanbalites , nor with the orthodox reformers of the Salafiya . A historical correspondence can be found, as religious scholars at al-Azhar University found, most likely with the Kharijites of the 6th and 7th centuries.
The new revolutionary radicalism is first apparent from the justification for the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in 1981 in Muhammad Abd al-Salam Faradschs book the neglected duty ( The neglected duty ):
"The idols of this world can only be driven out by the power of the sword."
Iran and Lebanon
In contrast to the situation in Egypt, Islamic clergy played an important role in the Islamic Revolution of 1979. Clerical intellectuals like Mahmud Taleghani (1911 / 14–1979) and Murtada Mutahhari had prepared the ground for the revolution against the Shah in their writings. Ruhollah Khomeini had already presented his concept of the rule of the clergy, Welāyat-e Faqih , in 1970 while in exile in Najaf . Khomeini's success is partly explained by the fact that he was able to rely on a Shiite hierarchy in Iran that was independent of the state. The Shiite Hezbollah in Lebanon, founded in 1982, did not have this available.
Islamist terrorism after 1989
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the “third wave of democratization ”, political Islam was again subject to change. On the one hand, there was a globalization of revolutionary radicalization and a globalization of the concept of jihad; on the other hand, political Islam was oriented away from the state towards civil society. The United States came to the fore, as the remaining global superpower first actively and visibly intervened in the conflicts in the Islamic world during the First Gulf War.
al-Jihad
In 1967, in the tradition of fighting the nation state in the tradition of Sayyid Qutb , the organization Tan alīm al-Jihād was founded in Egypt with the participation of Aiman az-Zawahiri . One of their original goals was to recapture Jerusalem, which was lost to Israel in the Six Day War . With the declaration of jihad against the Soviet Union after the intervention in Afghanistan and the recruitment of fighters throughout the Islamic world, political violence and transnational Islamist terrorism were largely legitimized. With the dissolution of Yugoslavia, militant Islamists from Afghanistan and other countries rallied to fight in the Yugoslav War (1992–1996) and then moved on to the Second Chechen War (1999–2009).
al Qaeda
In the late 1990s, Osama bin Laden returned to Afghanistan and founded the “World Islamic Front for Jihad against Jews and Crusaders”, which Aiman az-Zawahiri also joined. In accordance with Sayyid Qutb's idea of the “spearhead of Islam”, bin Laden structured the organization as a global “counter-elite” that should proceed methodically according to rules: “ Al-Qaida ” ( Arabic القاعدة, DMG al-qāʿida 'basis, foundation'). The aim of the organization is global jihad using terrorist means against the USA and Israel; bin Laden himself spoke of a "crusade" by these countries against Islam, against which the Islamic world must defend itself. The anti-Semitic character of Al Qaeda is also a legacy of Sayyid Qutb's ideology.
Ambivalent positions between fundamentalism and modernity
Muslim Brotherhood
Founded in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna in Egypt , the Muslim Brotherhood ( Arabic الإخوان المسلمون, DMG al-ʾiḫwān al-muslimūn "Ichwan") is one of the most influential Sunni - Islamist movements in the Middle East . There are sub-organizations in Syria and Jordan . The Ennahda and Hamas (Algeria) organizations are part of the governments of Tunisia and Algeria . In Gaza , its subsidiary Hamas established an Islamist dictatorship, while the Libyan Justice and Building Party was one of the main factions in the Second Libyan Civil War . The National Congress Party ruling in Sudan also invokes the Muslim Brotherhood. Before Mohammed Morsi's presidency in Egypt from 2012–2013, some observers viewed the Muslim Brotherhood as a comparatively moderate and de-radicalized political and social formation. It was seen as a conservative Islamic organization that rejected violence and “global jihad ” and found itself in a process of de-ideologization. After the upheaval in Egypt in 2013 , the Muslim Brotherhood was banned in Egypt and classified as a terrorist organization.
Sudan: Hasan at-Turabi
In the public statements of the Sudanese politician Hasan at-Turabi (1932–2016), Islamist-conservative views mix with pluralistic views. From 1979 to 1985 he supported, partly in political offices, the nationalist regime of the Jafar an-Numairi , which had come to power through a military coup, and was oriented towards socialist and pan-Arabist ideas of Middle Eastern rulers , and in September 1983 he also turned to one Islamist state with Sharia-oriented legislation and in 1985 approved the execution of the reformist Mahmud Muhammad Taha .
His National Islamist Front (NIF) party, founded in 1985, supported the 1989 military coup of General Umar al-Bashir , who ruled in Sudan according to Islamic fundamentalist principles and against which the International Criminal Court (ICC) in The Hague was later warranted for genocide and crimes against humanity and has enacted war crimes in the Darfur conflict . After the NIF was expelled from the government, he supported the movement for justice and equality in the Darfur conflict and maintained contacts with Osama bin Laden .
In his writings and interviews, Turabi showed himself to be reform-oriented, emphasized the Islamic principle of the shura (“advice, consultation”) and supported a more active role for women in public life.
21st century
Protest of the young generation
Since the 1990s, there has been a tendency among the younger generation of Muslims to conclude with the political Islam of the Islamic awakening and to view religion as a prerequisite and standard for a democratic constitutional state.
Iran
Since the early 1990s, the intellectuals Abdolkarim Sorusch and the cleric Muḥammad Mudschtahid-Schabistari have been campaigning for a secular and pluralistic view of Islam in Iran and are thus among the pioneers of President Mohammad Chatami's political reforms (1997-2005). Khatami argued that a democracy in Iran, where the majority of the population could be considered religious, would be a popular rule by nature a "religious democracy" ( mardum-sālārī-yi dīnī ). Khatami was defeated by the conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in the 2005 presidential election . Its re-election triggered weeks of protests on suspicion of election fraud in 2009 . In the 2016 parliamentary elections , the reform parties were able to win 38% of the vote, according to the preliminary results.
Indonesia
As early as the 1970s, Nurcholis Madjid , the head of the Indonesian Islamic Student Movement , had broken with his teacher Mohammad Natsir, one of the most important ideologues of the Masyumi party. He rejected the idea of an Islamic state ( negara Islam ), as it sacred a principally profane idea. The ideas of Madjids found widespread use in the democratization movement after the fall of Suharto in 1998. Since the 1990s, the important organization of the Nahdlatul Ulama under Abdurrahman Wahid has been promoting democracy and bourgeois pluralism.
Islam in the Internet Age
Modern electronic media differ from conventional mass media in several aspects, above all in that they minimize the distance between sender and recipient. Even in the run-up to the Islamic revolution in Iran, Khomeini's speeches on compact cassettes reached wide circles of the Iranian population. Compared to printed media, the cost and knowledge required are significantly lower. The interactive form of electronic communication creates an interactive “ online community ” which enables users to participate directly and in principle on an equal footing, especially transnationally.
Texts of the Koran and the Ḥadith appeared early on in digitized form on the Internet, and newsgroups discussed Islamic topics from everyday to religious topics. With the establishment of the World Wide Web in the 1990s, Islamic governments and organizations began to use the Internet, as did political movements such as the Islamic Salvation Front in Algeria and Hezbollah in Lebanon . While only 0.4% of the Arab population used the Internet in 1997, it was 42% in 2014.
Arabic and English-language news channels such as Al Jazeera (from Qatar , since 1996) or al-Arabiya (from the United Arab Emirates , since 2003) cover the entire Islamic world and reach a large number of people daily via satellite and the Internet. The ruling regimes are trying to counter the exchange of views that this has made possible and the organization and consultation of opposition groups through internet censorship, for example in Iran . Terrorist groups also continue to use the possibilities of the Internet for their propaganda.
Arabic spring
On December 17, 2010, protests began in Tunisia against the government of Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali , after Mohamed Bouazizi burned himself to death as a result of police arbitrariness and humiliation. The news spread in a short time using modern communication technology. Within a few weeks, nationwide mass unrest broke out, which over the next few months spread to a number of states in North Africa and the Middle East. The mass protests led to the dismissal and flight of Ben Ali and to the resignation of Egyptian President Husni Mubarak . The President of Yemen , Ali Abdullah Salih , resigned in late 2011 after more than 30 years of rule. In Libya, it came in 2011 to a civil war in which rebels supported by the NATO leader Muammar Gaddafi fell, while in Syria a civil war is still ongoing.
After the revolution in Egypt in 2011 , there was a state crisis in 2013/2014 , which ended in a military coup and new elections. Abd al-Fattah as-Sisi was elected president. Unrest also occurred in Algeria , Bahrain , Djibouti , Iraq , Yemen , Jordan , Kuwait , Morocco , Mauritania , Oman , the Palestinian Territories , Saudi Arabia and Sudan . European protest movements like in Spain also invoked the Arab Spring.
Middle East disintegration
The division of the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, defeated in World War I , into British and French mandate areas hit the Arab countries of the Middle East largely unprepared. For almost a quarter of a century, the states that had emerged without regard to historical or ethnic togetherness were busy gaining their full independence from Europe and finding new identities for their countries.
The disintegration of the old order in the “Arab Spring” did not lead to the formation of pluralist democracies, but intensified the ethnic and religious conflicts in the region: the borders drawn by the victorious powers in 1918 are losing today in the civil war in Syria - with Turkish participation - and in Iraq their validity. On the Persian Gulf face a conflict between Saudi Arabia and Shiite Iran, could be involved in the majority Sunni dominated Turkey. Soldiers and mercenaries from both countries are already facing each other in front of Mosul and around Aleppo . In Iraq, the conflict between the Shiite government and the Sunni people in the north continues. The lack of state organizations and the ongoing violence in the Middle East only allow the clan or tribal association and religion to exist as stable institutions, so that organizations such as the Islamic State (Daesh) continue to gain popularity. In North Africa, Libya is becoming a focal point of international jihadism , and after the lack of reforms, the political situation in Morocco and Egypt is also unstable.
Current developments
History of Islam in individual countries
German-speaking countries
Rest of Europe
- History of Islam in Europe
- History of Islam in Albania
- History of Islam in Bulgaria
- History of Islam in Estonia
- History of Islam in Finland
- History of Islam in France
- History of Islam in Italy
- History of Islam in Moldova
- History of Islam in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus
- History of Islam in Romania
- History of Islam in Russia
- History of Islam in Slovakia
- History of Islam in the Soviet Union
- History of Islam in the Czech Republic and Slovakia
- History of Islam in Ukraine
- History of Islam in Hungary
- History of Islam in Wallachia
Middle East
Asia
- History of Islam in China
- History of Islam in India
- History of Islam in Indonesia
- History of Islam in Japan
- History of Islam in Malaysia
- History of Islam in Papua New Guinea
- History of Islam in Russia
Africa
America and Australia / New Zealand
See also
- Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam in Wikiversity
- Islamic art
- Islamic architecture
- Liberal Movements in Islam
- List of caliphs
- Modern Islamic Philosophy
- Medicine in the Medieval Islamic World
- Timeline of Islamic dynasties
literature
- The New Cambridge History of Islam . 6 volumes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010.
- The Edinburgh History of the Islamic Empires . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2015ff.
- Thomas Bauer : The culture of ambiguity. Another story of Islam. Verlag der Weltreligionen, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-458-71033-2 .
- Lutz Berger: The Origin of Islam. The first hundred years. Beck, Munich 2016.
- Glen W. Bowersock : The Cradle of Islam. Mohammed, the Koran and the ancient cultures. CH Beck, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-406-73401-4 .
- Claude Cahen: Islam I. From the origin to the beginnings of the Ottoman Empire (= Fischer Weltgeschichte , Volume 14). Frankfurt am Main 1968.
- Georg Cavallar : Islam, Enlightenment and Modernity. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2017, ISBN 978-3-17-033933-0 .
- William L. Cleveland, Martin Bunton: A History of the Modern Middle East. 6th edition. Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-0-8133-4980-0 .
- Fred M. Donner : Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA a. a. 2010.
- Werner Ende, Udo Steinbach (ed.): Islam in the present. Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-53447-3 .
- Gerhard Endress : Islam - an introduction to its history. Beck, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-406-42884-3 .
- GE von Grunebaum (ed.): Islam II. The Islamic empires after the fall of Constantinople. (= Fischer Weltgeschichte. Volume 15). Frankfurt am Main 1971; 13th edition, 1999.
- Ulrich Haarmann (ed.): History of the Arab world. Beck, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-47486-1 .
- Albert Hourani : The History of the Arab Peoples. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1997, ISBN 3-596-15085-X .
- Robert G. Hoyland : In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2015.
- Kersten Knipp: Nervous Orient. The Arab world and the modern. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2016, ISBN 978-3-8062-3367-4 .
- Gudrun Krämer : History of Islam. Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-53516-X .
- Bernard Lewis : The Arabs. DTV, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-423-30866-4 .
- Albrecht Noth : The Islamic Orient, basics of its history. Ergon, 1998, ISBN 3-932004-56-6 .
- Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World from 1900 to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-68855-3 .
Web links
- Link collection: Islam, Byzantium and Eastern Europe from the University of Tübingen
- Jeremy Johns: Archeology and the history of early Islam: The first seventy years. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 46, No. 3, 2003, pp. 411–436 (PDF; 1.4 MB)
Individual evidence
- ↑ The structure is based on the New Cambridge History of Islam , Volumes 1–6. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, online , accessed February 18, 2016
- ↑ Thomas Bauer : Why there was no Islamic Middle Ages. The legacy of antiquity and the Orient . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72730-6 .
- ↑ Albert Hourani : The History of the Arab Peoples, updated 2013 edition . S. Fischer, 1991, ISBN 978-3-596-29670-5 , pp. 123 .
- ^ David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid: Introduction: Islam in a plural Asia . In: David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid (Eds.): New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 2 : The Eastern Islamic world - Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0 , pp. 1 .
- ↑ Linda T. Darling: Public finances: The role of the Ottoman center . In: Suraiya N. Faroqhi (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Turkey . tape 3 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-62095-6 , pp. 65-80 .
- ^ Robert W. Hefner: Muslims and modernity: Culture and society in an age of contest and plurality . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 2-3 .
- ↑ Ibn al-Sharazuri, Eerik Dickinson (trans.): An Introduction to the Science of the Hadith: Kitab Mar'rifat Anwa '' Ilm Al-Hadith . Garnet publishing, Reading, UK 2006, ISBN 978-1-85964-158-3 , pp. xiii .
- ↑ Fuat Sezgin : History of Arabic literature, Volume I: Qur'ānwissenschaften, ḥadīt, history, Fiqh, dogmatics, mysticism. Up to approximately 430 H . Brill, Leiden 1967, ISBN 90-04-04376-4 , pp. 272 .
- ↑ Mohamad Abdalla (2007): Ibn Khaldun on the fate of Islamic science after the 11th century . Islam & Science 5 (1), pp. 61-70.
- ↑ Abdesselam Cheddadi: Introduction . In: Ibn Chaldūn (Ed.): Le Livre des Exemples . tape 1 . Gallimard (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade), Paris 2002, ISBN 978-2-07-011425-2 , pp. XXXIII .
- ↑ Ǧamharat an-nasab. The genealogical work of Hišām ibn Muḥammad al-Kalbī . Vol. I. Introduction, panels. Bd. II. Explanations, register. Edited by Werner Caskel and G. Strenziok. Leiden 1966
- ^ Chase F. Robinson : Introduction / The rise of Islam, 600 705 . In: Chase F. Robinson (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-83823-8 , pp. 1-15, 173-225 .
- ↑ William Montgomery Watt , Alford T. Welch: Islam I. Mohammed and the early days, Islamic law, religious life . Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1980, p. 96 f . ( limited preview in Google Book search).
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- ↑ Fred Donner : Modern approaches to early Islamic history . In: Chase F. Robinson (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World. Sixth to Eleventh Centuries . Part VI: The historiography of early Islamic history . Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-51536-8 , pp. 625–648 ( Text Archive - Internet Archive ).
- ↑ Gerald R. Hawting: The idea of idolatry and the rise of Islam: From polemic to history (= Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization ). Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-521-02846-2 .
- ↑ Hans Jansen: Mohammed: a biography . CH Beck, Munich 2008.
- ↑ Patricia Crone: Slaves on Horses. The Evolution of the Islamic Polity . Cambridge University Press, 1980, ISBN 978-0-521-52940-2 , pp. 7, 12, 15 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ^ John Wansbrough: Quranic studies: Sources and methods of scriptural interpretation . Prometheus Books, Amherst NY 1977, ISBN 978-1-59102-201-5 , pp. 43 ff . ( archive.org ).
- ↑ Gerd-Rüdiger Puin: Observations on early Qur'an manuscripts in San'a ' . In: Stefan Wild (Ed.): The Qur'an as text . Brill, Leiden 1996, ISBN 978-90-04-10344-3 , pp. 107–111 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ↑ Fred Donner: Narratives of Islamic origins: The beginnings of Islamic historical writing . Darwin Press, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 1998, ISBN 978-0-87850-127-4 , pp. 60 .
- ↑ Fred Donner: Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam (2010) pp. 59, 68 ff.
- ^ Yehuda D. Nevo: Crossroads to Islam: The origins of the Arab religion and the Arab state . Prometheus Books, Amherst NY 2003, ISBN 978-1-61592-329-8 .
- ^ Karl-Heinz Ohlig, Volker Popp, Christoph Luxenberg (eds.): The early Islam. A historical-critical reconstruction based on contemporary sources . Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-89930-090-1 .
- ^ Christoph Luxenberg: The Syro-Aramaic reading of the Koran. A contribution to the decoding of the Koran . Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8 ( aramaic-dem.org [PDF]). aramaic-dem.org ( Memento of the original from September 23, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Luxenberg (2007), p. 330
- ^ A b Robert Hillenbrand: For God, Empire, and Mammon: Some art-historical aspects of the reformed dĩnārs of ʿ Abd al-Malik . In: Martina Müller-Wiener, Christiane Koche, Karl-Heini Golzio, Joachim Gerlachs (eds.): Al-Andalus and Europe. Between Orient and Occident . Michael Imhof Verlag, Petersberg 2000, ISBN 3-935590-77-6 , p. 20-38 .
- ^ Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire . Oxford University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-991636-8 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
- ^ Jonah Steinberg: Isma'ili Modern. Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community , University of North Carolina Press 2011, p. 37.
- ^ Hermann Kulke: Indian history up to 1750 . Oldenbourg floor plan of history, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-486-55741-6 .
- ↑ Fuat Sezgin : History of Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine - Pharmacy - Zoology - Veterinary medicine . EJ Brill, Leiden 1970, p. 193 .
- ↑ Rudolf Fischer: Islam . Faith and social system through the ages. Edition Piscator, Oberdorf, Switzerland 1992, ISBN 3-906090-25-6 , History of Propagation, p. 70 f .
- ^ André Wink: The early expansion of Islam in India . In: David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid (Eds.): New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 2 : The Eastern Islamic world - Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0 , pp. 78-99 .
- ^ Peter Jackson: Muslim India: The Delhi sultanate . In: David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid (Eds.): New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 2 : The Eastern Islamic world - Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0 , pp. 100-127 .
- ^ Gustave Le Bon (1956): La Civilization des Arabes.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr: Islam: Religion, History and Civilization . HarperCollins Publishers, New York 2003, ISBN 0-06-050714-4 , pp. 143 .
- ↑ Abdur-Rahman et al. (2011). Historical Review of Classical Hadith Literature in Malay Peninsula. International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 11 (2), 1–6 ( Online 1 (PDF), accessed February 22, 2016
- ^ Jonathan Newman Lipman: Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China . University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA 1997, ISBN 0-295-97644-6 , pp. 25 .
- ^ Michael G. Morony: Economic boundaries? Late Antiquity and Early Islam. Journal of the economic and social history of the orient 47, pp. 166–194, here: p. 179, JSTOR 25165033 , accessed March 8, 2016
- ↑ Stefan Heidemann: Settlement patterns, economic development and archaeological coin finds in Bilad al-Sham: the case of the Dinar Mutar - The process of transformation from the 6th to the 10th century AD In: Karin Bartl, Abd al-Razzaq Moaz (ed .): Residences, castles, settlements. Transformation processes from late antiquity to early Islam in Bilad al-Sham . Marie Leidorf, Rahden / Westf. 2009, ISBN 978-3-89646-654-9 , pp. 493–516 , here p. 499 ( aai.uni-hamburg.de [PDF; accessed on March 8, 2016]). aai.uni-hamburg.de ( Memento of the original from May 9, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Albert Hourani : Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, ISBN 978-0-521-27423-4 , pp. 3 .
- ^ Albert Hourani : Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, ISBN 978-0-521-27423-4 , pp. 9 .
- ↑ Ibn Chaldūn: The Muqaddima. Reflections on world history . CH Beck, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-406-62237-3 .
- ↑ a b c d e Edmund Bosworth: The steppe peoples in the Islamic world . In: David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid (Eds.): New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 2 : The Eastern Islamic world - Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0 , pp. 68-71 .
- ↑ Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World from 1900 to the Present . CH Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-68855-3 , p. 74-76 .
- ↑ a b c d e f Robert W. Hefner: Muslims and modernity: Culture and society in an age of contest and plurality . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 3-8 .
- ^ J. Spencer Trimingham : The Sufi orders in Islam . Clarendon Press, Oxford UK 1971 ( archive.org ).
- ↑ al-Māwardī , Léon Ostrorog (transl.): Al-Aḥkām as-sulṭānīya . Ernest Leroux, Paris 1901 ( Text Archive - Internet Archive - French translation: Traité de droit public musulman).
- ^ Albert Hourani : Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-27423-4 , pp. 15-16 .
- ↑ Nizamulmulk, Karl von Schowingen (ed.): The Book of statecraft. Siyasatnama . Manesse, Zurich 1997, ISBN 978-3-7175-8099-7 .
- ↑ See Hugh Kennedy: The Great Arab Conquests . Philadelphia 2007, p. 344ff.
- ^ Giuseppe Simone Assemani : Bibliotheca orientalis III 2, S XCVI
- ↑ See Wolfgang Kallfelz: Non-Muslim Subjects in Islam. Wiesbaden 1995, p. 49ff.
- ^ A b Peter Jackson: Muslim India: The Delhi sultanate . In: David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid (Eds.): New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 2 : The Eastern Islamic world - Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0 , pp. 120-125 .
- ^ Carl W. Ernst: Eternal garden: Mysticism, history and politics at a South Asian Sufi center . SUNY press, 1992, ISBN 978-0-7914-0883-4 , pp. 32-33 .
- ↑ Andalus, al-. In: John L. Esposito (Ed.): Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford University Press. 2003. Oxford Reference Online. Accessed February 22, 2016.
- ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth: Historic Cities of the Islamic World . Brill, Leiden 2007, ISBN 90-04-15388-8 , pp. 258-264 f . ( Full text in Google Book Search).
- ↑ Heinz Halm : The Empire of the Mahdi. The rise of the Fatimids (875–973) . CH Beck, Munich 1991, ISBN 978-3-406-35497-7 , pp. 361-367 .
- ↑ Heinz Halm: The caliphs of Cairo. The Fatimids in Egypt (973-1074) . CH Beck, Munich 2003, ISBN 978-3-406-48654-8 , p. 119 .
- ↑ Heinz Halm: The caliphs of Cairo. The Fatimids in Egypt (973-1074) . CH Beck, Munich 2003, ISBN 978-3-406-48654-8 , p. 245 .
- ^ Peter Lock: The Routledge Companion to the Crusades . Routledge, 2013, ISBN 978-1-135-13137-1 , pp. 180– ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
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- ^ Sylvia Schein: Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099-1187) . Ashgate, 2005, ISBN 978-0-7546-0649-9 , pp. 19 .
- ↑ a b c d e Edmund Bosworth: The steppe peoples in the Islamic world . In: David O. Morgan, Arthur Reid (Eds.): New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 2 : The Eastern Islamic world - Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0 , pp. 37-53 .
- ↑ Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann Katharine Swynford Lambton, Bernard Lewis: The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol 1A . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 1977, ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4 , pp. 231 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ^ Francine Giese-Vögeli: The Islamic rib vault: origin - form - distribution . Gebr. Mann, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-7861-2550-1 , p. 66-88 .
- ↑ Thomas T. Allsen: Changing forms of legitimation in Mongol Iran . In: Gary Seaman, Daniel Marks (Eds.): Rulers from the steppe: State formation and the Eurasian periphery (= Ethnographic monography series . No. 2 ). Ethnographics Press (Univ. Of Southern California), Los Angeles 1991, ISBN 978-1-878986-01-6 , pp. 226-232 .
- ^ David O. Morgan (1996): Mongol or Persian: The government of Īlkhānid Iran. Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 3 (2), pp. 62-76
- ↑ Raschīd ad-Dīn , Wheeler Thackston (transl., Ed.): Dschami 'at-tawarich . Compendium of chronicles: A history of the Mongols. Sources of Oriental languages and literature . Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1998.
- ^ Judith Pfeifer: Conversion to Islam among the Ilkhans in Muslim narrative traditions: The Case of Aḥmad Tegüder, Volume 1 . University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Chicago 2003, p. 226-227 .
- ^ Charles Melville (1990): Pādischāh-i Islām: The conversion of Sultan Maḥmūd Ghāzān Khān. Pembroke Papers 1, pp. 159-177
- ↑ Thomas T. Allsen: Biography of a cultural broker: Bolad H'eng Hsiang in China and Iran . In: Julian Raby, Teresa Fitzherbert (Ed.): The court of the Il-khans 1290-1340 . Oxford University Press, Oxford UK 1996, ISBN 978-0-19-728022-5 , pp. 7-22 .
- ↑ Charles Melville: The oil Khan Öljeitüs conquest of Gilan (1307): Rumor and reality . In: Reuven Amitai-Preiss, David O. Morgan (ed.): The Mongol empire and its legacy . Brill, Leiden 2000, ISBN 978-90-04-11946-8 , pp. 73-125 .
- ^ A b c Roger Savory: Iran under the Safavids . 1st edition. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge [and a.] 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-04251-2 .
- ↑ Annemarie Schimmel : In the Empire of the Mughals. History, art, culture. Munich 2000, p. 7
- ↑ a b c d e Ahmad S. Dallal: The origins and early development of Islamic reform . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 107-147 .
- ^ Ahmad S. Dallal: The origins and early development of Islamic reform . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 124-127 .
- ↑ quoted from Ahmad S. Dallal: The origins and early development of Islamic reform . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 119 .
- ^ Ahmad S. Dallal: The origins and early development of Islamic reform . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 119 .
- ↑ Natana J. Delong-Bas: Wahabi Islam. From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad . Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-533301-5 , pp. 17-93 .
- ^ A b William L. Cleveland, Martin Bunton: A History of the Modern Middle East . 6th edition. 2016, ISBN 978-0-8133-4980-0 , pp. 58-95 .
- ^ Robert W. Hefner: Muslims and modernity: Culture and society in an age of contest and plurality . In: R. Hefner (Ed.): The New Cambridge History of Islam . tape 6 : Muslims and modernity . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-84443-7 , pp. 14-17 .
- ↑ FE Peters: The Hājj: The Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and the holy places . Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-02619-0 , pp. 266-362 .
- ↑ George N. Makdisi: The rise of colleges: Institutions of learning in Islam and the West . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh UK 1981, ISBN 978-0-85224-375-6 , pp. 140 ( archive.org ).
- ↑ William J. Watson: "İbrāhīm Müteferriḳa and Turkish Incunabula", in: Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 88, No. 3 (1968), pp. 435-441, here p. 436 "
- ^ Brinkley Messick: The calligraphic state: Textual domination and history in a Muslim society . University of California Press, Berkeley 1993, ISBN 978-0-520-20515-4 , pp. 115-131 . ebook , accessed March 3, 2016.
- ↑ a b George N. Atiyeh (Ed.): The book in the Islamic world. The written word and communication in the Middle East . State University of New York Press, Albany 1995 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
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- ↑ Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World from 1900 to the Present . CH Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-68855-3 , p. 80-83 .
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- ^ William L. Cleveland, Martin Bunton: A history of the modern Middle East . Perseus Books Group, New York 2016, ISBN 978-0-8133-4980-0 , pp. XIV .
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