Persian architecture
The term Persian architecture describes the architecture in today's Iran and the adjacent areas of the former Persian Empire . As one of the 20 largest countries in the world, Iran has great topographical and climatic diversity, which has influenced the architecture in the different parts of the country. At the same time, the area of today's Iran is located in the center of the Ancient Orient , one of the oldest cultural areas in the world with a continuous history stretching back thousands of years, to which the architecture also testifies.
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Historical overview
Permanent buildings have been around in Iran since humans settled down in the 8th millennium BC. Proven. Already between 3200 and 2800 BC The Elamite Empire existed on the territory of Iran . The Medes united the area around 625 BC. For the first time to one empire. The Achaemenid dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great ruled from what is now southern Iran until the conquest by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. It was followed by the Sassanid Empire , which, between the 3rd and 7th centuries, was one of the most powerful states in the known world alongside the Byzantine Empire . The spread of Islam led to the end of the Sassanid Empire in 651. Persia became part of the Islamic world and was ruled by caliphs . Persian scholars played a decisive role in the heyday of Islam . Seljuks , Mongolian Ilkhans , and the Timurids succeeded each other in rule until 1499 Shah Ismail I founded the Safavid dynasty , which lasted until the 18th century. Persia experienced a heyday of art and architecture under the support of the Safavid rulers. Architectural masterpieces were created that are now part of the world cultural heritage . Under founded in 1794 Qajar dynasty, the political influence of Persia began to take off. The two monarchs of the Pahlavi dynasty pursued a policy of modernization and secularization , partly by instrumentalizing the ancient cultural heritage and at the price of political and social oppression. Social tensions culminated in the Islamic Revolution of 1979.
Epochs
Earliest time: 8. – 1. Millennium BC Chr.
The architectural history of Iran begins with the settling down of people. With the help of archaeological finds, the increasing differentiation and construction of the buildings for different purposes in their historical development can be traced from the earliest times.
The earliest known, archaeologically tangible buildings were uncovered in the Tappe of Ganğ Darreh and in the 8th – 7th centuries. Millennium BC Dated. Small rectangular rooms with rounded corners were created here in four main settlement layers. Rammed earth houses from the 6th millennium BC BC were uncovered in Tappe Sialk in the central Persian city of Kashan. Differentiated architectural elements, such as simple buttresses and projections -like wall projections were in Tappe Zāğeh and in the settlement Chogha Mish demonstrated (Coga Miš). As far as we know today, defensive structures appear for the first time in the 4th millennium, such as in the settlement of Godin VI / V and in the "burned building" in Tappe Hesār IIIB from the 3rd millennium. This building already had towers that could be used for defense. In north-west Iran, walled settlements with the typical round houses of the so-called "Early Transcaucasian Culture" were excavated, which were built in the 3rd millennium BC. Chr. Passed. Settlements and a quarry from the 3rd millennium BC Were found in the southeast Iranian Tappe Yahya ; other important settlements of the Bronze Age existed in Jiroft , today's province of Kerman , and in Schahr-e Suchte in today's province of Sistan and Balochistan . At the Sandal B site near Dschiroft , a two-storey citadel was uncovered on an area of 13.5 hectares.
At the end of the 2nd millennium, more differentiated architectural planning can be demonstrated, the buildings become more spacious and individual areas can be distinguished from one another, such as a courtyard surrounded by a corridor in an early settlement layer of Tal-i Malyan . The architecture uses the conditions given by the terrain to ensure the best possible defense of the building complex by allowing the wall to jump back and forth. Even simple gate systems can now be delimited on the basis of the excavation finds. A separation between the settlement and the elevated fortification (citadel) is just as recognizable as the division of the fortification into an upper, middle and lower castle area. In Haft Tappe and Tschogha Zanbil (Čoġā Zanbil), about 40 km south-east of Susa , ziggurat- like buildings with high terraces indicate a cultic function. Palace buildings have been demonstrated in their immediate vicinity.
Urartians in West Azerbaijan: 9.-6. Century BC Chr.
In the 9th century BC The Urartians also built castles in northwestern Azerbaijan , often in close proximity to agricultural areas, sometimes at high altitudes. Characteristic for the architecture of Urartu is the foundation of the walls made of standardized adobe bricks on a base made of dry masonry, which in turn rested on the rock bed carefully removed in the form of a terrace. Their floor plan was usually rectangular. Regular ashlar walls characterize more important buildings. In the 8th century, the fortresses had alternating small and large bastions; in the 7th century, bastions of equal size were used. From the 7th century onwards, the rock was only removed where walls were actually built.
The presence of differently sized and developed castle complexes indicates that the Urartian buildings served different purposes: larger fortresses with rectangular courtyard buildings could have had military or administrative functions. Small and medium-sized plants, which are often found in the vicinity of a larger one, are viewed as “commercial yards”. One of the largest Urartian fortresses in Iran was Bastam .
Meder: 8.-6. Century BC Chr.
In the 6th century BC A period of transition begins towards the development of the architectural forms typical of the Medes . In the Nuschidschan Tappe (Nuši Ğan Tappe) a fire temple , another temple, which is attached to a building interpreted as Apadana , and a citadel from this period have been preserved. A Median manor in Godin Tappe has a 30-column hall.
The capital of the Medes Empire, Ekbatana , was presumably located near the present-day city of Hamadan , but it has not yet been clearly proven archaeologically. Another important Median city was Anschan . The history of this city goes back to the 6th millennium BC. BC back.
Achaemenids: 559–330 BC Chr.
The ruins of three royal cities are preserved from the Achaemenid Empire : Pasargadae, Persepolis and Susa. Dareios I put in the 5th century BC The Persian King's Road , which connected the capital Susa with Sardis in western Anatolia. A second road across the Zagros Mountains led past Ekbatana and the Darius and Xerxes inscriptions by Ganj Nameh and then passed Bisutun a good 100 km as the crow flies to the southwest , where the Behistun rock relief tells of the victories of Darius in three languages.
Ganj Nameh inscription
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Pasargadae
The oldest royal seat of the Achaemenids was Pasargadae. Important buildings of the 559–525 BC The city, which was expanded in the 4th century BC, includes the monumental gates, the Apadana , as well as the sacred area with the fire temple and the tomb of Cyrus II. The earliest reconstructable Persian gardens were discovered in Pasargadae , whose design principles reflect the architecture of the entire following period, in particular Islamic architecture should shape.
Persepolis
For the great royal palaces in Pasargadae and Susa as well as for the palace city of Persepolis, works of high civilizations were selected, be they Greek, Mesopotamian or Egyptian, and transformed into something very unique. In Achaemenid palaces there are monumental gates with typically Egyptian covings, columns that have Ionic features (and were also created by Ionic stonemasons), Assyrian-Babylonian bas-reliefs and those mythical creatures ( lamassu ) borrowed from Assyrian art , made from winged cattle corpses with bull or Human heads exist and which, arranged in pairs at the gate buildings, took over the function of guards.
An Achaemenid palace district consists of several individual buildings. In the oldest complex of Pasargadae, the widely scattered buildings were part of the first demonstrable Persian Paradeisos , a huge, fenced-in garden with artificial watercourses, lakes, palaces and pavilions. In contrast, the building masses in Persepolis are much closer together and are more closely related. Already in Pasargadae a distinction is made between a residential palace and an audience palace (Apadana) .
The palace buildings consist of a central rectangular hall with walls made of dried clay, the wooden flat roof of which was supported by stone pillars. On at least one, but sometimes on all four sides, there are lobbies that are open to the outside and whose roofs were also supported by columns. In Pasargadae, the central interior towered over the surrounding vestibules so that windows were possible in the upper wall zone. In Persepolis the vestibules and the central portico have become the same height, which makes the former presence of skylights in the roof almost certain.
The last Shah , Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , had parts of Persepolis restored in 1971 to mark the 2500th anniversary of the Iranian monarchy .
Six kilometers north of Persepolis , near Shiraz , is the site of Naqsh-e Rostam . In addition to four graves of Achaemenid great kings and a number of Sassanid rock reliefs, the Kaʿbe-ye Zartuscht can also be found here .
The contact of the Iranian architects with the Asian Minor-Ionic building world was decisive for the Achaemenid palace buildings. Since the stone pillars were combined with a wooden roof beam, inter-columns of 8.65 m were dared in the Apadana of Persepolis. The columns reached a height of 19.25 m with a slenderness of 12 diameters. The result was an interior space of more than 3600 m², full of lightheartedness and grace.
Susa
The history of the settlement of Susa, in the southwest of Iran near the Iraqi border in the province of Chuzestan on the outskirts of today's city of Shush , is documented back to the 4th millennium. From the third to the first millennium BC Susa was an important city of the Elamites . The palace of Darius I is one of the buildings from the Achaemenid period in Susa.
Seleucids, Parthians: 312–63 BC Chr.
In western Iran, the Seleucids succeeded Alexander the great in the place of the Achaemenids . Since 310 BC Chr. Belonged media , Susiane that Persis and Carmania to her kingdom. In contrast to the other important parts of the empire, there was no extensive colonization of the country with Greeks. From 305 BC The eastern Iranian highlands and the Hindu Kush were also under Seleucid rule. The satrapies Parthia and Bactria established there, however, made their way around 246 BC. Chr. Independent. Although nominally they remained Seleucid vassals for a long time, they were never administered directly. Two important empires emerged from Parthia and Bactria, which later extended to Mesopotamia and India, respectively. In 141 BC The Parthians conquered Iran.
An important building of the Parthians is the Great Wall of Gorgan between the Caspian Sea and the Kopet-Dag , whose layout is equivalent to other great ramparts such as the Roman Limes and the Great Wall of China . Fortresses are assigned to the brick wall at regular intervals. Parthian architecture is difficult to distinguish in its form from Seleucid or simple Achaemenid buildings. Buildings from the Seleucid, Parthian and Roman times have been discovered in Dura Europos . Two Parthian rock reliefs can be found at the site of Hung-i Nauruzi .
The ruins of the city of Hatra in today's Iraq posed one of the most important sites of the Parthian period and were part of the World Heritage of UNESCO . The site itself has been controlled by the so-called Islamic State (IS) since summer 2014 . At the beginning of March 2015, the Iraqi Ministry of Culture reported that Hatra was being systematically destroyed with bulldozers and explosives.
Sasanids: AD 224–642
urban planning
Sasanid city complexes followed overarching plans: Firuzabad , the residence city of the founder of the Sassanid Empire, Ardashir I , was originally designed in a circle and surrounded by two mud walls and a 35 meter wide moat. Twenty radial streets led to a tower-like building which, according to Ernst Herzfeld, was probably part of a palace complex or a government building and could be interpreted as a symbol of Ardaschir's centralized worldview. Eight kilometers away, on the bank of the western arm of the Tang-āb River, is the palace of Ardashir I with a pond-like basin and a fire temple .
After its re-establishment by Schapur I. 266, Bischapur received a rectangular floor plan with a chessboard-like city map. The actual city has so far only been explored to a small extent. The ruins of the palace in particular still stand to a considerable height today. The center of the complex was a cross-shaped complex that probably consisted of a courtyard and four ivans . It is the throne room of the palace, in the walls of which there were niches. The whole palace was decorated with mosaics that show stylistically Hellenistic influence. In the vicinity of the city there is a cave with a colossal statue of Shapur I. The city of Gundischapur was also oriented towards a central axis and was built according to a chessboard-like plan.
The twin cities of Seleukia-Ctesiphon in today's Iraq was the main residence of the kings of the Parthians and the Sasanids . After the Persian defeat in the Battle of Kadesia , the city was conquered by the Arabs (around 638) and partially destroyed. Since the founding of Baghdad in 762, the Seleukia ctesiphon fell into disrepair. The only ruin that can be seen today is the Sasanid palace Taq-e Kisra (probably built or completed by Chosrau I ) .
Ivan and dome building
Typical of Sasanian architecture is the shape of the iwan , an open vault, the most impressive example of which is preserved in the Taq-e Kisra. Individual ivans or those set up around a courtyard are typical of Sasanian palace architecture, for example in the palace ruins of Hağiābād and Čal Tarkhan. Dome structures were built using a corner trumpet system, by means of which a round dome shell can be placed on a rectangular substructure . The largest domed building from the Sasanian era is the 18 m high Tschahar Taq of the fire temple of Tschahar Khapu.
Bridges and irrigation systems
The Sasanian architecture also knew bridges for crossing rivers. The most famous bridge is the Band-e Kaisar , a weir with a bridge over the Karun River . The weir was the core of the historic Shushar irrigation system, which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2009 . The stone pillars and breakwaters of the Pol-e Schahrestan - and the Marnan Bridge in Isfahan probably also date from Sasanian times.
Barrel vault in Bishapur
Taq-e Kisra
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Rule of the Caliphs (651–1258) and Seljuq period (1040–1194)
The Arab conquest of Persia in 651 led to the end of the Sasanid Empire and the decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. Persia became part of the Islamic world and was ruled by caliphs . The rule of the caliphs over Persia ended after the Abbasid caliphate was defeated by the Mongol empire under Hulegü with the conquest of Baghdad (1258) .
Early hall mosques
One of the earliest mosques to be built in Iran after the Arab conquest is the Tārichāne mosque in Damghan in the northeastern province of Semnan . Its building type corresponds to that of the classic hypostyle or hall mosque, which is widespread throughout the Islamic world , consisting of an enclosed inner courtyard ( Sahn ) and a roofed prayer hall on a mostly rectangular floor plan. Another Friday mosque (Masjed-e Jāmeʿ) , built in Seljuk times around 1080, is located about 300 meters to the north. Only the minaret remains in its original state.
The classic Ivan Mosque
Erected for the first time in the 9th century, later rebuilt several times, the Friday Mosque of Borudscherd was . With a diameter of 18 m, the Friday Mosque of Qazvin has one of the largest domes from the Seljuk era .
The structures of the cathedral and the ivan were adopted into Islamic architecture from the representative architecture of the Parthians and Sasanids . An iwan is a high hall that is open on one side and is covered by a barrel vault: a square domed hall in connection with an iwan was a characteristic element of the Sassanid palace architecture; the ivan with its raised front wall ( Pishtak ) became the dominant feature of the outer facade. Inside a mosque , the iwan facing the courtyard shows the direction of prayer on the qibla wall. By the beginning of the 12th century, the characteristic Iranian court mosque had developed according to the four-iwan scheme with two iwans facing each other in an axillary cross as the standard. This basic plan also occurs in madrasas , residential buildings and caravanserais , and influenced the later architecture of the Timurid and the Indian Mogul architecture.
South corner of the Tārichāne mosque courtyard with Ivan
Main divan and domed hall of Qazvin Friday Mosque
Non-radial rib vaults
The Friday mosque of Isfahan was extended by the Seljuk vizier Nizām al-Mulk and his rival Taj al-Mulk with two domed buildings in the axis of the courtyard. A few decades later, the hall's beamed ceiling was replaced by hundreds of domes. In a third construction phase, four Iwans were created in the middle of the fronts of the inner courtyard.
Typical of the Islamic East was the non-radial rib vault , a system of intersecting pairs of vaulted ribs covered by a crown dome. These freely erected vaults - without the use of falsework - probably developed from the construction of the fire temples and the Sasanid design of the trumpet dome . Starting with the Friday Mosque of Isfahan, the arch shape can be in the ostislamischen architecture into Safavid time based tracking of key buildings. The main features of this type of vault are:
- A type-defining square of intersecting vault ribs, sometimes formed into an octagonal star by doubling and twisting;
- the elimination of a transition zone between the vault and the support system;
- a crown dome or lantern riding on the rib structure .
In the Seljuk period , the intersecting pairs of ribs still formed the main element of the architectural decor, concealed in the course of architectural history behind additional elements (for example in the dome of the Sultan Sandjar mausoleum in Merw ), and finally, for example in the two-layer vaulting of the Ali-Qapu Palace , disappearing completely behind a purely decorative stucco shell.
Assassin fortifications
The fortresses of the assassins are remarkable because of the optimal use of the area for defense purposes. In 1090 Hasan-i Sabbah took the citadel of Alamut, which was considered impregnable, from the Seljuk governor Mahdi without bloodshed. In the following period, the fortress was the headquarters of the Persian Nizarites , an Ismaili group, for 166 years . The sphere of influence of Hasan-i Sabbah and his successors was later expanded into a network through further fortresses (such as that of Lamasar). These castles (called dar al-hijra ) were used by the Ismailis throughout Persia and Syria as refuge in case of persecution or conflict. As reported by the Jami 'at-tawarich of Rashid ad-Din , Hulegu conquered Alamut in 1256.
Mongolian Ilkhanate (1256–1335) and Timurid Empire (1370–1507)
Persia was invaded by the Mongols between 1219 and 1221 . After 1260 the descendants of Hülagü Chan carried the title " Ilchane ". Towards the end of the 13th century, Ghazan Ilchan built a new capital in Shãm, near Tabriz . With the death of Ilkhan Abu Said Bahatur in 1335, Mongol rule in Persia collapsed and the country fell into political anarchy. In 1381 Timur invaded Persia and founded the Timurid Empire . His successors retained the rule over a large part of Persia until they were subject to the alliance of the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan in 1468 ; Uzun Hasan and his descendants ruled Persia until the rise of the Safavids.
With the mausoleum of Öldscheitü , built between 1302 and 1312 in Soltanije , a central building with a dome from the time of the Ilkhan has been preserved. Parts of the old Armenian Christian monastery of Saint Thaddäus , 20 km south of Maku near Tschaldiran , were built between 1319 and 1329. The altar and main room as well as the baptistery have been preserved from this phase . At the beginning of the 19th century, the Qajar Shah Abbas Mirza had the monastery renovated. The church is surrounded by high walls, along which there are residential and utility buildings. The polygon-conical towers of the monastery church are reminiscent of Persian Gonbads on the one hand, and the structural forms of Seljuk towers such as the Alaeddin Mosque or the Mevlana Mausoleum in Konya , on the other . The decor and construction of the church itself correspond to the traditions of the older Armenian architecture, as can be seen in the Eastern Anatolian cathedral of Ani .
During the rule of the Ilkhan , buildings such as the Friday Mosque of Waramin and parts of the Friday Mosque of Yazd were built in what is now Iran . During this time the courtyard fronts and the inside of the ivane of the Friday mosque in Isfahan were covered with glazed tiles. The geometric , calligraphic and floral ornamentation disguises and hides the structural shape caused by the load distribution of the building. This established an architectural tradition that was decisive for the buildings of the Islamic East in the subsequent period.
In the Timurid period, the Goharschad mosque and the building complex of the Imam Reza shrine were built in Mashhad , which today comprises a total of seven inner courtyards (Sahn) and 21 inner halls ( Riwaq ) that surround the burial chamber of ar-Ridā. Adjacent to the burial chamber is a 10th century mosque known as the Bala-e-Sar Mosque.
Elevation of the Öldscheitü mausoleum
The Armenian St. Thaddaeus Monastery
Interior of the Squidward Monastery
Safavid Period: 1501–1732
In the Safavid architecture under Shah Abbas I , Iranian architecture reached a high point of its development in the building complex of the Meidān-e Naghsch-e Jahan in Isfahan . In the case of the royal mosque, which was built in the early 17th century, the outside of the large domes of the minarets was also clad with a mosaic of glazed faience tiles in fine arabesque patterns and geometrical calligraphy. The blue-green walls stand out splendidly from the surrounding, ocher-colored steppe landscape. Significant buildings in this style were also built in the Timurid capital of Samarqand with the Bibi-Chanum Mosque , the Medresen of Registan , and the Gur-Emir mausoleum .
Residences and fortresses
Castles and palace complexes were built in and near the residential cities. From 1548 to 1598, Qazvin was the capital of the Safavid Empire. The main axes of a palace district and the Ali Qapu Gate are still preserved here. Garden pavilions were created within the palace and gardens, of which the Tschehel Sotun pavilion in Qazvin, the porticoed hall of the same name in Isfahan, the Hascht-Behescht- and the Ali-Qāpū palaces . Palace buildings could also be built by people from the elite. Farm buildings could also be connected to these buildings; such a building was, for example, SchlossAbbās Ābād Castle near Natanz .
bridges
Numerous bridges and dams were built during the Islamic period. The Pol-e Chādschu , Si-o-se Pol and Pol-e Schahrestan bridges from Safavid times in Isfahan follow Sasanid building traditions, but what was new at this time was the introduction of cavities in the bridge piers, which reduced the load on the structure and in theirs Inside offered usable spaces. Dam systems can support bridges or supply water mills.
Another example is the Davazdah Cheshmeh Bridge in Amol .
Qajar dynasty: 1789–1925
In 1789 Aga Mohammed Khan was crowned Shah of Persia, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, which established order and comparatively peaceful conditions in Persia for a long time. Economic life awoke. Three important Qajar rulers, Fath Ali Shah , Nāser ad-Din Shah , and Mozaffar ad-Din Shah revived ancient traditions of the Persian monarchy.
During the Qajar era, a number of castles were built in and around Tehran , most of which were designed as multi-storey central buildings and surrounded by gardens . These include the former residence of the Iranian shahs, the Golestan Palace built at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century , the Saadabad palace complex , which was expanded and continued to be used by the Pahlavi dynasty , and the Niavaran palace complex .
Pahlavi Dynasty: 1925–1979
In 1925, with the support of the British government , Reza Shah Pahlavi deposed the last Shah of the Qajars, Ahmad Shah Qajar , and founded the Pahlavi dynasty . He established a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the Islamic Revolution in 1979. Reza Shah introduced social, economic and political reforms in his country, which was renamed Iran at his will .
To legitimize their rule, Reza Shah and his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi tried to revive old Persian traditions. This becomes clear in the example of the Tower of Freedom in the center of Azadi Square in Tehran, which takes up elements of Sasanian architecture. The Tehran City Theater cites Greek and Roman as well as traditional Persian building elements, such as the pillars of Persepolis, and integrates them into modern designs. The roof construction of the dome is stylistically reminiscent of the time of the Ilchane. The opera house follows western modern designs, as does the Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art , which architecturally integrates the traditional wind tower systems (Bādgir).
The Senate House in Tehran by Heydar Ghiai
The Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art , integration of traditional wind tower elements
The train station of Mashhad , by Yves Ghiai
Close-up of the Dariush hotel
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Islamic revolution and modernity
While modern sacred architecture - recognizable by the Khomeini mausoleum , for example - continues to follow the classical Islamic building tradition, secular buildings are more oriented towards western-modern architectural forms. Modern building materials such as steel and concrete are used in residential construction.
Nawab Street, Tehran, in the background the Milad Tower and the Elburs Mountains
Individual designs and elements
Hydraulic engineering, pigeon towers, cold stores
The climatic conditions in Iran require different forms of water management. The traditional system of qanats or kariz can carry water underground over long distances. Water reservoirs ( from Anbar ) are used to store the water. From rivers such as the Zayandeh Rud canals were derived in Isfahan during the Safavid period, which led water first through water basins in the large gardens such as the Tschahār Bāgh , and then on to the fields for irrigation.
Pigeon towers ( Borj-e-Kabutar - "Taubenburg", or more generally Kabutar Khaneh - "Pigeon House ") made of lime-plastered mud bricks usually have the shape of truncated pyramids or round towers with flat roofs, with towers tapering upwards in steps. Isfahan's famous pigeon towers are round or clover-shaped. They can reach a diameter of over 15 m and heights of 10–20 m. The walls are made of adobe bricks and partially covered with lime plaster. Large amounts of fertilizer were required for the less fertile soil in the fields. Pigeon droppings were also used as a stain in the leather industry and to make black powder . In addition to numerous preserved pigeon towers throughout Iran, the Seven Towers of Charun from the Safavid period are worth mentioning.
Food was traditionally kept fresh in special cold stores ( yacht scarf ).
See also
literature
- Architecture. In: Encyclopædia Iranica
- Lisa Golombek, Donald Wilber: The Timurid Architecture of Iran and Turan. 2 volumes, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1988
- Robert Hillenbrand: Studies in Medieval Islamic Architecture. Vol II. The Pindar Press, London 2006
- Wolfram Kleiss: History of the Architecture of Iran . Reimer-Mann, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-496-01542-0 .
- Arthur Upham Pope: Persian Architecture. Thames and Hudson, London 1965
- Donald Wilber: The Architecture of Islamic Iran: The Il Khanid Period. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1955
Web links
- Association of Iranian Architects in Europe
- Historical overview of Iranian (Persian) architecture ( Memento of March 21, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
- Modern Iranian architecture ( Memento from August 14, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- Bazaar architecture Isfahan ( Memento from July 18, 2004 in the Internet Archive )
- Link with architectural sights of many cities in Iran
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c d Wolfram Kleiss: History of the Architecture of Iran . Reimer-Mann, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-496-01542-0 , pp. 433-434 .
- ↑ Miroj Salvini: History and Culture of the Urartians. Darmstadt 1995, pp. 132-3.
- ^ David Stronach: Excavations at Pasargadae: Third Preliminary Report . In: Iran 3, 1965, p. 16.
- ↑ World cultural heritage blown up: Jihadists also destroy the ancient city of Hatra. In: Spiegel Online . March 7, 2015, accessed February 17, 2016 .
- ↑ a b Wolfram Kleiss: History of the Architecture of Iran . Reimer-Mann, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-496-01542-0 , pp. 435-436 .
- ↑ Klaus Schippmann : The Iranian fire sanctuaries . W. de Gruyter, Berlin 1971, ISBN 3-11-001879-9 ( limited preview in the Google book search). (accessed on February 17, 2016)
- ^ Francine Giese-Vögeli: The Islamic rib vault: origin - form - distribution . Gebr. Mann, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-7861-2550-1 .
- ↑ UNESCO World Heritage: Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System , accessed February 17, 2016.
- ^ Friday Mosque of Damghan. In: archnet.org. Retrieved February 18, 2016 .
- ^ Francine Giese-Vögeli: The Islamic rib vault: origin - form - distribution . Gebr. Mann, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-7861-2550-1 , p. 66-88 .
- ↑ a b c d Wolfram Kleiss: History of the Architecture of Iran . Reimer-Mann, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-496-01542-0 , pp. 438 .
- ^ Wolfram Kleiss: History of the Architecture of Iran . Reimer-Mann, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-496-01542-0 , pp. 437 .
- ↑ Eric Hansen: Castles of the Fields. ( Memento of the original from October 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Saudi Aramco World, March / April 2011, pp. 2-4
