Islam in France

The Great Mosque in Paris

The Islam in France can only vague figures capture because under French citizenship and anti-discrimination laws official surveys on ethnic and religious affiliation are prohibited.

Muslims in France

Estimated number

Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary between 3.5 and 9 million, with most immigrants from the states of the Maghreb ( Algeria , Morocco , Tunisia and Mauritania ) or from sub-Saharan Africa (especially from Mali , Senegal , the Chad , Guinea, and the Comoros ) and Turkey , plus tens of thousands of French converts . The inhabitants of the French overseas department of Mayotte are 95% Muslim, while a small, long-established Muslim minority lives on Réunion . The vast majority of French Muslims are Sunnis , a small minority Shiites .

A study by Alain Boyer of the French Ministry of the Interior in 2000 estimated a number of 4,155,000 Muslims based on immigration data, of which 1.55 million were Algerian, 1 million Moroccan, 350,000 Tunisian and 315,000 Turkish, but only 250,000 Muslims from sub-Africa Sahara. There were also an estimated 40,000 French converts .

The demographer Michèle Tribalat of the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED) calculated a number of 3.7 million “possible” Muslims in France in 2003, based on the number of immigrants from Islamic countries and their descendants - but only based on African immigrant families.

Estimates by Islamic organizations put the number of converts, including professional soccer player Franck Ribéry , at 70,000 and the total number of Muslims in France mostly at 6 million (according to maximum estimates 8 million).

The German "Pocket Atlas European Union" gives the share of Muslims in the total population of France with 8.2%, with about 60.5 million inhabitants that would be about 4.96 million Muslims. Meanwhile, the estimate of around 5 million Muslims also seems to be consensus in France.

Many authors also point out that the term “Muslims” ( musulmans ) can be interpreted differently and differentiate between the number of people de culture musulmane who come from a Muslim background and those Muslims who actually practice their religion. The demographer Jean-Paul Gourévitch estimates the first group at 6–9 million - the sociologist and former minister Azouz Begag even at “almost 15 million” - the second at 2.5–4 million.

Assignments but how "Algerian" (in the perception of many non-Muslim French Algériens "Maghreb" () maghrébins ), "North Africans" ( North africains ), "Arab" ( Arabes ) and "Muslims" ( Musulmans ) often still synonymous used, although z. B. Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Arabs e.g. Some are Christians or 1.5 to 2 million Maghrebians are more Berbers than Arabs. This sometimes gives the wrong impression that the majority of Muslim immigrants are Algerians.

The Muslim population group in France is very unevenly distributed across the national territory: the centers of Islam in France are the Île-de-France region around Paris (especially the Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne departments ) and the Bouches-du department -Rhône with Marseille . In addition, numerous Muslims live in the major cities of Lyon , Toulouse , Strasbourg (including their respective suburbs), Besançon and Nice, as well as in the greater Lille area . In contrast, there are hardly any Muslims in the center and west of the country and in most of the rural regions.

Integration and social situation

Immigrants from 41 nations live in the Paris working-class suburb of Aubervilliers

The social situation of Muslims in France is characterized by problems: ghettoization (in France the suburbs ), high unemployment, poverty, lack of prospects and a higher crime rate , poor or inadequate integration . This explosive situation has been rising again and again since 1979 and reached its preliminary climax in November 2005 in the Parisian suburban unrest . Because of this lack of prospects, since the beginning of the 1990s - parallel to developments in other European countries with a large Muslim diaspora, such as Great Britain - there has been a re-Islamization of many westernized immigrant children and an increasing influence of militant Islamic extremism , which primarily attracts young people from socially disadvantaged areas. who have poor future prospects and who have often already had experience with petty crime.

The French interior minister at the time, Nicolas Sarkozy, exacerbated the situation by describing the revolting young people as “racaille” (“scrap”, “rabble”). As a result, anti-Semitism interfered in the protests , Muslim North Africans referred to Sarkozy, whose mother a. a. has Jewish roots, as "sale juif" ("dirty Jews"). As president, Sarkozy endeavored to eradicate his inherent reputation for xenophobia and to step up efforts to integrate immigrants and improve living conditions in the banlieues by appointing three Muslim women to his cabinet: Rachida Dati , Rama Yade and Fadela Amara . With Najat Vallaud-Belkacem and Myriam El Khomri, two women with a Muslim background are also represented in the current government .

Different Islamic currents

Ideologically, an increasingly republican-laicist everyday life, especially among immigrant children and grandchildren, and Islamist currents compete with one another. While the older Muslim immigrants in particular are more attached to the culture of their countries of origin and most of the imams come from there, large parts of their descendants, for whom the colloquial term Beurs has become established, are considered urbanized, Europeanized or Frenchized and favor a liberal one Islam as well as a mixed culture shaped by western influences (e.g. Raï music or French hip-hop ). Liberal Islam is mainly shaped by personalities such as Dalil Boubakeur , récteur of the Grande Mosquée de Paris and Hassen Chalghoumi , director of the Drancy mosque .

The sociologist Gilles Kepel describes three phases of Islam in France based on the development of the Seine-Saint-Denis department : 1) the "Islam of the fathers", which was based on traditional beliefs of the rural population of North Africa and was not yet able to exert any social influence in France . 2) the "Islam of Brothers", a political Islam with a growing influence of Muslim academics from North Africa, located approximately in the establishment of Muslim organizations such as the Union of Islamic Organizations in France , inspired by the ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood in, showed and which directed political conflicts such as the headscarf dispute in France . 3) the “Islam of the Young”, in which young Muslims who grew up in France confidently represent demands, as shown, for example, in the debate about halal foods. In parallel with the transition from the second to the third phase, various forms of Salafism would also have spread.

As early as 1987, militant Islamism was part of the French policy towards Shiite Iran (France gave massive support to Iraq in the Iraqi-Iranian war ) and Lebanon , and Paris was the target of numerous bloody terrorist attacks. In 1994/95, the Algerian extremist groups GIA and MIA again carried terrorism to Paris and Marseille, u. a. against the Paris Metro , while France supported the anti-terrorist forces in the Algerian civil war .

Since then, the fear of intégrisme , Islamic fundamentalism, has dominated the public discussion about Islam in France. In recent years, the radicalization of some young Muslims has been evident in the terrorist attack against the satirical newspaper "Charlie Hebdo" , the terrorist attacks on November 13, 2015 in Paris , more attacks on Jewish institutions and on the young French jihadists who are in Syria Islamic State affiliated to terrorist militia .

In view of the increasing “visibility” of Islam (headscarves, minarets, halal products), parties like the Front national speak of an “ Islamization of public life”. Numerous conservative politicians and intellectuals as well as secular leftists are also warning against the increasing communautarisme of French Muslims, who excluded themselves from public life in the republic in favor of their special ethnic and religious interests. Many Muslims, on the other hand, complain about the increasing Islamophobia in French politics and see themselves as marginalized.

history

Today's French territory came into contact with Islam very early on. The Arab conquest of Narbonne in 719 (only eight years after the Arab victory over the Spanish Visigoths ) was before the Carolingians ' rise (737, 751), imperial coronations (800, 814) and divisions (843, 870, 880) of the Carolingians , and only with their Final fall by the Capetians began in 987 the history of what is now France.

Moors and Saracens

Karl Martell 732 in the battle of Tours and Poitiers , historicizing representation around 1835

Narbonne from the Muslims in the 8th century conquered over Arles , Nimes and Avignon , the Provence to the east, Bordeaux and Toulouse in the west, to the north, they came from the Rhone valley and along the Saône over Lyon to Franken capital Autun before they 725/26 and 731 plundered, as well as via Dijon to Sens near the Loire , Langres and Luxeuil . In fact, all of France or the Franconian Empire south of the Loire ( called Firandja by the Arabs ) temporarily fell into their hands, the Duke of Aquitaine allied and married them against the Frankish king. Shortly afterwards he switched sides again, but the Aquitaine were defeated by the Arabs at Toulouse. The plundering of the rich monastery of Tours failed in 732 due to the defeat in the Battle of Tours and Poitiers , which in Christian historiography is wrongly exaggerated as saving the West from Islamic rule, because in 735 the Arabs attacked again. In a counter-attack the Franks conquered 739/751 Septimania and 759 also Narbonne. Aquitaine uprisings parallel to the Arab incursions into Gascony and Provence lasted until 765, however, a counterattack by Charlemagne failed in 778 off Saragossa .

To protect against the Muslims, Charles established the partial kingdom of Aquitaine under his son Ludwig the Pious as a buffer zone in 781 , but Narbonne and Carcassonne were briefly recaptured by them in 793. Thereupon, in 795, Charles created the advanced Spanish Mark (extended to the Ebro in 812) under the Margraves of Barcelona , the hour of birth of Catalonia ( Barcelona 801, 827 and 852, last conquered by Moors in 985 and last besieged in 1115, French until 1137).

In 801, Caliph Harun gave Emperor Karl a white elephant named Abul Abbas

If the Frankish march to Saragossa had already taken place in consultation with the Iraqi Abbasids against the Spanish Umayyads , Emperor Karl and Baghdad's caliph Hārūn ar-Raschīd exchanged further embassies and gifts in the following period.

In the 9th century, the Muslims continued despite a Frankish intervention in Corsica fixed (810 / 860-930 / 1020), while Ludwig I (the "pious") grandson Ludwig II. To Islam in Italy fought. From 838 they again attacked southern France and the Rhone Valley, looting z. B. 832 and 848 Marseille or 813, 859 and 880 Nice and in 888 they built a new bridgehead in Provence with Fraxinetum , which was subordinate to the Spanish Moors . From there, in the 10th century, they undertook raids in the west to Arles (capital of the Kingdom of Burgundy ) and along the Rhone to Avignon, Vienne (near Lyon ) and Grenoble , and in the north via Geneva (939) also to the Swiss Alpine passes and in East via Nice (942) to northern Italy and then ruled Switzerland (952–960), Savoy (942–965) and Provence (906–972) for a long time before they also gave up Fraxinetum in 973/75. At the same time, in the year 920, Muslims advanced from Spain themselves over the Pyrenees, devastated Gascony without hindrance and threatened Toulouse again.

In the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, French knights took part in the crusades . In Spain they helped the Reconquista in 1064 in the sack of Barbastro , in 1118 in the capture of Zaragoza and in 1212 in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa . 1098–1291 they attacked mainly Syria and Palestine and established crusader states there, French nobles became kings of Jerusalem and (Latin) emperors of Constantinople . France's King Louis IX. attacked Ayyubid Egypt and Hafsid Tunisia in vain in 1254 and 1270 . King Charles VI. in 1390 and 1396 again unsuccessfully launched attacks against Tunisia and the Turks, and French troops helped defend the besieged Constantinople from 1399–1402.

Alliance with the Turks

It was not until the 16th century that France came into contact with Islam again. Against the encirclement of the Spanish and Austro-German Habsburgs , who also ruled Belgium and Italy at the time, France concluded a significant alliance with the Ottoman Empire in 1536 . It was the first and, for centuries, the only alliance of an occidental state whose kings had allowed themselves to be called the “most Christian majesty” by the Pope since 1469 ( Louis XI ) , with the oriental sultans of Istanbul , who as the Abbasid's caliphate successors were also supreme leaders of (Sunni) Islam claimed to be.

This vital alliance temporarily isolated France in the Catholic world, but the Protestants made alliances with France and refused to give the Catholic Emperor the help of the Empire against the " Turkish threat ". At the height of the Franco-Spanish battles for Italy, Turkish troops attacked Austria (unsuccessfully) in 1529 , while Algerian-Turkish pirates, with French support, plundered Italian and Spanish coastal cities. B. together with a French army in 1543 Nice. France was the only Catholic country in which, after the Turkish defeat in the naval battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Te Deum on the occasion of the Christian victory over the Muslims was not initiated.

After the second defeat of its Turkish allies before Vienna in 1683 , France attacked Austria from the west in a (futile) relief attack, thus drawing the Holy Roman Empire into a two- front war for the first time . From then on, individual French people decided to convert to Islam again and again . B. the artillery general Bonneval , who led the Turks to their last victory over Austria in 1739. In the Austrian War of Succession, Turks and Tatars fought as French volunteers in the Volontaires de Saxe from 1743 . Around 1750 France also made alliances with the Nizam of Hyderabad and other Muslim princes of India, until 1799 the revolutionary France also supported Tipu Sultan of Maisur , while the British supported his Hindu opponents.

But under Napoleon Bonaparte , who wrested Egypt from the Ottoman Empire as a revolutionary general in 1798 , the Franco-Turkish alliance broke up. In the same year Napoleon dethroned the Pope in Rome and then signed his proclamations with “Sultan kabir” (great Sultan) in Egypt, whereupon radical Catholics, as well as later Russian Orthodox, saw him as an “ antichrist ” who had fallen from the faith .

Napoleonic France allied itself again in 1806 with the Ottomans against the British and Russians, whereupon Egypt had to defend itself against a British invasion and Istanbul against British-Russian naval attacks. But already in the Peace of Tilsit (1807) Napoleon abandoned the Ottoman Empire and could therefore no longer expect its support in his campaign against Russia (1812).

France and Egypt

After his victory in the shadow of the pyramids , Napoleon subjugated the Mamluks and Egypt in 1798

Goya : The Mamluks they brought with them fought against Madrid insurgents in 1808

Polish Lipka Tatars also fought in Napoleon's armies

Algerian Muslims in the French Army: Turkos right and back, Zuave left (1897)

The French expedition to Egypt nonetheless had a significant impact on both France and the entire Arab world. Egypt remained French only until 1801, but the last governor ( General Menou ) accepted Islam, and Napoleon brought several hundred Muslims ( Mamluks ) with him from Egypt and Syria . B. helped put down the uprising in Madrid in 1808. The Mameluck Roustam Raza served Napoleon as a bodyguard and valet from 1799 to 1814. The newly acquired knowledge of Islam and the region inspired French oriental studies.

The Egyptian Expedition is seen as the beginning of modernity in Egypt and beyond in the Islamic world. Printing presses, which Napoleon had brought to Egypt in order to be able to print his proclamations, made mass communication possible in the Islamic world: as early as 1820 a Muslim press in Bulaq was publishing textbooks, and Cairo became one of the centers of Islamic printing. French intellectuals who worked at the Institut d'Égypte fascinated Islamic scholars such as Hasan al-Attar, the Grand Imam (Šaiḫ al-Azhar) of the al-Azhar University in Cairo, because of their fluent knowledge of Arabic and their scientific curiosity, which was shaped by secular ideas . As a mentor to Rifa'a Rafi 'al-Tahtawi , al-Attar organized the first trip to France for fellows of the Egyptian viceroy Muhammad Ali Pasha. At-Tahtawi and other study travelers discovered Europe as did al-Afghānī and his collaborator Muhammad Abduh . While al-Attar's thoughts met resistance from Islamic religious scholars , at-Tahtawi and other Egyptian scholars such as Abduh introduced the “Arab Renaissance” ( Nahda ) around 1830 . Conversely, the exchange with Islamic intellectuals in “Arab France” also influenced French society, which was in upheaval after the revolution and Napoleon's reforms.

Together with Great Britain and Russia, France had supported the Greek uprising and destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian fleet at Navarino in 1827 , but then concluded an alliance with Egypt. This Franco-Egyptian alliance of 1830–1840, concluded at the height of the “Oriental Crisis”, briefly isolated France again from the quadruple alliance and led to the final collapse of the “ Holy Alliance ” in Europe, while the French artillery general Seve, who had also converted to Islam, defended the Egyptian army modernized. The Egypt expedition was also the prelude to French colonial acquisitions of Islamic territories at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, albeit France under Napoleon III. in the Crimean War 1853-1856 fought again on the side of the Ottomans against Russia. France, honored by the Turks in 1740 as the protector of the Catholics in the Ottoman Empire and the Christian shrines in Jerusalem, had come into conflict with Russia when Russia claimed equal rights and protectorate for Orthodox Christians. As early as 1860 France intervened again against the Ottomans in favor of the Syrian Christians.

1863-1867 an Egyptian battalion supported the French intervention in Mexico.

Of comparatively great importance was the occupation of the Algerian coastal cities of Algiers , Oran and Bone (Annaba) in 1830 , which became the starting point for the conquest of the entire Maghreb, including Tunisia (1881), Mauritania (1905) and Morocco (1912). It was only after the First World War that Syria and Lebanon came under French rule in the Levant and the Arab East (Maschriq) in 1920, and the first wave of Muslim immigration followed. An uprising that broke out in Morocco and Syria simultaneously in 1925 was suppressed with nationalist enthusiasm in 1927.

France and Algeria

Although Senegal (the oldest permanent Islamic colony in France) had been French since 1637/1659 and 1791/1859 , Réunion since 1654 , the Comoros from 1841/1885 (until 1975) and Djibouti from 1862 (until 1977) French, Algeria played the central and special role Role in the French colonial empire , comparable to that of India in the British Empire. After the bourgeois-democratic February revolution in 1848, this was intensified or complicated by the inclusion of three Algerian departments in metropolitan France: Algiers, Oran and Constantine (hinterland of Bone / Annaba, from where the Zouaves came ). Algeria was now divided: the Sahara was under colonial or, since 1871, under military administration, while the coastal region inhabited by Algerians and a minority of French settlers, as a direct part of the republic, could of course not receive any autonomy. However, in contrast to the Christian and Jewish inhabitants of French Algeria before 1944, only a minority of Muslims had French citizenship and therefore no political rights.In 1916 the three, later four, most important cities of Senegal ( quatre communes : St. Louis, Dakar , Rufisque, Gorée) are integral parts of the motherland and its inhabitants are full French citizens.

Hundreds of thousands of Algerians and Senegalese fell as French in the Franco-Prussian War and on the battlefields of both world wars, although "Senegalese" were often used to describe all African soldiers in French service. Almost 500,000 Africans from the French colonies took part in the First World War in France alone. The majority had come from North Africa, of which 170,000 Algerians, 70,000 of them were killed, of which 25,000 Algerians - to thanks to the the First World War in the Battle of Verdun killed 100,000 Muslims in 1922 Paris Mosque built. (Moroccan-French Spahis had also fought before Verdun). During the Second World War , Senegal or Chad and 500,000 African soldiers played a key role on the side of the " Free French " in the liberation of metropolitan France (250,000 fought in Tunisia and Libya, 15,000 in Corsica, 200,000 in France itself, almost 400,000 in Italy, thousands became occupation troops in Germany and Austria). The "Free French" had to give independence to Syria and Lebanon in 1943/44, but when 100,000 dismissed Algerian soldiers demanded at least autonomy for their homeland after the end of the war, they were shot down in 1945 ( Sétif massacre , 40,000 Algerians were killed) Similar protests by the Tiraileurs Sénégalais had been bloodily suppressed as early as 1944 . Algeria's Muslims were granted French civil rights, but Algeria itself was only more closely bound to France because oil was found in the Sahara.

Immediately after the French defeat in the Indochina War in 1954, the Algerian uprising broke out, supported by Nasserist agitators from Egypt. The Moroccans had risen in 1953. After a failed intervention in Egypt and the " Battle of Algiers " France had to give Morocco and Tunisia independence in 1956, the colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa in 1960 , but in Algeria French settlers put a coup against a French withdrawal or the autonomy offered in 1959. Nevertheless, the Algerian war , which divided Algerian society and also brought France itself to the brink of civil war, ended after more than 500,000 deaths (according to other data, 1.5 million) with Algeria's independence in 1962.

Together with two million settlers and pro-French Algerians, almost 100,000 Algerian mercenaries, so-called " Harkis ", fled to France (another 150,000 Harkis are said to have been left to the Algerian vengeance). Almost simultaneously with the Harkis, the second wave of Muslim immigrants poured into France in the 1960s as guest workers called into the country .

Summary (timetable)

8/9 Century - Islamic attacks on south-west France (Narbonne 719–759 Arabic), but friendship of the Frankish emperor with the caliph in Baghdad
9/10 Century - Islamic attacks on south-east France (Corsica 810–930 / 1020 and Fraxinetum 888–975 Arabic)
11-13 17th century - French crusades against Islam in Spain, Palestine, Egypt and Tunisia
16.-18. Century - Franco-Ottoman Alliance (1536–1798)
17th century - conquest of Senegal and Réunions
18th century - alliance between France and the Muslim princes of India
19th century - Franco-Egyptian alliance and conquest of Algeria (1830/48)
20th century - Acquisition and loss of further Islamic colonies (Maghreb and Levant), Algerian war and Muslim immigration, friendship between France and Iraq (1973–2003), integration problems

State and religion

Muslims and mosque construction

There were 2,147 Islamic places of worship for Muslims in France in 2006.

Paris: The Paris mosque was built by the French government as a token of thanks to the Muslims who fought with France against Germany in World War I and opened on July 15, 1926 by French President Gaston Doumergue .

Marseille: On July 16, 2007, the city council of Marseille approved the construction of the Mosquée de Saint-Louis on the site of a former slaughterhouse in the north of the city.

With the construction of the mosque, the chairman of the mosque association La Mosquée de Marseille , Nourredine Cheikh, plans to lead Muslims out of the milieu of the backyard mosques . The construction with two 25 meter high minarets will offer space for 2000 worshipers and is expected to cost 8.6 million euros. Marseille has around 200,000 Muslim inhabitants.

Imams and imam training

In secular France, no state training or recognized studies are possible for imams , plans for an Islamic course or an affiliation to the University of Strasbourg or at one of the Paris universities have not yet been implemented. Since 1992 there has been a private training institute for imams with the “ Institut Européen des Sciences Humaines ” of the UOIF and FIOE , but this is controversial because of its Islamist orientation and only has a few graduates who have worked as imams. Because of this lack, the Islamic clergy are mostly trained abroad; various French governments have officially promoted this controversial practice through bilateral agreements with, for example, the Maghreb states. Only a third of the imams therefore speak French fluently, and a further third only have average or poor knowledge of French. Some of them are under the influence of foreign Islamists; the French government has expelled some radical imams from Paris mosques. Courses in the French language, cultural studies and legislation - in particular the rules of laïcité - are intended to help introduce imams to their duties in France.

Representation of Muslim interests

The Conseil français du culte musulman (CFCM), created in 2002 by the then French Interior Minister Sarkozy , includes the Moroccan- dominated Fédération nationale des musulmans de France , the Paris mosque , which is dominated by Algerians, and the Union des organizations islamiques de France (UOIF). This council, whose formal chairman is Dalil Boubakeur , the Imam of the Great Mosque in Paris, appoints (and removes) the Muftis of Paris and Marseille, but in Marseille the liberal Soheib Bencheikh (son of Algerian parents) , who was raised by Boubakeur to the Grand Mufti , made himself independent and tried unsuccessfully to run for the 2007 presidential election.

Other, but smaller, groups are the Union des jeunes musulmans , which is close to Tariq Ramadan , and some organizations following the convert René Guénon . In addition, numerous groups of foreign politicians in exile have found asylum in France. B. the Islamic-Socialist National Council of Resistance of Iran under President Maryam Rajawi . In addition to Iranians, there are also numerous Kurdish emigrants living in France.

In the 2007 election campaign, the "Union of Islamic Organizations in France" ( Union des organisations islamiques de France , UOIF) and Dalil Boubakeur, the rector of the Paris Central Mosque and current chairman of the CFCM, met the outgoing President Jacques Chirac as well as his May 2007 the elected successor, the chairman of the conservative-liberal unity party UMP , Nicolas Sarkozy, promised their support.

Opinion research in France

According to a representative survey carried out in December 2010 on behalf of the newspaper Le Monde by the French opinion research institute IFOP, around 42% of people in France see Islam as a threat to their national identity (a similar result was found for Germany). More than two thirds of the French also find that Muslims are not well integrated. 61% of the representatively interviewed French named a refusal of Muslims as the most important reason for the integration problems. In second and third place of the reasons given for the integration problems are too great cultural differences (40%) and ghettoization (37%).

literature

Mohammed Arkoun : L'islam et les musulmans dans le monde. Paris 1993
Günter Kettermann: Atlas on the history of Islam. Darmstadt 2001
Burchard Brentjes : The Moors. Leipzig 1989
Ulrich Haarmann : History of the Arab World. CH Beck Munich, 2001 ISBN 3-406-38113-8
Constanze von Krosigk: Islam in France - Secular religious policy from 1974 to 1999. Hamburg 2000
Alexandre Escudier: Islam in Europe - Dealing with Islam in France and Germany. Goettingen 2003
Thomas Deltombe : L'islam imaginaire - La construction médiatique de l'islamophobie en France 1975-2005. Paris 2005
Hans Leicht: Stormwind over the West - Europe and Islam in the Middle Ages. Wiesbaden 2002 (due to some errors, inaccuracies and prejudices to be treated with a certain degree of caution)
Claire L Adida; David D Laitin; Marie-Anne Valfort: Why Muslim Integration Fails in Christian-Heritage Societies . Cambridge, Mass. ; London, England: Harvard University Press, 2016

Web links

Individual evidence

↑ Alain Boyer in: Haut Conseil à l'Intégration "L'islam dans la république" (PDF; 438 kB), 2000, page 26

↑ 3.7 millions de musulmans en France - Les vrais chiffres ( Memento of the original of January 7, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. L'Express du 04/12/2003 @1@ 2

↑ Pocket Atlas European Union, page 81. Klett-Perthes Verlag Gotha and Stuttgart 2007.

↑ Jonathan Laurence and Justin Vaïsse, “Intégrer l'Islam”, page 36 ff., Odile Jacob, 2007, ISBN 978-2-7381-1900-1

↑ http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/societe/20151022.OBS8134/azouz-begag-ex-ministre-il-fallait-refuser-la-semantique-guerriere-de-sarkozy.html

↑ http://www.planet.fr/societe-la-verite-sur-le-nombre-de-musulmans-en-france.786839.29336.html

↑ http://www.lemondedesreligions.fr/actualite/l-islam-du-neuf-trois-decrypte-par-gilles-kepel-28-02-2012-2315_118.ph ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2
↑ George N. Atiyeh (Ed.): The book in the Islamic world. The written word and communication in the Middle East . State University of New York Press, Albany 1995, ISBN 0-7914-2473-1 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
↑ Christopher de Bellaige: The Islamic Enlightenment. The Struggle between Faith and Reason: 1798 to Modern Times . Liveright, New York 2017, ISBN 978-0-87140-373-5 , pp. 26-33 .
^ Ian Coller: Arab France: Islam and the Making of Modern Europe, 1798-1831 . University of California Press, Berkeley 2010, ISBN 978-0-520-26065-8 .
↑ Statistics and map ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. the newspaper "La Croix"@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.la-croix.com

↑ Europe disputes mosque ( Memento of the original from June 4, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , August 13, 2007 @1@ 2

^ C'est l'anarchie, L'introuvable imam made in France ( Memento of September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Nouvel Observateur, March 23, 2006

↑ http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/societe/20150617.OBS1008/formation-des-imams-al-ecole-de-la-laicite.html

^ Qantara - Deutsche Welle website

^ Regard croisé France / Allemagne sur l'Islam IFOP.com , January 4, 2011.

[1] Alain Boyer in: Haut Conseil à l'Intégration "L'islam dans la république" (PDF; 438 kB), 2000, page 26