Doping in the Federal Republic of Germany

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Doping in the Federal Republic of Germany was proven in many cases both before and after 1990. It was systematically supported in various sports competition disciplines from 1970 to around 1990 by the Federal Institute for Sports Science (BISp), which is subordinate to the Federal Ministry of the Interior . Later it could be proven on a large scale, especially in professional cyclists.

Doping history and reappraisal

According to Henk Erik Meier et al. was triggered in the confrontation with the “doping past of West German sport” only through the “confrontation with the 'state doping' in the former GDR, more intensive efforts”. Nevertheless, the topic played a role in the sport-scientific , political and public discussion already in the previous decades, among other things through impulses from doping fighters like Brigitte Berendonk , Werner Franke , Hansjörg Kofink , Gerhard Treutlein and Liesel Westermann . According to an assessment by journalist Ralf Meutgens in the “Doping” magazine, there were no corresponding “responses and reactions” to such critical voices in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, either in the German sports associations or in most of the media.

1950s

The case of Martin Brustmann from 1952 is considered to be the first scandal involving performance-enhancing agents in Germany . The doctor of the German rowing team administered testoviron tablets, which were called "power pills", to the athletes. In 1952, Brustmann was released from his position as team doctor before the Olympic Games. In 1952 the German Sports Association (DSB) presented the first doping definition: “ The use of any drug - whether it is effective or not - with the intention of increasing performance during the competition is to be described as doping. “This classification was later criticized because it also includes the administration of vitamin preparations.

Before the final of the soccer world championship in 1954 , players of the German team were given vitamin injections. Team doctor Franz Loogen had previously read that animal experiments with vitamin C had improved endurance. As some players developed jaundice after the tournament, rumors arose that they had received other drugs, but there is no evidence of this. The Hungarian star player Ferenc Puskás also fueled these speculations in 1957. The German players firmly rejected doping. The most likely assumption is that the players became infected from insufficiently sterilized syringes.

1960s

At the highest political level in the FRG there were efforts to ban doping from the 1960s: for example, in a 1967 report on the work of the Committee on Public Health, it was stated that the Federal Government in the Council of Europe advocated the adoption of a recommendation to the member states had to “influence the responsible sports associations, to ban the doping of athletes and to make violations a punishable offense.” The ZDF show “Ein Spiegel des Sports”, which took place at the beginning of October , showed that the topic was well received by the public 1967 dedicated a discussion round to the topic of doping and in which it was stated, among other things, that doping is "on everyone's lips". The professional boxer Jupp Elze , who died on June 20, 1968, is considered the first death from doping in German sport . Eight days earlier, he had collapsed unconscious in an EM fight, was taken to hospital with suspected cerebral hemorrhage and had an operation there, but he never woke up from the coma. When the body was examined, traces of a stimulant were found. In August 1968, at the suggestion of Willi Daumes, the German Sports Confederation (DSB) made the first efforts to campaign for an anti-doping law .

An important contribution to the public discussion about doping in top-class West German sport was made in the late 1960s by a startling article by Brigitte Berendonk in the weekly newspaper Die Zeit (December 5, 1969). In it, the author and former top shot putter and discus thrower described, among other things, her own observations made at the 1968 Summer Olympics , drew attention to the possible health consequences of anabolic drug abuse and gave examples of the use of medication in German competitive sport. In this article, sports management and the sports press accused them of "covering up and suppressing" doping. Berendonk wrote of a "hormone doping mania".

1970s

In September 1970, the main committee of the German Sports Confederation decided on basic doping guidelines as a "structured set of rules with a detailed doping list".

The resignation of the German women's shot put coach, Hansjörg Kofink, caused a sensation before the 1972 Summer Olympics , after his athletes were not nominated for the games despite having qualified. The association “did not want to see any West German female athletes in the lower ranks,” said Kofink. The association had "demanded results that were only possible with doping". "It was doped nationwide," said Kofink in 2012 looking back.

In 1974 the federal government appointed an agent for doping analysis at the Federal Institute for Sports Science.

In the opinion published in 2015 on Joseph Keul from the University of Freiburg , one of the leading sports medicine specialists in the country, it was stated that his "positive attitude towards the most effective doping agents in the history of sports, the anabolic steroids" was unmistakable. Since the beginning of the 1970s he had given "medical clearance declarations with regard to anabolic steroids". Without Keul's explanations, sport had "not received the backing from politics for its systematic doping that was probably necessary for doping, which was presumably widespread in some sports".

In the middle and end of the 1970s, the topic moved increasingly into focus, also in politics. A trigger for the discussions about the use of prohibited and permitted drugs in top-class sport was the administration of a preparation to German athletes to delay the acidification of the muscles. Around 1200 athletes are said to have received this preparation, which was later called the Kolbe syringe, which was not forbidden at the time, at the 1976 Summer Olympics . The injection was due to examinations by sports medicine specialist Alois Mader . According to Kofink, following the 1976 Olympics in Montreal “there was a unique doping discussion in all media in Germany”.

In 1976, sports medicine specialist Armin Klümper admitted that he had given anabolic steroids to athletes. He rejected the accusation of a "planned contamination of athletes with anabolic steroids".

In 1977 , at a hearing in the Bundestag, Wolfgang Schäuble , at that time spokesman for sports policy for the CDU / CSU parliamentary group, recommended that the use of drugs, if they were indispensable in competitive sports, be carefully controlled by sports medicine professionals. As a result, Schäuble did not speak out against doping, but instead stated with reference to anabolic steroids:

"We only want to use such means to a limited extent and under medical responsibility, because there are obviously disciplines in which today, without the use of these means, competitive sport in world competition can no longer be kept up."

- Wolfgang Schäuble

In April 1977 Werner Franke published the article "Anabolic steroids in sport", in which he pointed out health risks, described the role of influential sports physicians and criticized the claim that anabolic steroids were safe.

Berendonk repeatedly denounced doping in the media in the 1970s. In 1977 she complained in the Current Sports Studio that the “anabolic steroids fraud” had “been visibly approved” after the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal and accused the press of trivializing and downplaying the problem. Certain sports physicians showed a “hypocritical and cynical attitude” by claiming that there were “no harmful side effects” with the administration of anabolic steroids, according to Berendonk in 1977. In a further dispute also taking place in the current sports studio only a few weeks later it came among other things on confrontations between Berendonk and sports medicine specialist Joseph Keul. In the same broadcast, sprinters Manfred Ommer and hammer thrower Walter Schmidt defended the use of performance-enhancing drugs, among other things with the argument that they would otherwise not be competitive in competitions. Ommer, who admitted to having used doping agents in March 1977, later described the sports medicine department at the University of Freiburg as “a paradise for athletes. There you got what you needed. ”On the other hand, Cologne was“ hell ”because Manfred Donike tried to convict doping athletes there. In a declaration of principle published in June 1977, which had been drawn up by a commission headed by Ommo Grupe , the German Sports Confederation stated, among other things, that "any drug-pharmacological influence on performance and technical manipulation of the athlete for the purpose of increasing performance" should be rejected. These impair the dignity of the athlete, contradict the spirit of sport and do not rule out harmful side effects.

Sports medicine specialist Wildor Hollmann

Wildor Hollmann , one of the leading German sports medicine specialists at the time, criticized this declaration as being naive, saying that it had a "seemingly touching level". Grupe, whose work was the Declaration of Principles, said Erik Eggers , later stated that the Declaration of Principles and its revised version from 1983 had remained “almost ineffective”. In the 1970s there was a belief among some sports medicine professionals that “you can do almost anything to be successful. (...) But that was by no means true for all sports medicine specialists, ”said Grupe as one of the leading German sports scientists and officials of the time. Gerhard Treutlein summarized the knowledge of the great doping discussions in 1976/1977 as follows: "A willingness to do more than verbal expression of the fight against doping was not recognizable, the hypocrisy was growing."

In 1979 the Federal Ministry of the Interior issued a “Remuneration Ordinance for National Trainers”, which included the possibility of punishing violations of the doping ban by terminating the contractual relationship without notice.

1980s

At the conference of sports ministers in April 1980, reference was made to the declaration of principle and the demand was made that “doping and the technological arms race” should “not distort the athletic performance of athletes”.

In September 1984 the Council of Europe adopted the “European Charter against Doping in Sport”, which, according to the Federal Government, experts from the FRG had been involved in drafting. According to the Federal Government's assessment in the “Sixth Sports Report of the Federal Government” from October 1986, it is to be welcomed “that German sport has been taking a clear and unambiguous stance on the doping problem for years.”

But efforts at the political level remained sluggish. In 1987, the Conference of Sports Ministers stated that there were still many unanswered questions regarding the "problem of stimulants and especially doping", which is why the topic was dealt with at the event "in a separate meeting with the involvement of relevant representatives from sports and medicine". In the result paper, the Conference of Sports Ministers called on the DSB, its member organizations and the NOK to continue "in their efforts to control doping and, in particular, to look for legal bases and ways to enable doping controls to be carried out during the training phase". Likewise, professional associations that have so far blocked themselves against doping controls should be influenced. These would have to "expect considerable consequences".

The heptathlete Birgit Dressel died on April 10, 1987 at the age of 26. The news magazine Der Spiegel reported that Dressel had died “after three days of martyrdom in unspeakable pain”. Investigators found that the athlete used around 100 different drugs, including anabolic steroids. Dressel had been a patient of the Freiburg sports doctor Armin Klümper since 1981, who described the heptathlete as an "showable, vigorous, extremely healthy" athlete. According to the investigation, Klümper Dressel had given around 400 injections in the previous two years before her death. On the occasion of the 30th anniversary of her death, Alfons Hörmann , President of the German Olympic Sports Confederation , described Dressel's death as “one of the greatest tragedies in German sport to this day”. According to Die Welt, Dressel stands "for an era in which, as the latest revelations show, the Federal Republic of the GDR was in no way inferior in unscrupulousness."

Paul Breitner (front)

In his book, published in the spring of 1987, soccer goalkeeper Harald "Toni" Schumacher admitted to having tried the stimulant Captagon and claimed that there was doping in soccer too, but that the topic was hushed up and treated as a taboo. In 2007, coach Peter Neururer reported that he knew that Captagon was widely used in football in the 1980s. Even Paul Breitner reported during and after his career that would doping in professional football and complained in 2015 a "mendacious mentality" in relation to the issue of doping in football.

During the sports ministers' conference in 1988, the subject of doping was on the agenda again. Among other things, it was stated that doping endangers the reputation and values ​​of sport. A fight against doping is "not only possible through the threat of punishment and sanctions", "improved education and advice" for the athletes is also necessary. In 1989 the German Sports Confederation (DSB) published “Framework Guidelines for Combating Doping”. In the same year , the DSB, the Stiftung Deutsche Sporthilfe and the NOK für Deutschland decided to only field athletes for international championships and other competitions "who have made a binding declaration that they are unrestrictedly available for doping controls".

In November 1989, in response to a major question , the Federal Government expressed the opinion that the “use of doping agents” should be ruled out in the “vast majority of sports” because “they are unsuitable for increasing performance”. The federal government also spoke of "a few cases in which German athletes were involved in doping". A "suspension or reclaim of funding measures" has not yet been initiated. In the opinion of the federal government, the fault of the responsible sports association or a national coach could not be "proven" in the doping cases. The sports associations concerned clarified the issue and "fully informed" the Federal Minister of the Interior about it. At the same time, the federal government considered “a bundle of measures” which, if used together, “could significantly put a stop to doping in sport”, including, for example, “improved, continuous sports medical care for top athletes”, doping controls outside of competitions, which could be considered “effective measures against doping ”, as well as advice from athletes. The Federal Government also stated in November 1989 that there was “cause for concern about the often undifferentiated and not always sufficiently informed discussion of the doping problem in public”. Among other things, this leads to the assumption that "there is reason for increasing doubts about the seriousness of individual medical professionals in top-class sport."

1990s

In the sports report published by the federal government in 1990, the conviction was expressed that the "overwhelming number of top German athletes have achieved their performance without prohibited means or manipulation or will do so in the future." In addition, dealing with the doping problem was "primarily a matter." des sport itself ", but sport is supported by the federal and state governments" in the best possible way. "According to the Federal Government in 1990, the" medical care that has always existed in the Federal Republic of Germany "is the guarantee that" an adequate education of the Athletes on the Health Dangers of Doping ”.

An important publication regarding the discussion about doping in top-class West German sport was Berendonk's doping documents (1991). In this book the author wrote, "The history of doping - in the FRG as elsewhere - is also a history of the state-sponsored ignoring and covering up".

In 1991 it was determined at the conference of sports ministers that the “use of doping” was “the greatest danger for the future of high-performance sport and, in addition, because of the publicity of this area for sport in general.” -Medicine-born Margot Budzisch , Klaus Huhn and Heinz Wuschech presented the book "Doping in the FRG: a historical overview of a veiled practice".

2000s

In 2000 ( doping in elite sport ) and 2001 ( doping - from analysis to prevention ), Andreas Singler and Gerhard Treutlein carried out the largest study on doping in the Federal Republic of Germany to date on behalf of the University of Education. This was followed in 2013 by studies at the Humboldt University in Berlin and, in parallel, at the University of Münster .

The latest results and the latest research on doping in the West were brought about by the Evaluation Commission of Freiburg Sports Medicine .

Since 2019, the public prosecutor's office has been investigating, among other things, the doctor Mark Schmidt from Erfurt , as this athlete supported doping. In the course of Operation Aderlass there were numerous arrests in Germany and Austria . Schmidt is among those arrested.

Classification of doping in the Federal Republic

Despite the declarations and efforts at the sport-political level, top German athletes clearly criticized the handling of the subject of doping and noted a difference between political announcements and practice. Discus thrower Klaus-Peter Hennig wrote in 2017 looking back on his career:

“The problem that has always depressed me as a high-performance athlete is the 'chutzpah' and audacity with which our politicians and officials have actively and inactive promoted doping over the years and have taken to the field in Sunday speeches against doping and still do pull. The population feels this hypocrisy and does not take away from those responsible in the interior ministries and sports associations their so-called anti-doping sentiment. "

- Klaus-Peter Hennig
Discus thrower Alwin Wagner

The discus thrower Alwin Wagner reported that in the 1970s he was informed by the national coach that he would not have had a chance to compete in international championships without taking performance-enhancing drugs and "that the DLV would never take me to an international championship without anabolic steroids Championship would nominate. ”At the beginning of the 1980s he wrote a letter to top sports officials Willi Daume and Josef Neckermann , in which he described the doping problem in German athletics, but received no answer. Even when he made his allegations public in the Bild newspaper, there was no reaction from the sports-political side or from the German Athletics Association. In 2015, Werner Franke criticized in a conversation with the SWR that, unlike dopers from the GDR, dopers from the Federal Republic were not charged, although, according to Franke, they "did exactly the same thing." The doping hunter saw political reasons for this ("They're offenders, Doper from a communist system. And then they were punished ”) and“ social corruption ”. Treutlein said that doping had been tacitly "accepted, challenged and promoted" by those involved in top-class sport, such as officials, doctors, trainers and politicians. "Failure to act and organized irresponsibility" would have distinguished the "alleged fight against doping in Germany", according to Treutlein. The inadequate disclosure of the doping past encouraged doping abuse in the decades that followed.

According to Kofink, doping in the Federal Republic of Germany was covert because the responsibility lay with the individual athletes, whereas doping in the GDR was "centrally controlled" and "therefore easier to detect." Doping critics in the FRG such as Eberhard Munzert (former president of the German Athletics Association ) were, according to Kofink, “bullied away.” According to Treutlein, important characteristics of doping in the FRG - also in comparison to the GDR - were that it was “not state organized and controlled” and that Pressure from the state “mainly indirectly via norms and expectations of success.” In the early days, the initiative for anabolic doping mostly came from the athletes. Doping mostly took place in isolated groups (for example training groups), a “trivialization of side effects” According to Treutlein, the fact that minors were given performance-enhancing drugs is a bli eb the exception, unlike in the GDR, secrecy in the FRG was also due to the "role of private individuals and investigative journalists" according to Treutlein "not as easy as in the GDR". According to top sports functionary Walther Tröger (including NOK general secretary), there was no systematic doping in the FRG "under the umbrella of the Federal Ministry of the Interior, the Federal Institute for Sports Science and the sports organizations," and it is not comparable with the doping system of the GDR. According to Helmut Digel's assessment in 1998, there were “at most differences in the mental handling of the doping problem” in the Federal Republic of Germany in the 1960s and 1970s compared to the GDR. In the FRG, too, “the principle of feasibility” applied and “at least since 1972 the scientific doctrine of optimizing machine people has been carried into training facilities, sports halls and competition arenas”. Digel summed up the difference between doping in the GDR and in the FRG as follows: "In the GDR, doping was systematically and inhumanly, in the Federal Republic only inhuman". According to Werner Franke, there was also state doping in the Federal Republic of Germany. This was not as broad as in the GDR, but also in terms of government. "The West German state was fully behind everything," said Franke. In West Germany, doping was “more diverse, more individual, more responsible” than in the GDR, according to Oliver Fritsch in 2013. The actors had greater freedom of choice and the topic was discussed in public and in the media.

actors

NOK chairman Willi Daume
Federal Minister of the Interior Werner Maihofer

The doping research was concentrated in the Freiburg sports medicine physicians Joseph Keul and Armin Klümper. Little by little, details and evidence emerged; The Main-Post and the Märkische Oderzeitung reported that the BISp had subsidized attempts to improve the performance of anabolic steroids in Freiburg before the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. In addition, there was also research supported by taxpayers' money with 15 test persons on the effects of insulin and somatropin (growth hormones). This emerges from the files of the Federal Archives Koblenz. From these files, however, it also emerges that the order of growth hormone for these planned experiments could not be proven on the basis of the financial planning of the experiments, in contrast to insulin (cf. expert opinion on Herbert Reindell, Singler and Treutlein).

Sports medicine at the University of Freiburg under the direction of Joseph Keul and those at the German Sport University Cologne under Wildor Hollmann were, according to Oliver Fritsch, "almost a pharmaceutical competition at the end of the 1970s". Keul and Hollmann, according to Fritsch again, were doctors "who betrayed the principles of their profession in order to appear as the nation's successors and get a little of the prominence of the sports stars." Keul emphasized with regard to the dosed use of anabolic steroids 1976 that "for medical reasons (...) there are currently no reliable objections for men to the intake of anabolic hormones", "if therapeutic doses are used." Damage has not been proven and a ban is therefore not recommended, says Keul.

According to Spitzer and Strang, Hollmann spoke out against the use of anabolic steroids “publicly for ethical and medical reasons”. In 1977, however, Hollmann relativized possible damage from dosed hormone administration: “Harmful side effects have never been observed as a result” (…) “But if these hormones are supplied from the outside in the same order of magnitude as they are otherwise only released into the body through training stress so it is difficult to provide evidence of the harmfulness. ”At the time, he estimated that the use of doping agents could not increase performance by more than ten percent. It is impossible to rule out a “chemical and physical influence on the performance of the top athlete” for all time, according to Hollmann in 1977 with regard to doping. Therefore, top-class sport in the FRG “inevitably has to learn to live with this undesirable reality in a scientific age”.

In 1974, a sports doctor in the person of Alois Mader fled from the GDR to the FRG. In the GDR he held a leading position at the main sports medical advice center in the Halle district from 1965 to 1974, where he was responsible for the medical monitoring of anabolic doping, according to Berendonk's book Doping Documents: From Research to Fraud . After his escape he became an employee of Wildor Hollmann at the Institute for Sports Medicine and Circulatory Research at the German Sport University Cologne. Mader doubted that anabolic steroids are “doping substances under the original medical aspect of the doping definition”. He believed that anabolic steroids were not harmful when dosed appropriately. According to Strang and Spitzer, Mader was one of "the greatest advocates of anabolic steroids". Sports physician Paul Nowacki said in retrospect in 2013 that Mader had propagated the use of anabolic steroids and had been “received like a messiah by the various associations” in the West.

The Federal Institute for Sport Science (founded in 1970), subordinate to the Federal Ministry of the Interior, was responsible for the allocation of research funds from tax revenues. According to Der Spiegel, with reference to the study "Doping in Germany from 1950 to today", the Ministry of the Interior largely left the decision on projects worth researching to "sport and the doctors". Since Hollmann and Keul had important influence in the relevant committee, the research funds “flowed mainly into their own centers”.

According to a report in the TV program Frontal 21 on ZDF from August 2013, Keul had “political allies”. According to Gerhard Groß (then State Secretary in the Federal Ministry of the Interior) , Federal Interior Minister Werner Maihofer shared Keul's view in principle in 1976 that performance-enhancing funds are justifiable “if they do not endanger or damage health”. According to Singler and Treutlein, this made clear the attitude of the federal government that such manipulation “was only considered politically acceptable in West Germany if it was harmless to health or at least could be labeled as harmless to health”.

In 2013, Fritsch stated in view of the state of research that politics in the FRG had “not made any progress with doping”, but had “looked the other way, tolerated, covered up, supported.” A “direct cooperation” by former Federal Interior Ministers Hans-Dietrich Genscher , Manfred Kanther and Wolfgang Schäuble has not been proven, but they are still responsible. "In the FRG, doping was partly wanted politically and politically," summarized Fritsch.

The role of long-time NOK chairman Willi Daume is also controversial. For example, he did not comply with the demand that Keul be deposed as a doctor for the West German Olympic team. According to Spitzer, Daume and Keul had a "long relationship of trust" and Keul had "even sent him internal information about the anabolic steroids practice". Details about doping practices that were brought to Daume by the athletes went uncommented. According to Walther Tröger, who worked with Daume for a long time as the NOK General Secretary, Daume "did not accept doping under the palm of his hand in Germany either", but "fought consistently against doping over the years."

In the spring of 2015 in Freiburg, the results of an investigation commission chaired by Letizia Paoli, which had been published in advance, boiled up the events of Armin Klümper and Josef Keil, systematic doping in German football and many other sports.

Known doping cases

  • Death of professional boxer Jupp Elze in 1968
  • In the 1969 Tour de France was Rudi Altig demonstrated the use of amphetamines
  • Sprinter Manfred Ommer confessed to doping in 1977
  • Hammer thrower Uwe Beyer still admitted doping at the end of the 1970s. He died at the age of 48.
  • Hammer thrower Walter Schmidt took anabolic steroids.
  • In 1983 Ralf Reichenbach (vice European champion in shot put 1974) confessed to having taken anabolic steroids for years. He died of heart failure in 1998
  • Death of the heptathlete Birgit Dressel in 1987
  • Discus thrower Alwin Wagner - pointed out the doping of German athletes during his active time
  • Cyclist Dietrich Thurau admitted doping and was also tested positive several times
  • Detlef Hofmann doping case - convicted before the 1992 Olympic Games ; was given a two-year competition ban
  • Doping case Christel Justen - was doped as a minor without her knowledge by her then trainer Claus Vandenhirtz with the drug Dianabol
  • Dieter Baumann , 5,000 m Olympic champion in 1992, was suspended in November 1999 due to an increased nandrolone level. Baumann always protested his innocence. In July 2000 he was acquitted by the legal committee of the German Athletics Association, which was not recognized by the International Athletics Association (IAAF). Baumann took legal action against it, the International Sports Court confirmed his exclusion from the Olympic Games, and in January 2002 the IAAF granted him the right to start again
  • Doping case Bert Dietz , Christian Henn , Brian Holm , Udo Bölts , Rolf Aldag and Erik Zabel - confessed at a press conference called on May 24, 2007 regular EPO doping
  • Doping case Jörg Jaksche - confessed to having been doping for years under the guidance of his supervisors and doctors
  • Doping case Patrik Sinkewitz - was suspended twice for doping, in 2017 his suspension was extended to 2024 for violating the start ban imposed on him
  • Doping case Peter Angerer - was for the Biathlon World Championships in Oslo positive for methyltestosterone tested and until 31 January 1987 because of the doping offense blocked

Political reactions

The Federal Ministry of the Interior, which is responsible for competitive sport in Germany , stated according to the FAZ that it was "very interested in a complete clarification and assessment of the doping past in both parts of Germany".

Doping studies and reports

Study DOSB and BISp 2013

In August 2013, the research group at Berlin's Humboldt University published the results of their work, commissioned by the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB) and the Federal Institute for Sports Sciences (BISp), entitled Doping in Germany from 1950 to today from a historical-sociological perspective in context ethical legitimation . Two years earlier, the working group around Giselher Spitzer published essential facts about doping in the FRG and spoke of "state-subsidized research on anabolic steroids". In a conversation with the Second German Television , Spitzer spoke of a “scandal” that, according to his statement, files were destroyed in the run-up to the study: “In the run-up to this research assignment, all doping-related documents in the Federal Institute for Sports Science were obviously destroyed. That is, they were shredded ”. According to Spitzer, these were "originals with the signatures of Professor Keul and Professor Reindell, where, completely surprisingly, the use of insulin or growth hormones in preparation for Munich 1972 is involved". It was "original application documents for the Federal Institute", which Spitzer said "were approved at the time. The funds were transferred, and most of these projects could then be carried out. "

The study clearly showed that systematic doping began in Germany with the establishment of the Federal Institute for Sports Science in 1970. The BISp is still subordinate to the Federal Ministry of the Interior. The study listed over 516 research projects of the BISp that relate to performance-enhancing substances. According to the study, a number of politicians active at the time knew about doping and at least tolerated it, while critics were sidelined. In the study, the researchers relied on internal handwritten notes from the BISp and eyewitness reports. However, based on the information in the Federal Archives, the media also researched official documents that prove that doping is being promoted. According to Spitzer, the difference to "compulsory doping" in the GDR was the voluntariness. "In the Federal Republic of Germany it was usually a decision of the athletes to do it or not," said Spitzer, referring to the results of the study.

The final report of the Berlin group was initiated by the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB) in 2008 and subsidized by the BISp with around 525,000 euros. The work was initially not published. BISp and DOSB had given data protection concerns as the reason for this. According to the Federal Ministry of the Interior, concerns about data protection have now been dispelled.

However, the study does not deal with the main problems of doping after 1989, although it was thanks to an earlier research group led by Giselher Spitzer to have learned important details about central doping in the GDR. While the financing was mainly settled with the Ministry of the Interior, the implementation of the merger between East and West practice was largely a matter for the DOSB , the professional associations and their trainers. Arnd Krüger has placed this development in a larger historical context, referring to Kimura, who explains the half-hearted approach of the associations by looking for other options after the amateur regulations were abolished (1981), a proportion corresponding to that of top athletes to acquire generated added value for yourself.

Evaluation Commission of Freiburg Sports Medicine - The doping reports

Between 2007 and 2016, the Evaluation Commission of Freiburg Sports Medicine dealt with the history of doping in Freiburg, with frequently changing members. This ultimately resulted in more than 1400 pages of five different scientific reports on doping at the University and the University Medical Center Freiburg and in Germany as a whole. Three of these reports on Professor Herbert Reindell, on "Doping in the Telekom / T-Mobile team", on Professor Joseph Keul and on Armin Klümper are currently available free of charge.

Expert opinion on Herbert Reindell

In the report on Herbert Reindell (Singler & Treutlein 2014), some ideas that had been circulating until then that the university doping problem in Freiburg was due to Herbert Reindell and to the 1950s were rejected as unprovable and extremely unlikely. In addition, it was worked out that equating doping and research on pharmacological performance enhancement, which already existed at the beginning of the 20th century and is still taking place today for reasons of anti-doping, would not be expedient. It can also be proven that it was not politics who brought the subject of research into pharmacological performance enhancement to sports medicine for the purpose of improving the Federal German medal balance, but that the sports physicians themselves defined this research focus for themselves. Nevertheless, the abuse potential of such research is evident. It was also shown that the subject of pharmacological performance influencing played an important role for Professor Wildor Hollmann in Cologne throughout the 1960s. Reindell could not be regarded as completely unencumbered in the doping question, since he temporarily softened his originally strictly negative attitude towards doping in public statements in the 1970s. The systematic doping in West Germany cannot be traced back to Reindell, but to his successor in sports medicine, Keul and especially Klümper.

Expert opinion on Joseph Keul and Armin Klümper

In the report on "Joseph Keul: Scientific culture, doping and research on pharmacological performance enhancement" (Singler & Treutlein 2015), Keul, as the most influential sports medicine specialist in West Germany for a long time and head of the sports medicine department at the Freiburg University Clinic, is heavily burdened, although only a few active doping cases are proven could. According to Keul's expert opinion, it was other activities that developed effects, thanks to which doping could develop unhindered in the Federal Republic. His scientific "innocuousness fictions" of drugs suitable for doping such as B. Anabolic steroids had an impact on the practice in the form of intake recommendations and, as supposedly harmless, made energetic countermeasures against drug abuse and doping seem dispensable from the point of view of sport and politics. In addition, blatant doping cover-ups could be proven.

On the other hand, Armin Klümper, with whom Keul was partly involved in doping, is referred to as "the German sports doctor and sports medicine specialist" who was "involved in doping measures in West German sport like no other". He was "the one sports medicine specialist in the history of high-performance sport in the Federal Republic of Germany", "who, like no other, actively participated in the doping of athletes and, in some cases, women athletes". As a result, he had "used doping practices for the old Federal Republic of Germany to an extent that went far beyond what was already known," the report said. Among other things, Klümper recommended a program to practically all athletes of the Federation of German Cyclists in which, in addition to a large number of vitamin preparations, anabolic steroids should be used in four different variants. “This program has also been implemented. It is likely that “there was even doping for minors in this context”.

Furthermore, according to the expert opinion of the German Athletics Association's discus thrower, Klümper is said to have "very probably practically compulsorily supplied doping substances" and also supplied the professional football teams VfB Stuttgart and SC Freiburg with anabolic steroids. The authors extrapolate that “hundreds, if not thousands, of athletes and sometimes also female athletes” who were “actively doped in the sense of sports law or covered with medically not indicated treatments” by Klümper and one employee. This is mostly the will of the Athletes happen accordingly.

According to the expert opinion, Klümper's work is not without “political support” (in particular the Baden-Württemberg state government and the Federal Ministry of the Interior are mentioned here), “a broad institutional standstill, for example from law enforcement authorities (...) or the German sports associations who are well known for their doping problem of the umbrella organizations of the German Sports Confederation and the National Olympic Committee “was not feasible. It is a "scandal of top-class sport and all those social actors who promise themselves from this material or immaterial benefit - not least politics at various levels." For this reason, according to the expert opinion, doping should be classified as systematic in the FRG. In the opinion of the authors of the report, the term "conspiracy to doping through silence about doping" is appropriate with regard to doping in West Germany.

Expert opinion on "doping in the Telekom / T-Mobile team"

Cycling fans demonstrate at the Tour de France

The reports also provided new insights into the complex "Doping at the Telekom / T-Mobile team ". Unlike the report of the so-called expert commission, consisting of Dr. Hans-Joachim Schäfer, Professor Wilhelm Schänzer and Professor Ulrich Schwabe suggested that sports medicine doping by professional cyclists was not described in this new report as an individual problem that could have been clearly distinguished from the clean rest of the sports medicine department or the clinic. Rather, a problematic organizational culture installed by Joseph Keul led to this doping scandal. This not only resulted in doping in top-class sport, but also in a problematic scientific culture. B. physiological values ​​of test persons based on doping were transformed into supposedly doping-free norm values. There is also much to suggest that doping was part of the founding mandate when the team was founded in 1991 at the latest. In addition, the sponsor T-Mobile already knew a year before the "sinking" of a potential for blackmail for sports medicine care, thus of alleged doping, without this having led to interventions.

The "Telekom report" also refers to major problems in dealing with the doping scandal. The University and University Medical Center Freiburg let the well-deserved anti-doping scientist Professor Werner Franke "run into the knife" because they had an agreement with the sports doctor Dr. Georg Huber, after an initial dismissal had been converted into a suspension with full pay, withheld. Among other things, this resulted in Huber's temporary legal success against Franke, who at times was no longer allowed to say that Huber had been "kicked out" by his employer. In the course of the proceedings, Huber submitted a false affidavit for which he later accepted a penalty order for 9,000 euros.

There is much to suggest that coming to terms with the Freiburg doping scandal should be sacrificed "on the altar of the excellence initiative" of the university, writes reviewer Andreas Singler.

Expert opinion on "Systematic manipulations in cycling and football"

A fifth doping report deals with "Systematic manipulations in cycling and football". It is essentially based on the investigation files of the public prosecutor's office in Freiburg, which were compiled in the course of criminal proceedings against Armin Klümper for fraud that were opened in 1984. In addition to anabolic drug doping in football, association-financed systematic doping in the Association of German Cyclists is also addressed. Although evidence of planned underage doping was also found, the responsible public prosecutor's office in Freiburg did not investigate Klümper and others.

2017 Krivec study

The pharmacist Simon Krivec asked former top male athletes of the German Athletics Association (DLV) about their use of anabolic-androgenic steroids in his dissertation prepared at the University of Hamburg . As a result, 31 top athletes stated that they had abused anabolic steroids for the purpose of increasing performance during their active time from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s. As shown in detail in the dissertation through dosage plans, graphics and statistical evaluations, the amounts and time periods are similar to the GDR state doping . The doses taken by the athletes were in almost all cases far above the recommendations of the drug manufacturers. The preferred drugs were Dianabol and Stromba and were often obtained by prescription. With a few exceptions, the prescriptions issued were paid for by the statutory health insurance companies.

In the course of media coverage, the former athletes Klaus-Peter Hennig , Alwin Wagner , Gerd Steines and Hein-Direck Neu († 2017) publicly admitted to having used anabolic steroids improperly and to having been participants in Krivec's investigation. In addition to the Freiburg doctors Armin Klümper and Joseph Keul, who are well-known in relation to doping , other names and case studies are also dealt with in detail in Krivec's doctoral thesis and previously unpublished documents are viewed.

The study triggered a broad discussion in German sports policy about promoting top-class sports. Both politicians and the German sports officials of the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB) and the German Athletics Association (DLV) made public statements and repeatedly stated that they wanted to deal with the grievances and take preventive measures.

1976 Summer Olympics, Montreal

The 1976 Summer Olympics marked a turning point in West German doping use. In Montreal, there was massive use of doping substances. In athletics, anabolic steroids were at the top of the list of administered drugs. The Süddeutsche Zeitung researched that West German swimmers in Montreal should “compete with inflated bowels”. Findings as to whether the so-called " action air enema " worked and other details are suspected by the newspaper in the DSV archive.

In this context, allegations have also been made that there was also systematic administration of prohibited substances to minors.

literature

  • Brigitte Berendonk : Doping. From research to fraud. Rowohlt Taschenbuch, Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-499-18677-2 (first edition 1991 by Springer-Verlag).
  • Klaus Blume: The doping republic. A (German-) German sports history . Rotbuch Verlag, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-86789161-5 .
  • Michael Krüger, Christian Becker, Stefan Nielsen and Marcel Reinhold: Doping and Anti-Doping in the Federal Republic of Germany 1950 to 2007. Genesis - Structures - Politics . Arete Verlag, Hildesheim 2014. ISBN 978-3-942468-17-6 .
  • Andreas Singler & Gerhard Treutlein (2015a): Armin Klümper and the German doping problem: Structural requirements for illegitimate manipulation, political support and institutional failure. Scientific report on behalf of the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (collaboration: Lisa Heitner). Mainz.
  • Andreas Singler & Gerhard Treutlein (2015b): Joseph Keul: Scientific culture, doping and research on pharmacological performance enhancement. Scientific report on behalf of the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (collaboration: Lisa Heitner). Mainz. [2]
  • Andreas Singler (2015a): Systematic manipulations in cycling and football. Scientific report on new findings on doping in the Federal Republic of Germany in connection with the work of Armin Klümper on behalf of the Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg (collaboration: Lisa Heitner). Mainz.
  • Andreas Singler (2015b): Doping in the Telekom / T-Mobile team: Scientific report on systematic manipulations in professional cycling with the support of Freiburg sports medicine specialists (collaboration: Lisa Heitner) on behalf of the Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg. Mainz. [3]
  • Andreas Singler & Gerhard Treutlein (2014): Herbert Reindell as radiologist, cardiologist and sports medicine specialist: Scientific focus, involvement in sport and attitudes to the doping problem. Scientific report on behalf of the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (collaboration: Lisa Heitner). Mainz. [4]
  • Andreas Singler (2012):  Doping and Enhancement. Interdisciplinary studies on the pathology of social performance orientation.  Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag (Würzburg Contributions to Sports Science, Vol. 6).
  • Andreas Singler (2010): Doping and drug abuse in sport and at work. Sociological and psychological aspects of doping and their projection potential for the enhancement problem. Scientific report on behalf of the German Bundestag, to be submitted to the Office for Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag (TAB). Mainz. 
  • Andreas Singler & Gerhard Treutlein (2010a):  Doping in top-class sport. Sports science analyzes of national and international performance development. Part 1.  Aachen: Meyer & Meyer (5th edition).
  • Andreas Singler & Gerhard Treutlein (2010b):  Doping - from analysis to prevention. Prevention of deviant behavior in sociological and pedagogical approaches. Part 2.  Aachen. Meyer & Meyer (2nd edition).

Web links

Individual evidence

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