Breaking the boundaries of work

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In work , economic and industrial sociology, the dissolution of boundaries in work describes the increasing dissolution of temporal, spatial and factual structures of gainful employment . In the narrower sense, this often means the dissolution of boundaries between gainful employment and private life .

The delimitation is also discussed in connection with the term labor entrepreneur as a leading type of global capitalism . The sociologist Gerd-Günter Voss assumes that new operational rationalization strategies are increasingly aimed at the use of the workforce's ability to self-motivate and independently set meaning and that delimitation can thus also be observed in people's motivation . A decisive aspect in the delimitation of work is flexibility . In some cases, the applicable statutory provisions, for example with regard to working hours, are disregarded.

Terms

In the world of work there are limits in part due to statutory regulations on working hours , but also due to socially and culturally shaped understanding of home and work, leisure and work . In the English language the terms work-life blending and work-life interface are used. Mostly the flowing merging of professional and private life is described. The traditional separation of these two areas has been studied since the 19th century. A different understanding of roles is observed, with the family always being considered private. The term work-life balance , on the other hand, stands for the attempt to reconcile work and private life.

The word gainful employment is not to be understood as a synonym for wage labor in a dependent relationship, but the understanding of the term also includes the self-employed as well as family workers . As early as 2002, it was stated in a research paper: "The future of work seems to be under the sign of delimitation."

Thematic aspects

Private Spaces in the 20th Century: American Family Watching TV, around 1958

Delimitation processes are usually examined as a change in gainful employment in company organizations. The reference point for change is usually an ideal type of normal employment relationship in large industrial companies. Since the normal working hours of a full-time worker, for example 40 hours per week, has changed in some branches of the economy and, for example, has only been 35 hours in the printing, metal and electrical industries in Germany since 1995, which one must be taken into account in all investigations Data basis was used. Since the mid-1990s, weekly working hours have risen significantly again in many industries - mostly under the heading of "taking back the reduction in working hours". A traditional research topic is part-time work , which up to now has played an essential role in increasing flexibility.

Some branches of the economy are characterized by extensive or atypical working hours and a particularly high degree of flexibility with which employees adapt their working hours to the changing requirements of the work. The research project “Unbounded Work - Unbounded Family” by the German Youth Institute and the TU Chemnitz showed that in the two branches of this type examined - retail and film and television - working parents have a “high, extremely differentiated and complex need for childcare " to have. The extension of the shop opening hours as a result of the federalism reform has resulted in a new development in Germany since 2006, because shops, for example, are open until midnight on weekdays.

A special complex of topics is shift work , which according to various studies is considered to be harmful to health. Shift work was to be found in Germany around the year 2000 in 14% of working men. It should be noted that there are different models, but both in industry and in the service sector (e.g. hospitals) a 40-hour week is initially spread over five days, so that an eight-hour day results in 24-hour operation results in three shifts. Working on Sundays and public holidays is the exception and is subject to severe legal restrictions in Germany.

In the functional flexibility of a wider qualification of the employee is required on the one hand, on the other hand can be omitted in some professions in the conventional specialization, so that also the respective job profile over time changed.

A very extensive spatial and temporal delimitation and at the same time the latest development is the digital nomad - a modern form of the migrant worker . Some states try to counteract such trends with legal provisions, as they can have an impact on tax income. A new trend in this context is co-living , a mixture of shared apartments and co-working spaces that first emerged in California in the 2000s. The advantage is emphasized that the low demands on the living conditions and the short distances would save costs, energy and time and that the proximity when living and working facilitates contacts and mutual support. On the other hand, co-living is criticized for shifting the line between work and private life, as the time gained is invested in work and networking in view of the precarious living and living situation.

Background and origin

Living and working under one roof, craft shack around 1700 in Schwerin
The Eisenheim settlement in the Ruhr area is one of the oldest workers' settlements in Germany
Recording of working hours in an industrial company in the 1970s

The flowing merging of professional and private life is not a new phenomenon. Today's idea of ​​a special private sphere only emerged with the emergence of the bourgeoisie in modern times . The American publicist Vance Packard described in his book The Naked Society in 1964 that employers are interested in the private life of their employees for various reasons, and saw in this an interference in private life.

On the other hand, tendencies towards delimitation in the social organization of work are identified through in-house restructuring and the thinning of operational control requirements. In addition, a delimitation of the company organization in the sense of the dissolution of company boundaries vis-à-vis the market and the emergence of new types of companies and organizational forms are named as an analysis dimension. The various forms of outsourcing up to and including bogus self-employment play an increasing role in the delimitation of boundaries. The information and communication technology and digitization lead to new developments in the delimitation and flexible working. However, according to a 2009 study by the Warwick Business School , less than half of the CIOs surveyed had attempted to quantify the profitability of IT outsourcing.

Spatial aspects

The apprentice of the past wandered through several countries to learn various handicraft techniques, and each time he lived with his master's family . Since the beginning of industrialization in the 18th century, new types of apartment structures have emerged : company apartments through to workers' housing estates .

The economic expansion in the Ruhr area , for example , made it necessary to recruit new workers, and the population rose in some cases explosively. The respective employer largely determined the form and design of the apartment, which, according to today's understanding, belongs to the private sphere. This had a considerable influence on the environment and the living habits of the workers, mainly through the standardization of the buildings , and made the residents increasingly dependent. The spatial separation of work and home has continued to develop since then and reached its formal climax with the Charter of Athens (CIAM) in 1933. In urban development, housing estates were created separately from commercial areas, and the distances to work became much longer. Due to the massive spread of rental apartments , this development continues to this day. Only with the idea of ​​a “city of short distances” did a trend change become apparent. Employees often move to their place of work and are often forced to move if the company is relocated .

The introduction of population registers forced people to settle down to a certain extent and thus set further spatial limits. During the time of National Socialism , the influence on living habits experienced a further political boost through a further development of the reporting obligation and the block warden .

Today's, sometimes very individual, idea of ​​one's own apartment emerged only in modern times . First of all, since the Middle Ages, the form of the arable bourgeoisie spread , in which storage, work and life were to be found in one spatial unit. The terms employer and employee have not yet been separated. However, the term “arbeytsherren” existed as early as the 16th century. A new understanding of the terms arose with class consciousness , which temporarily dissolved the feeling of individuality and at the same time drew new boundaries between the working class and the owners of the means of production . An extreme idea was the proletariat according to Marx , which supposedly freely dispose of its labor power, but is actually subject to the laws of the labor market .

Passport and visa are an important step in international mobility
Companies like McDonalds have become a symbol of global flexibility

The right to mobility is often seen as a fundamental or human right . This also includes the right to exercise your profession freely and to choose your place of residence and residence . These freedoms are an achievement of modern industrial societies . The freedom of movement, which is guaranteed as a fundamental right in Germany by Article 11 of the Basic Law, does not exist in this form in all countries of the world. Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights gives everyone the right to move freely within a state and to freely choose their place of residence, as well as to leave any country, including their own, and to return to their own country . In the European Union , the free movement of people has been one of the four fundamental freedoms since 1993 . Internationally, spatial mobility is regulated through the introduction of passports and visas .

Temporal aspects

The human sense of time is subjective. In human history, sunrise and sunset have been the natural boundaries for most activities. The Italian counting of the hours was common until the 18th century and guaranteed sufficient sleep, since at least the first 8 hours after sunset were taken into account. The development of precise clocks made it possible to divide the day more precisely . From the middle of the 19th century clocks were mass-produced. By electric lighting , it was possible, even activities that were previously carried out in daylight to have run at other times. Electric light was a crucial element here, which, according to Beate Binder, led to a social transformation process.

For companies, the delimitation of work can be the result of a company rationalization process with the aim of increasing access to the availability of employees. The invention of the time clock in the second half of the 19th century was a sign of increasing control and, at the same time, rigid regulations on working hours. Legal framework conditions such as shop opening times have a direct impact on employees and the organization of working hours. The general economic situation can have an impact on tendencies towards delimitation.

As a result of industrialization, there was initially an effort to extend operating hours around the clock as much as possible. This resulted in almost unlimited working days of 16 hours and more. In the 20th century, union pressure also resulted in constant limits on weekly working hours . From the 1950s onwards, the five-day week was gradually implemented in Germany. Changes in working hours have a direct effect on the working capacity and thus on the entire capacity of a company . Part-time and short-time work are the traditional measures to make time flexible. In Germany in 2002 around 6.9 million of 32.5 million employees worked part-time. That was 21%. 86% of all part-time employees were women.

On the other hand, a "software-based working time 'is from the perspective of occupational safety and occupational medicine also seen positive. The introduction of flexible working time models reduces the number of overtime and can thus save personnel costs. At the same time, new forms of work are emerging as a result of technical developments: "Digitization now allows mobile, almost unlimited work, including at home or on the move." Mobile working time recording enables extensive flexibility regardless of the location of the respective company. Globally active companies and the various forms of outsourcing are increasingly blurring the spatial and temporal boundaries. The boundaries are also blurring in everyday life, for example between actual working hours and breaks. The latter are often shortened, although there are clear regulations in the Working Hours Act in Germany, for example . Likewise, the prescribed working hours are often not adhered to, overtime is required and in some cases not remunerated. The Working Hours Act is violated most frequently - apart from exceeding speed limits in road traffic. The conflict with this law can have far-reaching consequences.

Factual aspects

Up until the 1970s, there was still the prevailing view in industrialized countries that a profession once learned meant a livelihood for a lifetime, also in view of increasing specialization. But traditional professions have been progressively becoming extinct since industrialization and new fields of activity are developing. Dieter Balkhausen stated in his book The Third Industrial Revolution in 1978 that by the end of the 1980s 50 percent of jobs in Germany would be changed by microelectronics. The concept of lifelong learning was born . At the same time, specialization does not - as was sometimes assumed - lead to a loss of a holistic approach. The industrial sociologist Otfried Mickler examined various new forms of work that resulted from the necessary collaboration between specialists in production. Specialization is not the only challenge - the divergence between theory (graduates) and practice (trained specialists) has also been a challenge for personnel development since the 1990s. This led to a trend towards team building and cooperation that has continued to this day. Individuals can no longer rely on only carrying out activities that correspond to their original job description. Many people today are no longer active in the field that they studied. Traditional hierarchies are also being dissolved.

The profession of typesetter - here a typesetter - has practically died out

The development of electronic word processing since the early 1970s shows how job profiles are changing. In some cases, the trade union side tries again and again to slow down such developments and to mitigate the consequences for the employees concerned. In 1975 the Danish Association of Journalists decided on a “delimitation clause” with the aim of maintaining the differences between the traditional professions of editor and typesetter for as long as possible in order to counteract possible redundancies through rationalization, which were foreseeable as a result of the introduction of electronic editing. Employee organizations in other countries followed this example - in Germany in 1977 - albeit with different results.

consequences

The modern working world only allows a few options for personal design

The delimitation of boundaries is also a driving factor for increasing mobility in society, as is examined, for example, in the study Mobility in Germany . In addition, an urbanization process is taking place in countries with expanding industries; the proportion of the population working in agriculture is falling. Around 1900 a farmer in the German Empire produced food for 4 other people; In comparison, he fed 10 people in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1950. At the beginning of the 21st century (2004) there were already 143.

When it comes to environmental protection , occupational health and safety , minimum wages and the social system , the consequences are sometimes viewed very critically. Examples are labor migration of workers from low-wage countries to high-wage countries and wage dumping . According to the information in the fourth poverty and wealth report of the federal government ( 2013 ), the proportion of employees with low wages in Germany increased from 17.7 percent to 23.1 percent between 1995 and 2010. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), Germany, Poland and the United States are the industrialized countries with the greatest increases in wage inequality. In the program “Leitkultur in den USA” on Deutschlandradio it was described that the immigrants there are exposed to tremendous pressure to give up their habits and thus also their culture.

An increasing labor migration can be observed worldwide. The International Organization for Migration expects the number of migrant workers to grow by 2.3 million annually by 2050; the global number was estimated at around 200 million in 2008.

The boundaries between private life and the world of work, between leisure and working hours are mixed up. Sociologists are generally critical of the consequences: “More than 40 percent of the working population perceive the intermingling to be so advanced that it can no longer make out any borders. The phenomenon of blurring borders provokes very different reactions in the population. Very few see this as negative, the broad masses are not sure what to think of it. ”In this context, terms such as crowdworking and coworking are also used as terms for new forms of work, whereby a higher income is sometimes cited as a motivation.

Social problems

The consequences for the labor market are difficult to calculate because many factors interact. The increasing employment of women plays a role here, as does automation and the question of standardization , which is seen as the opposite of flexibility . The emerging system change was not recognized until the 1980s. As early as 1978, Siegfried Weischenberg complained about the distance between social science and society on this topic . The first systematic studies come from the US economist Jeremy Rifkin , who expected a reduction in the number of people working in industrial production . His book The End of Labor became a worldwide bestseller .

The publicist Simone Janson sees some dangers in mixing work and private life. There are "uncertainties on both sides and constant border crossings". "The private dealings with colleagues of equal status" could also lead to problems. The second equality report by the federal government warns of the dangers that can be associated with excessive demands and overloads with mobile work. A long weekend (Saturday and Sunday) with the family is less and less possible for many employees in Germany today. A good 45 percent of them worked at least occasionally in 2008, like on other working days.

For certain groups, such as working parents , the delimitation of boundaries can offer an opportunity for a better work- life balance , because working from home (often called home office ) enables self-determined flexibility. In 2008, it was critically emphasized that the increasing spatial and temporal delimitation of gainful employment resulted in a high potential stress for families. In many cases, men and women feel compelled to give the demands of employment priority over all other areas of life, both before family and social commitment. The Hyper inclusion makes it an extreme form of transgression for certain professional groups are In 2010 there was in Germany -. Depending on the calculation - about 5.5 million home workers, but their number has decreased since 2008 and was in 2012 only at the level of 1992 .

Legal problems

Special problems arise for employees: "The adjustment of the legal regulations often lag behind and the legal situation of the workers is not always clarified." In Germany and many other countries there can be conflicts with the applicable labor and social law, especially a high one Legal risk come. In Austria , bogus self-employment is assumed if someone acts as a self-employed entrepreneur, although he is doing a job that is equivalent to that of an employed employee.

In the case of the self-employed , it is assumed that working hours are freely chosen, but here too there is a constant process of adjustment to the market , which can lead to conflicts in individual cases.

Environment and health

When it comes to environmental protection, it is criticized that the so-called urban area , which is intended to reunite work and home for the first time in urban planning, makes it more difficult to comply with the previous protective limits in Germany, which apply to night rest, for example.

The health consequences of overtime have been scientifically investigated. A long-term study from the UK showed a 60 percent increased risk of heart disease by working three to four hours of overtime a day .

Change in job profiles

Writing and layout is now possible at one workplace

The development in newspaper editors since the 1970s is a vivid example of how the boundaries between conventional fields of work are initially dissolving. Eventually traditional job descriptions disappear and new forms of work emerge. The sequence of the individual activities, which was once carried out by many different qualified persons, namely from writing the manuscript to setting the letters, proofreading , creating the layout to revising before printing, is nowadays a result of the use of a computer with the appropriate programs and the same workstation possible. A sociology of technology only emerged as a result of technical development. Since the 1990s, intensive preoccupation with computers and computer-mediated communication have given rise to new research focuses, which ultimately led to the establishment of a separate social science subject on the topic.

literature

  • Inge Baxmann, Sebastian Göschel, Melanie Gruß, Vera Lauf (eds.): Work and rhythm. Life Forms in Transition, Munich 2009
  • Karin Gottschall, G. Günter Voss (ed.): Delimitation of work and life. On the change in the relationship between employment and privacy in everyday life . Munich, Mering: R. Hampp Verlag 2005, 2nd edition
  • Gerrit Herlyn, Johannes Müske, Klaus Schönberger, Ove Sutter (eds.): Work and non-work. Delimitations and limitations of areas of life and practices. Munich / Mering 2009. Contributions to the 13th working conference of the Working Cultures Commission within the German Society for Folklore. Volume I of the series “Work and Everyday Life. Contributions to ethnographic work culture research ”- series of publications of the commission work cultures in the German Society for Folklore, edited by Irene Götz , Gertraud Koch, Klaus Schönberger and Manfred Seifert. ISBN 978-3-86618-308-7
  • Karin Jurczyk , Michaela Schier, Peggy Szymenderski, Andreas Lange, G. Günter Voß : Unlimited work - unbounded family: Border management in everyday life as a new challenge , Berlin: edition sigma, 2009, ISBN 978-3-8360-8700-1
  • Karin Jurczyk, G. Günter Voss: Unlimited working time - reflexive everyday time. The times of the worker entrepreneur . In: Eckart Hildebrandt (ed.): Reflexive lifestyle. On the socio-ecological consequences of flexible work . Berlin: edition sigma, 2000, pp. 151-206. ISBN 3-89404-884-0
  • Nick Kratzer: Worker in the dissolution of boundaries. Unlimited requirements, expanded scope, limited resources . Berlin: edition sigma, 2003. ISBN 3-89404-979-0
  • Carmen Ludwig, Hendrik Simon, Alexander Wagner (eds.): Unlimited work, (un) limited solidarity? Conditions and strategies for trade union action in flexible capitalism, Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot 2019, ISBN 978-3-89691-275-6
  • Jutta Anna Metzger: Work and family - individualization in a square. Border shifts between work and family life , interdisciplinary journal for system-oriented practice and research, Arnold Retzer and Fritz B. Simon (Eds.), Issue 3 July 2001. ( PDF )
  • Otfried Mickler : skilled work and technological change . Course unit I-III, Distance University, Hagen Comprehensive University 1984
  • Hans J. Pongratz, G. Günter Voss: worker entrepreneur. Employment orientations in unbounded forms of work . Berlin: edition sigma, 2003. ISBN 3-89404-978-2
  • G. Günter Voss: The delimitation of work and labor. A subject-oriented interpretation of the change in work . In: Mitteilungen aus der Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung, 31 (3), 1998, pp. 473–487. ( PDF )
  • Siegfried Weischenberg: The Electronic Editing - Journalistic Consequences of the New Technology , Verlag Dokumenation Saur, Munich 1978

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

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  7. ↑ International Agency for Cancer Research : IARC Press Release 180 ( Memento of the original of July 21, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. dated December 5, 2007 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.iarc.fr
  8. ↑ Hiltraut Paridon, Sabine Ernst, Volker Harth, Peter Nickel, Annette Nold, Dirk Pallapies: Shift work - legal situation, health risks and prevention options . Ed .: German Statutory Accident Insurance (=  DGUV Report 1/2012 ). Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-86423-022-6 ( online [PDF; 4.0 MB ; accessed on March 19, 2019]).
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