Water resources in the universe
Various water resources exist in the universe because water is a common chemical compound in the universe . It is not only present on earth, but also on other celestial bodies of the solar system as well as in other planetary systems and in interstellar clouds of the Milky Way . Even in very distant galaxies , whose light had traveled to Earth for more than twelve billion years, water could be detected by spectroscopic studies . According to this, it already appeared in the universe when less than two billion years had passed since the Big Bang . The extraterrestrial finds, however, only concern water vapor and ice ; the search for liquid water has so far been largely unsuccessful. Beyond Earth, no permanent presence of liquid water has yet been directly proven. However, there is evidence that some ice moons in the outer solar system may harbor oceans of liquid water beneath their surface . This is important because liquid water, in addition to a sufficient heat source and necessary chemical components, is one of the essential requirements for life.
The water resources of the solar system are best researched. Except on earth, water exists on many other celestial bodies in more or less large quantities and in different aggregate states and manifestations, but only on earth does water occur permanently and in large quantities directly on the planet's surface in all three aggregate states. This fact makes the earth in the solar system a unique celestial body, the "blue planet".
Crystal water
Crystal water is water that has been enclosed in minerals. As a component of the minerals, it helps to build rocks . In the solar system, crystal water was recorded for the dwarf planet Ceres , for the very large asteroids Pallas and Vesta , for the Earth's moon and for asteroids of types B, G, F and C , especially for certain carbonaceous chondrites . Water- containing minerals continued to be found on the planet Mars and of course on Earth. No occurrences of crystal water have yet been discovered outside of the solar system.
Water ice
The totality of the ice deposits in a celestial body is called the cryosphere . It can consist largely or entirely of water ice. A cryosphere can include an entire celestial body. Then there is a globally continuous cryosphere - as a hollow sphere, it envelops the celestial body. A cryosphere can also only survive in the coldest places of a celestial body. Then a regionally limited cryosphere forms.
Solar system
Most of the water in the solar system is in the form of water ice . Most of the water ice is found in the cold outer regions of the solar system. These start with a distance of about three astronomical units from the sun, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. That is where the snow line runs . Beyond it, the sun's illuminance becomes too weak to sublimate water ice . As a result, water ice can hold and collect there over the long term.
Inner solar system
There are no globally continuous cryospheres on the celestial bodies of the inner solar system. If necessary, water ice deposits are limited to the coldest areas or lie - protected from sunlight - under the surface .
Mercury
On the planet Mercury , the closest to the sun, there are uninterrupted areas of lightlessness at the poles. There is water ice under 10 to 20 centimeters of regolith . Mercury's regionally limited cryosphere is between tens of centimeters and a few meters thick. For the northern polar region, the mass of the water ice is between 20 and 1000 billion tons. It is very likely that the water was brought to Mercury by impacting small bodies .
earth
The largest regionally limited cryosphere in the solar system exists on planet earth. The terrestrial cryosphere had a volume of approximately 24 million cubic kilometers of water ice in the 1990s. It can be divided into two parts: areas with polar water ice ( pack ice , ice sheets from Greenland and Antarctica ) and areas with non-polar water ice ( mountain glaciers , permafrost in sub-polar regions and extra-polar high mountains). It also includes both subaerial areas ( sea ice , glaciers, ice sheets) and subterranean areas ( permafrost , ice caves ). In addition, water ice can occur in the form of solid precipitation . The terrestrial cryosphere had its greatest expansion in the Sturtic Ice Age and the Marine Ice Age during the geological age called Cryogenium , which ended 635 million years ago. But even during those ice ages the planet was never entirely of ice covered . At no point in the history of the earth did the earth have a continuous global cryosphere.
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Earth moon
A relatively small, regionally limited cryosphere exists on the Earth's moon. It shows similarities with the ice deposits of Mercury, because here too the water ice is on the floors of craters near the poles. The crater floors are also not reached by sunlight and have probably been in constant shadow for billions of years.
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Mars
The regionally limited cryosphere of Mars can be structured similarly to the cryosphere of the earth. It does not only include the two polar regions . The water ice deposits there are mostly covered by dry ice (except in summer) and above all by sediments. Many thousands of cubic kilometers of water ice have been found around the North Pole. It occupies an area of approximately 900,000 square kilometers and reaches two kilometers thick at its center. 1,600,000 cubic kilometers of water ice have been found around the South Pole. Beyond the polar regions there are expansive areas with non-polar water ice . At higher mid- latitudes , water ice remains stable if it is stored at a depth of between one and two meters. At correspondingly greater depths, it also survives closer to the equator. That is why there are underground ice deposits in the Deuteronilus Mensae that stretch for hundreds of kilometers. Even under the sedimentary cover of the equatorial Valles Marineris there are 1,000,000 cubic kilometers of water ice. The last two water ice depots mentioned are interpreted as fossil ice . It was able to hold because (similar to earthly dead ice ) it was covered by rubble and sand at the end of a glaciation phase. From the presence of such fossil, non-polar water ice, it can be concluded that Mars has at least passed through one ice age : In its past, the planet had at least one subaeric cryosphere that reached into the equatorial zone. Today it still has a reduced and, above all, subterranean cryosphere. Its water ice is only exposed in small areas in the polar regions.
There are indications that there on Mars 3.7 billion years out before clouds snowed . As the air temperatures rose, the lying masses of snow melted. As a result, meltwater rushed to the valley, washing out long valleys.
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Asteroid main belt
In the main asteroid belt - in the transition area from the outer to the inner solar system - water ice was also found. It is found on the surfaces of the asteroids Themis and Cybele . The dwarf planet Ceres may also have water ice. It is then in subterranean layers and appears openly in two places, so that water vapor can sublime from it, this has been proven.
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Outer solar system
A number of celestial bodies in the outer solar system have globally continuous cryospheres. They occur on the moons of the four gas planets between Jupiter and Neptune orbit . In the trans-Neptunian outer solar system (beyond Neptune's orbit) the cryospheres exist on dwarf planets and their moons. Their ice is not always mainly formed by water ice. Other types of ice can be predominantly present, for example ammonia ice, carbon monoxide ice, methane ice, nitrogen ice or dry ice.
Moons and dwarf planets
group | Heavenly bodies |
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Jupiter moons | Europe , Ganymede , Callisto . |
Saturn moons 1 | Dione , Enceladus , Iapetus , Mimas , Rhea , Tethys , Titan . |
Uranus moons | Ariel , Miranda , Oberon , Titania , Umbriel . |
Neptune moons | Triton . |
Trans-Neptunian objects | Charon 2 , Haumea 3 , Ixion 4 , Orcus 5 , Quaoar 6 , Sedna . 4th |
1 : The surfaces of Saturn's two large, irregularly shaped moons, Hyperion and Phoebe, are also made up of contaminated grains of water ice. |
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Ring objects
The small bodies of Saturn's rings (ring objects) consist of almost pure water ice (at least 90%). The microscopic ring objects of the E-ring are a re-frozen portion of the water that was ejected by the cryovolcanoes of Saturn's moon Enceladus . All rings of Saturn, taken together and roughly estimated, contain twenty to thirty times as much water as the earth. Their abundance of water ice represents a special feature among the ring systems of the planets of the solar system, because the ring systems of Jupiter , Uranus and Neptune consist of darker ring objects. They are commonly believed to be composed of more contaminated water ice or not to be composed of water ice at all. On the other hand, the ring objects of the two rings of the great centaur Chariklo are again mainly made of water ice.
Comets
Typical small bodies of the outer solar system containing water ice are comet nuclei. For example, the comet nucleus of comet C / 1999 S4 contained 3.3 million tons of water at the time of its breakup. Comet cores are also called icy dirtballs : They consist of a meter-thick dust crust on the outside, which envelops an interior made of various types of ice, including water ice. These insights into the internal structure of comets were obtained from specimens that migrated into the inner solar system and were accessible to space probes . In those warmer, brighter and stronger solar wind regions, the composition and structure of their surfaces can change more strongly. This is why the structure of cometary nuclei that have never migrated into the inner solar system could be noticeably different.
There are three different groups of cometary nuclei in the outer solar system: cometary nuclei of the centaurs , cometary nuclei of the Kuiper belt and cometary nuclei of the Oort cloud . There are a few hundred centaurs between the orbit of Neptune and Jupiter, of which at least two thirds consist of cometary nuclei. Behind the centaurs, hundreds of millions of comet cores of the Kuiper belt join. Their orbits are beyond the orbit of Neptune. When the objects of the Kuiper Belt collide, clouds of the smallest particles are blasted off. Above all, the particles envelop the larger chunks like a fine mist. These mists consist to a large extent of water ice.
On the very outside there are several billion cometary nuclei in the Oort cloud. About ninety percent of the nuclei did not originally come from their own solar system. Instead, they were gravitationally removed from other planetary systems . This happened when the sun was still in close proximity to other stars in a common natal cluster , to which, for example, the star HD 162826 belonged. As a result, some of the water brought into the inner solar system by comets is of extrasolar origin. That water from interstellar space can be recognized by the isotope ratio of protium and deuterium . In the water of the solar system this ratio is usually 6400 protium atoms to 1 deuterium atom. Extrasolar water has different isotope ratios.
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Milky Way
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/HD_113766_circumstellar_disk.jpg/200px-HD_113766_circumstellar_disk.jpg)
The solar system is not the only place within the Milky Way with water ice. As part of the ice mantle of myriad interstellar dust particles , water ice is finely distributed in pre-stellar cloud cores, such as Lynds 1544 . The water from the ice there could fill the earth's seas three million times. In a similar form, water ice exists in the cooler outer areas of protoplanetary disks , for example in the disk around the star TW Hydrae . There it can be baked into comet nuclei . So far ten individual such exocomets have been discovered and traces of colliding exocomets have been found at the star Beta Pictoris . In addition, a massive penetration of very many exocomets (comet storms) for the inner areas of the planetary system from the star Eta Corvi has been proven.
Comets can originate from belt-shaped regions that limit the outer edge of planetary systems (outer comet belts) . The regions can contain several million small bodies - including many comet nuclei containing water ice. In the solar system, this region is called the Kuiper Belt. Similar outer comet belts have been observed around the stars Wega , TW Piscis Austrini (Fomalhaut B) , LP 876-10 (Fomalhaut C) and HR 8799 .
Water ice is believed to be found in Neptune-like exoplanets. Such celestial bodies have extensive planetary cores. A substantial part of the cores could be made of water ice. An example of a Neptune-like exoplanet is called OGLE-2005-BLG-169L b , three more orbit the star HD 69830 .
Water ice is likely also present on Earth-like exoplanets. It is assumed that the stone core of the Earth-like exoplanet OGLE-2005-BLG-390L b is encased in an ice armor many kilometers thick. This would be the first discovered example of a globally continuous cryosphere outside the solar system. It would also be the first example of a water-rich terrestrial exoplanet in cold regions beyond a habitable zone . Basically, it can be assumed that Neptune-like and Earth-like exoplanets are very common in planetary systems and form the majority of exoplanets. As a result, water ice should not be a rare substance in many planetary systems.
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Liquid water
The totality of the liquid water of a celestial body is called the aquasphere . An aquasphere can enclose an entire celestial body. Then a globally continuous aquasphere forms - a bowl-shaped hollow sphere made of liquid water. An aquasphere can also only survive in certain places on a celestial body. Then a regionally limited aquasphere is formed.
In order for liquid water to exist on a planet's surface in the long term, a water-rich terrestrial planet (or a terrestrial moon of a planet) must move within the habitable zone of its central star: At a certain distance from the star, its illuminance is not too strong to keep water away from the planet's surface to evaporate completely. But it is not too weak either that it completely solidifies to ice. Water only remains liquid within a narrow temperature range, under normal air pressure between 0 ° C and 100 ° C. That is why the habitable zone of a planetary system is a very narrow area in relation to its total extent.
Solar system
Measured against the total extent of the solar system, liquid water is extremely rarely found here, because the habitable zone does not have a large extent in this planetary system either.
Inner solar system
The only so far directly observed occurrences of liquid water are on two celestial bodies of the inner solar system, on Earth and Mars. Presumably, Venus once had liquid water on its surface. However, it disappeared 3.5 billion years ago.
earth
Of all the celestial bodies of the solar system, only the earth has a subaeric aquasphere. Only here does liquid water occur permanently, in abundance and directly on the planet's surface. Liquid water collects in the terrestrial oceans in layers several kilometers thick. It is also found in subglacial lakes , soils , water clouds and in liquid precipitation : the earth moves within the habitable zone.
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Mars
The aquasphere of the planet Mars had an eventful history. In the early days of the planet, surface temperatures prevailed that allowed liquid water. Various minerals in Martian meteorites support this thesis. In them, for example, carbonates , phyllosilicates and iddingsites were discovered, for the formation of which the presence of liquid water seems necessary. The same applies to magnesium sulfates , clay minerals , calcium sulfates and smectites , which are still found on the surface of Mars today. The higher surface temperatures of the early Mars period were ensured by sulfur dioxide . The greenhouse gas was temporarily brought into the Martian atmosphere by volcanoes. Certain deposits suggest that lakes and river deltas existed more than three billion years ago. Many rivers could have flowed into an ocean which at that time probably covered a large part of the northern hemisphere. The ocean had very low water temperatures, was covered in many places by sea ice and was bordered by glaciers.
Today nothing is left of that subaeric aquasphere. The last free bodies of water disappeared about a billion years ago. Because of the very low air pressure on Mars today, liquid water would quickly freeze or evaporate on its surface. The reasons for the low air pressure - and thus for the water poverty - go back to the early phase of the solar system. According to the hypothesis of the Grand Tack (Great Turnaround), they are particularly related to the giant planet Jupiter: In the protoplanetary disk of the solar system, Jupiter had almost reached its full size after a few million years. He also began to wander into the inner solar system. The immigration of Jupiter swirled the planetesimals of the inner protoplanetary disk. They aggregated into about twenty planetary embryos . When Jupiter got within about one and a half astronomical units of the sun, its direction of travel reversed. That was due to the planet Saturn, which in the meantime had also grown and was now pulling the first giant planet back outwards with its gravity. During the return migration, the inner solar system was whirled through again. Planetary embryos and leftover planetesimals collided with one another, fell into the sun, or were ejected from the solar system. Most objects gathered within a solar distance of up to one astronomical unit. There they let the planets Mercury, Venus and Earth aggregate. Another planetary embryo found itself on an orbit that led around the central star at one and a half astronomical units. It was moving too far out to gain significant mass from impacting objects. That enduring planetary embryo was Mars. Therefore it only has 11% of the mass of the earth. Its low mass, small volume and orbit - all three of which can be traced back to the migration of Jupiter - are seen as the main reasons for today's water poverty:
- Less mass exerted less gravity. Particles of the Martian atmosphere were able to drift into space more easily after being heated and accelerated by the sun.
- A smaller body cooled down faster. Without sufficient heat, convection currents in the iron-rich planetary core came to a standstill. Mars lost its global magnetic field during the first 500 million years. Without a magnetic field, the atmosphere was no longer shielded from the solar wind. The solar wind could tear particles of the Martian atmosphere into space.
- Because of its proximity to the main asteroid belt, Mars was more frequently impacted by main belt asteroids than other celestial bodies in the solar system. Each impact ejected part of the atmosphere that it could hardly hold back because of its low gravity.
Mars has lost up to ninety percent of its atmosphere. In the course of this, an amount of water disappeared that would be sufficient to cover its entire surface several tens of meters deep. The current liquid water resources on Mars are only small. The most recent streams of meltwater appear to have flowed 200,000 years ago. After all, pockets of liquid water in the upper water ice could melt out during the summer. Above all, liquid water exists as adsorption water for loose sediments in low and middle latitudes. Particularly high concentrations of adsorption water could be measured in the sediments of Arabia Terra and Hellas Planitia .
Free droplets from salt water occur even at very shallow depths. In the droplets are perchlorates dissolved, the lower the freezing point of the droplets. This means that water remains liquid longer in cold ambient temperatures. During the Martian southern summer, the subsoil thaws on sun-exposed slopes. Recurring slope lineae can then be observed there. The term translated means “recurring line structure on slopes” and describes dark lines on the surface of Mars with typical finger-like gradients. They are likely due to salt water flowing underground down the slope. A few mud droplets from perchlorate-containing salt water are the only photographic evidence of liquid water beyond the earth so far.
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Outer solar system
In the outer solar system, liquid water is suspected on some moons and comets. The existence of liquid water has so far only been possible indirectly.
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Moons
In the cold expanses of the outer solar system, on the Jupiter moons Europa and Ganymede and the Saturn moons Enceladus and Titan , there is a high probability that liquid water is hidden under layers of ice. It is assumed that their aquasphere are subglacial and deep , that is, are sealed off from the outside by many kilometers of water ice. According to recent evidence, the Jupiter moon Callisto , the Saturn moon Dione , the Uranus moons Titania and Oberon , and the Neptune moon Triton could also hide liquid water under their ice layer.
A subglacial, deep and globally continuous aquasphere is almost certainly located on Jupiter's moon Europa . Europe's aquasphere could be up to 100 km thick. Convection currents form within the subglacial ocean that set the overlying ice in motion and break into plates. In addition to planet Earth, the moon Europa is the only known celestial body with active plate tectonics . A similar aquasphere is also assumed for the Jupiter moon Ganymede . The outer layers of Ganymede could consist of several shells of water-ice. The individual water egg shells would then be separated from one another by many kilometers of thick layers of liquid water. Ganymed's liquid water is salty and probably contains magnesium sulfate. The deeper a layer of liquid water lies, the denser it would be and the higher its salinity would be.
A subglacial, deep and regionally limited aquasphere very likely exists at the south pole region of Saturn's moon Enceladus . She carries salt water. A subglacial, deep and globally continuous aquasphere can also be assumed for the Saturn moon Titan, which is also salty.
The energy for melting the water ice in all four moons is of geothermal origin, which comes from the interior of the celestial bodies. It is assumed that the heat is mostly generated by tidal forces . The gravitational forces of the giant planets and the neighboring moons lead to deformations of the lunar bodies, whereby their inner materials rub against each other . Because of the friction, parts of the kinetic energy are converted into thermal energy - into tidal heat . This simple tidal warmth model has yet to be added for Enceladus and Ganymede. Both moons emit more thermal energy than they can convert from tidal forces in their current orbits. In the case of Enceladus, it is assumed that the moon only recently moved from a slightly different orbit to its current orbit. The energy values that can be measured today would then be the afterglow of the previously stronger tidal heat. With Ganymede, the thermal energy could come from decay heat . It comes from radioactive substances that are stored in the interior of the moon.
Comets
Even the icy dirtballs of comets went through at least one phase in which parts of their water temporarily changed from solid to liquid. This was proven by means of tiny cubanite granules that could be obtained from the tail of comet Wild 2 . Iron copper sulphide of this kind only forms if the necessary raw materials are first dissolved in liquid water. If the cubanite actually formed in the comet itself, at least parts of the comet's nucleus would have to have melted for about a year. The energy for melting could come from different energy sources:
- The cometary nuclei could have collided with other celestial bodies at some point. Then parts of the kinetic energy would have been converted into thermal energy, and the zones around the impact crater could have melted.
- If a comet gets into an orbit that brings it close to the Sun, layers of the comet's nucleus below its surface could melt. This could repeat itself with every approach to the sun.
- In the early days of the solar system, decay heat could have melted cometary nuclei extensively for about a million years. This would have required radioactive materials, which in turn originate from supernovae that must have taken place near the solar system. According to the current state of research, however, it is not certain whether such supernovae actually took place.
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Milky Way
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/GJ_1214_b.jpg/200px-GJ_1214_b.jpg)
Direct evidence of liquid water has not yet been discovered within the Milky Way beyond the solar system. Of all the exoplanets found so far, there is a certain probability that only a few are completely or partially enveloped by liquid water - and thus classified as potentially habitable . The 11.5 billion year old planet Kapteyn b belongs to this group . Furthermore there are perhaps boiling hot oceans on the exoplanet GJ 1214 b .
Aquaspheres of such water planets can be over a hundred kilometers thick. However, aqua spheres cannot be deeper than about 150 kilometers, because even deeper layers of water would change their physical state from liquid to solid due to the pressure of the overlying water. Such high pressure ice would not be cold, but very hot and could even glow white.
In addition to this older concept, a new opinion about the appearance of water planets has emerged. The new opinion no longer assumes that the entire exoplanet must be enveloped by a huge aquasphere. Instead, even with very water-rich exoplanets, a large part of the water should be stored in its interior (in the planetary mantle ). The transport of water into the interior of the planet should take place in a similar way to that on earth - by subduction of oceanic water-containing lithosphere. In this way, a great deal of water could be removed from the surface, so that even continents with dry mainland would be conceivable.
In addition, aquaspheres can still be located below superficial, globally continuous cryospheres - as is assumed for Jupiter's moon Europa. Such a subglacial aquasphere can be assumed for the exoplanet OGLE 2005-BLG-390L b.
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Steam
Water vapor occurs wherever liquid water evaporates or water ice sublimes . Both processes require energy. In the interior of a planetary system, the energy can be supplied by sunlight, which there still has a relatively high illuminance. In the outer planetary system, only other energy sources can generate water vapor. Geothermal processes and impacts come into question .
Solar system
Water vapor is indeed the most volatile physical state of water. In the solar system, however, it is regularly found from a distance of approximately one astronomical unit to the sun.
Inner solar system
In the inner solar system, water vapor can be found in the atmospheres of Mars and Earth. It will continue to be released when comets enter this region. Venus probably once possessed water vapor as well. However, it evaporated into space 3.5 billion years ago because the Venusian atmosphere was strongly heated by the nearby sun.
earth
The earth's atmosphere is very rich in water vapor on average. Most of the water vapor remains in the troposphere . There it sometimes condenses to water clouds or resublimates to ice clouds (→ clouds ). There are around 13,000 cubic kilometers of water in the earth's atmosphere at any given time.
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Mars
The atmosphere of Mars also contains larger amounts of water vapor, even more water vapor than the atmosphere of the earth above the troposphere . The water vapor resublimates to thin cirrus clouds at heights between ten and thirty kilometers .
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Comets
On their way into the inner solar system, comets will cross the orbit of Mars at some point. With this they move into the area with relatively high solar illuminance and high solar wind density. Then the substances of the comet ice below escape from crevices in the comet's dust crust. They sublimate, shoot out into space, and form cometary comets and tails. A lot of water vapor belongs to the sublimated substances.
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Asteroid main belt
In the main asteroid belt, water vapor was discovered around the dwarf planet Ceres. The water vapor escapes from two points on its surface. About six kilograms of water are pushed into space every second. The water vapor could sublime from water ice or come from cryovolcanoes. Also in the main asteroid belt are the objects 133P / Elst-Pizarro and 238P / Read , from which water vapor sublimates from water ice. The celestial bodies 176P / LINEAR and 259P / Garradd also lose water vapor. At Phaethon , the gas comes from the dehydration of crystal water.
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Outer solar system
Water vapor deposits are known from the system of the planet Jupiter. In the south pole region of its moon Europe, fountains of water vapor shoot up to heights of up to 200 kilometers.
Water vapor was also observed in the planet's stratosphere : in mid-July 1994 the fragments of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 had struck. The comet's water then dispersed as water vapor in the Jupiter stratosphere. There it provides 95 percent of all water vapor. The water vapor concentrations in the southern hemisphere are two to three times higher than in the northern hemisphere. The water vapor can resublimate to form water ice clouds.
In the Saturn system, water vapor also exists in several places. It is located in the atmosphere of the gas planet. There the steam resublimates to form water ice clouds. Water vapor also hovers over Saturn's moon Enceladus and comes from the cryovolcanic exhalation of around one hundred geysers. The vapor drifts and forms the starting material for a huge hydroxyl cloud near Saturn. In addition, water vapor exists in the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan.
It is also assumed that there is also water vapor in the lower atmospheric layers of Uranus and Neptune, which also resublimates to form water ice clouds. In all four gas planets, most of the water vapor was probably brought in by impacting small bodies.
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Milky Way
Beyond the limits of the solar system, the water vapor of the Milky Way exists in protoplanetary disks. So it sublimes from finely divided water ice. Examples are the discs of the stars AS 205A , DR Tau and HD 113766 . Water vapor is still found in the cometary tails of the discovered exocomets. So far, however, no water vapor has been found in the atmospheres of Earth-like exoplanets. This could mainly be due to the difficulties in obtaining atmospheric measurement data from such small and distant objects. Accordingly, water vapor has so far only been detected in the gas envelopes of some Jupiter-like exoplanets, namely HD 189733 b , HD 209458 b , XO-1b , WASP-12 b , WASP-17 b , WASP-19 b and Tau Bootis b . In the cold atmosphere of the brown dwarf WISE J085510.83-071442.5, water vapor resublimates to form water ice clouds.
In addition, water vapor is newly formed in the atmospheres of red giant stars and red supergiant stars . They have a layer outside of the photosphere and chromosphere called the MOLsphere . It has several star diameters wide. Small molecules ( CO , CN , SiO ) and dust ( Al 2 O 3 and silicates ) collect in it . The molecules also include hydroxyl (OH) and water (H 2 O). The material for the fabrics is supplied from the star surface. It probably rises with the help of huge convection cells , perhaps aided by Alfvén waves . Most of the small molecules and dust are only formed from the ascended material within the MOLsphere. At this greater distance from the star surface, the temperatures are low enough that the substances do not immediately decompose again. MOLspheres have been discovered at the star Aldebaran , other red giants and Betelgeuse . Water vapor is also formed in the dusty vicinity of the star IRC +10216 , which, as a carbon star , belongs to a special group of red giants.
Water vapor can exist in interstellar nebulas . Its presence has been demonstrated in the compressive region BN-KL of the Orion Nebula . There, every 24 minutes, amounts of water equivalent to all earthly seawater are produced.
There is also water vapor in molecular clouds , for example in the pre-stellar cloud core of Lynds 1544 . The cloud core is a condensed area within the much larger Taurus molecular cloud . Lynds 1544 has so much water that it could fill the earth's oceans two thousand times. The water vapor sublimes from dust grains containing water ice. The energy for sublimation comes from radiation in the far UV range , which comes from other zones of the Milky Way and travels through the molecular cloud.
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Outside the Milky Way
Water vapor is the only physical state of water that has so far been detectable outside the Milky Way. This is due to the distance of the astronomical objects. Very clear evidence of it was found in the spectrometry of the light from the quasar MG J0414 + 0534 . It was 11.1 billion years to reach Earth. In total, water vapor has so far been found in the light of approximately one hundred distant and near galaxies .
The most distant evidence of water vapor comes from the light of the quasar APM 08279 + 5255 . The amount of its water is estimated at one hundred thousand solar masses. That would be about one hundred and forty trillion times all earthly sea water. It took the light rays from the quasar 12.1 billion years to reach Earth. However, according to the common interpretation of the data from the Planck Space Telescope , the Big Bang took place 13.82 billion years ago. As a result, water was present in the observable universe after 1.72 billion years at the latest.
Supercritical water
Deep in the oceans of planet Earth, water escapes from some hydrothermal deep-sea springs in a supercritical state : When it exits, it has a temperature of 407 ° C, but is prevented from boiling due to the pressure of the overlying ocean water. Supercritical water combines properties of the physical states liquid and gaseous. It is assumed that there is further supercritical water on earth: Due to high pressures and temperatures, water deep in the earth's crust and below the lithosphere could also be in a supercritical state (→ deep hydrosphere ).
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See also
literature
- T. Encrenaz: Searching for Water in the Universe . Heidelberg 2007, ISBN 978-0-387-34174-3 .
- VL Frankland: Towards understanding the formation of water on interstellar dust grains . Edinburgh 2011. (Link)
- J. Müller, H. Lesch: Where does the earth's water come from? In: Chemistry in Our Time. No. 37, 2003, pp. 242-246. doi: 10.1002 / ciuz.200300282
- A. Hanslmeier: Water in the Universe . Heidelberg 2010, ISBN 978-90-481-9983-9 .
- F. Wilhelm: Hydrogeography . Braunschweig 1997, ISBN 3-14-160279-4 .
- A. Wolf: Triatomic hydrogen in interstellar clouds and on earth . In: Spectrum of Science . No. 7, 2012, p. 12-14 ( online ).
- Alessandro Morbidelli, et al .: The delivery of water to protoplanets, planets and satellites. Springer, Dordrecht 2019, ISBN 9789402416275 .
Web links
- Water: Life's Elixir in the Solar System jpl.nasa.gov
- Water in the Universe panel discussion, April 2015, NASA @ youtube
Individual evidence
- ↑ Jeffrey Bennett et al.: Astronomy. The cosmic perspective (Ed. Harald Lesch ), 5th, updated edition. Pearson Studium Verlag, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-8273-7360-1 , p. 1048.
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