Japanese Paleolithic

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Hyogo Prefecture Archaeological Museum
Japan at its last glacial maximum during the Pleistocene around 20,000 years ago
- land areas
(white) - without vegetation
- water surface
The black line marks the outline of contemporary Japan

The Japanese Paleolithic ( Japanese 日本 旧石器時代 , Nihon kyūsekki jidai , the "Japanese Paleolithic", in Japan also "Iwajuku culture" or "Pre-ceramic culture" ( 先 土 器 文化 ), sen doki bunka or "Pre-ceramic time" ( 先 土 器 時代 ), sen doki jidai ) denotes the period before the Jōmon time . The dating and naming of prehistoric and early historical cultures, including the Paleolithic, takes place in Japanese archeology on the basis of anthropogenic finds that were discovered during excavations at more than 4600 Upper Paleolithic sites across the country . No written language sources have survived from this period. Wall paintings first appear in the barrows of the Kofun period . The knowledge about the Japanese Paleolithic is therefore essentially based on the archaeological findings. Today it is assumed that the Japanese island world was connected to the mainland several times by land bridges. The findings show that the Japanese archipelago was settled from Siberia via Hokkaidō to Honshū, as well as from China over the Korean peninsula to Kyūshū. These developments are not congruent and they also differ from developments in Europe.

A temporal division depending on the stages of development is therefore very difficult and it also deviates from the temporal division of the Paleolithic in Europe. Further difficulties for the periodization result from the inconsistency of the dating methods and, last but not least, the chronologicalization, especially of the last phase, the Upper Paleolithic, is currently difficult because in 2000 there was a spectacular case of falsification of findings that dates back to the 1970s and over 30 excavation sites concerned, was revealed. This case represents a severe blow to the exploration of the Japanese Paleolithic in particular, because all the affected sites including the artefacts found there were declared meaningless. The earliest beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic is therefore set to be around 45 to 35,000 BC. The oldest human bone finds to date, however, can be dated to around 30,000 before today. The end of the Paleolithic is considered to be the cold relapse of the Younger Dryas period about 10 to 12,000 years before today and the transition to the Mesolithic Jōmon period.

The term Paleolithic or Paleolithic usually includes the three sections Old, Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Research into the Japanese Paleolithic did not begin until after World War II with the discovery of the Iwajuku site. From 1949 to 1960, the different types of stone tools were the focus of attention. Differences between the lithic industries can be understood using the typological characteristics of the knives ( ナ イ フ 型 石器 , naifugata sekki ). By the last third of the 1960s, the matches (Sunagawa) were discovered. Until the mid-1970s, the focus was on identifying the areas of origin of found obsidian stone tools (e.g. by means of fissure trace analysis, English fissing track dating ).

Geology and geography

The Japanese archipelago as we know it today includes the four main islands, Hokkaidō , Honshū , Kyūshū and Shikoku , Okinawa and more than 6800 other islands . The Japanese archipelago was formed from around 16 to two million years ago, from the Miocene to the Pliocene , which preceded the geological phase of the Pleistocene .

Periodization

Overview prehistory
Holocene (➚ early history )
Iron age
  late bronze age  
  middle bronze age
  early bronze age
Bronze age
    Copper Age  
  Neolithic
Mesolithic
Pleistocene     Upper Paleolithic  
    Middle Paleolithic
    Early Paleolithic
  Old Stone Age
Stone age

The paleolithic cultures of the Japanese archipelago did not develop in isolation. Land bridges, which encouraged the spread of man and the migration of animals to the Japanese archipelago, are believed to have occurred at four different times: 630,000 years before, 430,000 years before, 180,000 years before and finally 20,000 years before the Sea of ​​Japan between the continental mainland and The volcanic arch of the island has water depths of over 4000 m, but at the narrow points the seabed rises to just below the current water surface. Land bridges were built during the Ice Age, such as the Soya Strait between Hokkaidō and Sakhalin , where the water depth is only 60 m. The Korean Strait between Kyūshū and Korea with a water depth of 130 to 140 m also fell dry. It is not certain whether the Tsugaru road between Hokkaidō and Honshū also served as a land bridge.

The settlement of the Japanese archipelago was partly determined by the land bridges and led to peculiarities in the diagnostic situation, which resulted in a division into three development zones. A distinction is made between the Japanese heartland with the three large islands Honshū, Shikoku and Kyūshū from Hokkaidō and Ryūkyū. In contrast to the other three islands, Hokkaidō was subject to the influence of Siberia. The Ryūkyū Islands have largely their own, belated development.

Heartland

In Europe, a division of prehistory and early history into temporal segments according to the three- period system introduced by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen is common. This structure is aligned with and based on the findings of archeology. In Japan, prehistory is equated with the Paleolithic, and early history with the Jōmon , Yayoi and Kofun periods . The Paleolithic culture is thus essentially the culture of the geological Pleistocene. It is shaped by the use of stone tools . In Japan, too, the three-part division of the Paleolithic into early or old, middle and upper palaeolithic is now followed. However, the dating goes back further into the past compared to the European one. Because of the small number of finds, the transition from the early to the middle Paleolithic in Japan is (due to) difficult to determine.

The old Paleolithic culture is therefore a culture of the prehistoric and early humans, which extends from the Pliocene five to two million years vh over the old (two million years to 800,000 vh) and the middle Pleistocene (800,000 to 130,000 vh). In contrast to Europe, in Japan the Pliocene and the Gelasian are included in the Old Paleolithic.

The Middle Paleolithic is located with the archaic Homo sapiens in the New Pleistocene (130,000 to 12,000 BC). The actual Upper Paleolithic, i.e. the culture of Homo sapiens sapiens , is seen as the final phase of the Upper Pleistocene around 35,000 years ago. It represents the transition to the Jōmon period, which began around 12,000 to 13,000 BC, and the appearance of the first ceramics.

In addition to the somewhat different dating of the Early Paleolithic, according to Makoto Sahara, other gradations common in Europe are not applicable to Japan. For example, the term Neolithic Revolution proposed by Vere Gordon Childe and now viewed rather critically , which describes the period of the Stone Age in which the transition to ground stone tools, to agriculture and cattle breeding and to the use of ceramics took place. In Japan, however, stone tools can be found to have been ground as early as 30,000 percent, whereas food production, i.e. wet rice cultivation, and sedentarism (only) began with the Yayoi period. The Yayoi period in Europe roughly corresponds to the Iron Age . However, there was never an era in Japan when cutting tools were only made of iron or only bronze. Bronze and iron came to the Japanese archipelago at the same time during the Yayoi period. Therefore, the Yayoi Iron Age follows the Jōmon Neolithic in Japan.

However, there are similarities between the European Mesolithic and the early Jōmon period. The existence of a Upper Paleolithic culture in Japan is documented by first discoveries since 1949 in Iwajuku , Kasagake in Gunma Prefecture . The transition from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Jōmon period is marked by the “ Mikoshiba culture ” ( 御 子 柴 文化 ) with the oldest ceramic finds to date. The Upper Paleolithic is also the culture of Homo sapiens sapiens .

The four phases of the Japanese Paleolithic are:

  • 45,000–36,000 BC end of the Middle Paleolithic
  • 35,000–26,000 BC first half of the Upper Paleolithic (in Europe roughly corresponds to the Gravettian archaeological culture )
  • 25,000–15,000 BC second half of the Upper Paleolithic
  • 14,000–12,000 BC at the end of the Upper Paleolithic

The Paleolithic and the Jōmon period in the archaeological periodization correspond in the historical classification of the primeval times ( 元始 , genshi ); the Yayoi period up to the end of the Heian period correspond to antiquity in Japan ( 古代 , kodai ).

fauna and Flora

Flora (paleobotany)

Picea jezoensis , Mount Oakan , Kushiro , Hokkaidō
Picea koraiensis

The development of the vegetation depends to a large extent on the temperature and the amount of precipitation. The warm Kuroshio , which comes from the south and mainly flows east of Japan, is relevant for the climate of Japan . In the north it meets the cold water of the Oyashio stream. The annual mean rainfall is relatively high (1000 to 3000 mm), although it is unevenly distributed. It is assumed that the Japanese archipelago was largely covered with forest in the Tertiary (1.7 mya) (so-called arctic tertiary flora ). In the colder Quaternary that followed , many Tertiary tree species disappeared, such as the primeval sequoia ( Metasequoia ) and the ginko tree. From approx. 800,000 vh warm (interglacial) and cold periods (glacial) alternated periodically. As a result, according to Shigeru Miki, three types of vegetation can be distinguished:

  • Type A: Interglacial plants with a warm climate: deciduous deciduous trees of the temperate climate, such as Fagus microcorpa , thorn ( Paliurus ), sebum tree ( Sapium sebiferum ) and conifers of the temperate zone, such as the Japanese cedar ( Cryptomeria ) or Japanese cypress ( Camaecyparis )
  • Type B: Temperate zone conifers such as Japanese cedar, Japanese cypress, and oak
  • Type C: Conifers of cool temperate zone, such as the Hokkaidō spruce ( Picea jezoensis ), Korean pine ( Pinus koraiensis ), Dahurian larch ( Larix gmelinii ), hemlock ( Tsuga diversifolia )

The last interglacial, the so-called Shimosueyoshi- sea ​​transgression ( 下 末 吉海 進 , ~ kaishin ) approx. 125,000 vh was characterized by vegetation type A. The first half of the subsequent glacial (up to approx. 60,000 vh) was characterized by vegetation type B, the second half by vegetation type C. Type C approx. 20,000 years ago bears a great deal of similarity to today's vegetation in Japan. Even today, around 70% of the land area is covered with forest. These assumptions are confirmed by findings at the excavation site in Tomisawa, Miyagi Prefecture , which were dated to 23,000 BC.

Wildlife (paleozoology)

The land bridges to the mainland were particularly important for the development of the fauna . Paleonthological research suggests that there were two land bridges between Japan and the mainland during the mid-Pleistocene. The proboscis probably came to about 630,000 vh ( MIS 16) and the Naumann elephant about 430,000 vh (MIS 12) from mainland Korea to Japan.

The migration of large mammals in particular across the land bridge from Korea to Kyūshū seems to have been different from that from Sakhalin to Hokkaidō. So far, in contrast to the heartland, only a few land mammals have been detected on Hokkaidō; including the mammoth, bison, walrus and the Steller sea cow . Mainly, however, the Naumann elephant, the cold steppe mammoth ( M. primigenius ), the Yabei stag, giant deer ( ヤ ベ オ オ ツ ノ シ カ , Sinomegaceros yabei ), the wolf ( Canis lupus ), the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ), the Sika- Deer, the fur seal and Steller's sea lion .

It is assumed that the process of species extinction, especially of the large species: elephant, mammoth and deer, is on the one hand climatic. On the other hand, another important reason is the denser population of the Japanese archipelago with people around 50,000 BC This fact can be seen from the findings of the excavation site in Tategahana, as well as from the fact that there are currently around 5400 palaeolithic sites in the whole Japan that date to 30,000 BC. Therefore, it has recently come to the conclusion that certain large animal species already died out between 30,000 and 20,000 vh (at the time of the transition from MIS 3 to 2) and not, as previously assumed, around 15,000 to 10,000 vh at the beginning of the Jōmon period . This assumption is supported by the fact that so far no Jomon period sites with bone remnants of these species are known.

Overview of mammals, artifacts and odd ungulates in the Pleistocene (heartland)
Common name Scientific name Young Pleistocene Middle Pleistocene Late Pleistocene
Red-toothed shrews Sorex shinto Yes Yes Yes
Stubby-tailed shrews Anourosorex japonicus Yes Yes Yes
East Asian moles Mogera sp. Yes Yes Yes
Forest lemming Myopus schisticolor No Yes Yes
Bank voles Clethrionomys japonicus No Yes Yes
Field mice Microtus epirattipoides Yes Yes Yes
Japanese wood mouse Apodemus speciosus Yes Yes Yes
Japanese dormouse Glirulus japonicus Yes Yes Yes
Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata Yes Yes Yes
Japanese rabbit Lepus brachyurus Yes Yes Yes
wolf Canis lupus Yes Yes Yes
Raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides Yes Yes Yes
Red fox Vulpes vulpes Yes Yes Yes
Collar bear Selenarctos thibetanus Yes No No
Asiatic badger Meles leucurus kuzuuensis Yes Yes Yes
leopard Panthera pardus Yes No No
Proboscis Stegodon orientalis Yes No No
Proboscis Stegodon akashiensis Yes No k. A.
Naumann elephant Palaeoloxodon naumanni Yes Yes Yes
Chinese rhinoceros Rhinoceros sinensis Yes No No
Yabei deer Sinomegaceros yabei Yes Yes Yes
Sika deer Cervus praenipponicus Yes Yes Yes
Real deer Cervus kazusensis Yes Yes k. A.
Moose Alces alces Yes No No
wild boar Sus scrofa Yes Yes k. A.
Siberian musk deer Musk moschiferus Yes Yes k. A.
Steppe bison Bison priscus Yes No No
Aurochs Bos primigenius Yes No No
mammoth Mammuthus parammonteus shigensis Yes Yes k. A.

Naumann elephant

Replica of a Naumann elephant

The Naumann elephant ( palaeoloxodon naumanni ), named after its discoverer Edmund Naumann , the first fossils in Yokosuka in Kanagawa Prefecture discovered. He described the finds in 1882 in his essay On Japanese Elephants of the Early Period and classified the fossils as Elephas namadicus . Jirō Makiyama, who taught at the Imperial University of Tokyo, who examined the fossil finds from Hamamatsu, recognized in 1924 that it must be a new subspecies, which he classified as Elephas namadicus naumanni . In the same year, Tadao Kamei, in his treatise Notes on a fossil elephant from Sahamma, identified the fossils as a new genus that was given the name Palaeoloxodon naumanni .

The Naumann elephant probably came from the continent to Japan over the 430,000 year old land bridge, where it lived from approx. 300,000 to 30,000 vh. He had a shoulder height of about 1.9 to 2.7 m. It was estimated to weigh four to five tons. The shape of the head distinguished it from the African and Indian elephants. Like the mammoth, it was shaggy and had two ivory tusks. The size of the tusks differs in males and females. While they could reach a length of 15 cm to 2.4 m and a diameter of 10 cm in the male, they only reached a length of six to 60 cm in the female. In Japan, fossils of the Naumann elephant were found at 180 sites; One of the most important sites is Lake Nojiri, where fossilized bones were excavated along with human artifacts.

Sites (selection)

The excavation sites and sites listed ( 遺跡 , iseki ) are sorted alphabetically and provide a brief overview, which also includes sites that were affected by the falsified findings.

Hanaizumi ( 花 泉 遺跡 ), also Kanamori ( 金森 )
At Ichinoseki in the prefecture of Iwate , first opened in 1927, the site of discovery is characterized by a multitude of fossilized animal bones: bones of the bison ( 野牛 , yagyū ) and its local expression, the Hanaizumi-Mori-ox ( Hanaizumi mori ushi ), the aurochs ( 原 牛 , gengyū ), the elk ( 箆 鹿 , herajika ), the Megaloceros giganteus ( 大角 鹿 , ōtsuno shika ) and the Naumann elephant. In addition, remains of smaller species and mammals were found, such as the sika deer , the wild boar ( 猪 , inoshishi ), the badger ( 貛 , anaguma ) and the brown hare ( 野 兎 , nōsagi ). Together with fossilized plant remains, the finds could be dated to an age of 35 to 16,000 years using the radiocarbon method.
Hatsune-ga-hara ( 初 音 ヶ 原 遺跡 )
In Hakone in Shizuoka Prefecture , 14 arched holes in the ground , the only one of its kind in Japan, have been found, the function of which is not fully understood. It is believed that they were pitfalls ( 落 と し 穴 , otoshi ana ) for hunting. They date from 27,000 years ago
Hinata-bayashi-B ( 日 向 林 Ｂ 遺跡 )
Not far from Lake Nojiri, only one kilometer away, is the 6500 m² site near Shinano in Nagano Prefecture , which was discovered during road construction work and excavated from 1993 to 1995 . Groups of circular stone blocks with a diameter of 25 to 30 m and 9000 stone tools of various sizes were found here. It is worth mentioning 60 stone axes, 36 of which are made of polished serpentinite . In contrast, a large number of the trapezoidal stone tools found were made from obsidian. 200 of the unearthed finds were declared treasures of Nagano Prefecture ( 長野 県 宝 ).
Hoshino ( 星野 遺跡 )
In Hoshino, ten kilometers northwest of Tochigi in Ibaraki Prefecture , a total of five excavations took place in the years 1965-67, 1973 and 1978. During the excavations, which reached a depth of 14 m, 39 rock layers were identified in which artefacts from the Jōmon period and the Paleolithic were found. The 13 finds from the Paleolithic, which go back to 80,000 years BC, were examined by the archaeologist Serizawa Chōsuke , who teaches in Shizuoka .
(Kami) -Shirataki ( 上 白 滝 遺跡 )
The excavation site is on the Yūbetsu River near Shirataki on Hokkaidō. Here high-quality and boat-shaped obsidian stone tools were found, which were made using the Yūbetsu technique . Two cultural layers can be distinguished, Shirataki I + II (20,000 - 15,500) and (15,000 - 12,000).
(Kami) -Takamori ( 上 高 森 遺跡 )
The Paleolithic hand axes found here at Tsukidate (today: Kurihara ) in 1993 turned out to be Fujimura's falsifications .
Nojiri Lake ( 野 尻 湖 遺跡 )
Yabei deer ( Sinomegaceros yabei )
Nojiri Lake is located on a plateau in the Chūbu region near the village of Shinano , Nagano Prefecture . It is about 4.6 km³ in size, lies at an altitude of 654 above sea level. d. M. and is 38.5 m deep. On the west bank, on the small headland of Tategahana, the Nojiri Lake excavation and research group has excavated an area of ​​150 × 136 m and found stone tools, plant remains and many fossils of the Naumann elephant and the Yabei deer. Today it is assumed that the site on Nojiri Lake served as a cutting and slaughtering site. In 1948, Matsunosuke Kato, a resident hotel owner, found the first artifact of the Middle Paleolithic, the molar of a Naumann elephant, while walking. Up to the year 2000, 14 excavations had taken place, during which more than 23,000 participants recovered over 79,000 fossil finds.
Onbara 1 + 2 ( 恩 原 遺跡 )
In 1981 Takurō Hino found stone arrowheads for the first time in Kagamino in Okayama Prefecture . The site, which is near the border with Tottori prefecture at an altitude of 730 m above sea level. d. M., was systematically excavated between 1984 and 1997 by a team of archaeologists from Okayama University . Trapezoidal hand axes and stone knives dating from 33,000 to 28,000 years ago (Onbara 1) and from 18,000 to 16,000 BC (Onbara 2) were found in four cultural layers .
Shimofure ushibuse ( 下 触 牛 伏 遺跡 )
In Isesaki in Gunma Prefecture in the construction of a pool for a rehabilitation center annularly arranged stone device blocks were discovered with a diameter of 50 m; the remains of the settlement, fireplace and stone tools are about 30,000 percent old.
Suzuki ( 鈴木 遺跡 )
The site was discovered in 1971 during the construction of the Suzuki Elementary School in Kodaira , Tokyo . In addition to stone knives, a large number of settlement remains were found here, including eight excavation dwellings from around 30,000 vh. Between 1974 and 1980, approx. 112,500 finds were recovered from an area of ​​14,000 m².
Tanamukai-hara ( 田 名 向原 遺跡 )
Here in Sagamihara in Kanagawa Prefecture , in addition to a large number of spearheads, 12 post holes were found, which are arranged in a circle with a diameter of ten meters and which, with two hearths, date from the period from 20,000 to 18,000 BC. The archaeological site and park were declared a national historical site in 1999.
Tomisawa ( 富 沢 遺跡 )
Tomisawa is an approximately 90-hectare excavation site in Sendai in Miyagi Prefecture , which was opened up on the occasion of an expansion of the subway in 1987 and 1988. It revealed the remains of fireplaces, wood, insects in three layers of rot and about 111 stone artefacts, with which they provided important information about the way of life 20,000 BC. The city of Sendai has set up an underground forest museum ( 地 底 の 森 ミ ュ ー ジ ア ム , chitei no mori myujiamu ), in which you can see the paleolithic swamp forest at the time of its excavation.
Yamada-ue-no-dai ( 山田 上 ノ 台 遺跡 )
Is an excavation site in the Taihaku district of Sendai . In three excavations (1980, 1984 and 2002) 80 stone artefacts were found here, dating from 10-30,000 years ago.
Yu-no-sato ( 湯 の 里 遺跡 )
Is an excavation site near Shiriuchi-chō, Hokkaidō , in which graves and teardrop-shaped pearls from the Paleolithic and Jōmon periods were found. 14 of these finds were declared important cultural assets in 1991 .
Zazaragi ( 座 散乱 木 遺跡 )
The excavation site is at Iwade-yama-machi Ōsaki in Miyagi Prefecture . Paleolithic artefacts dating back to 40,000 vh were discovered here in 1982, which in 2000 turned out to be falsifications. Although they were archaeological artifacts, research showed that they were more recent and dated from the Jōmon to the Kofun times. Due to the counterfeit the excavation site in 2002 lost the classification as a national historic site , by the Agency for Cultural Affairs was granted 1996th

Finds

Stone tools

Polished stones or axes. Hinatabayashi B , Shinanomachi , Nagano ; approx. 30,000 BC BC Tokyo National Museum .

Most of the finds come from acidic, aeolian sedimentary layers . As materials were obsidian , shale , Sanukit, chert , ASO tuff , andesite , rhyolite , chert and shale (clay stone) was used.

The difficulty with these finds is usually to determine whether the stone artifacts were deliberately worked and manufactured by humans or whether they are natural environmental influences. The oldest datable stone finds that can be said to have been deliberately made date back to 40,000 to 50,000 years ago ( MIS 3). Such stone tools were found in Ishinomoto ( 石 の 本 遺跡 ) in Hirayama, near Kumamoto on Kyūshū. Often, stone axes ( 局部 磨 砕 石斧 , kyokubu masai sekifu ) ground on the cut edge were found on slaughter areas together with the remains of the Naumann elephant.

Jun Suwama divided the stone tools excavated from the Sagamino Terraces into ten levels. According to Akira Ono, two development phases can be read off from this gradation: he describes the first development phase as the back knife culture; it includes levels I to IIX in Suwama's classification. The culture of the back knives is specific to Japan and can be distinguished from other finds in Europe, for example. The second development phase, which corresponds to levels IX and X, follows the first by 14,000 to 12,000 percent and is known as microblade culture. The distinction also serves to divide the Upper Paleolithic into two sections.

The back knife culture initially includes trapezoidal stone tools ( 台 形 石器 , daikei sekki ) and stone axes with a cut edge . As a result, the blade technique emerged and obsidian was used as a material. This was followed by back knives made of short cross cuts and pyramid-shaped stone tools. The blades disappeared briefly, and spear-shaped points ( 槍 先 形 尖頭 器 , yarisakigata sentōki ) appeared. In the microblade culture, however, a distinction is made between microblades of the type: Nodake ( ノ 岳 型 ), Yasumiba-gata ( 休 場 型 ) and boat-shaped blades funabo . It can be said that in northern Japan and Siberia mainly wedge-shaped, in southern Japan as well as in China conical micro-blades were manufactured.

The following list gives an overview of the development of stone tools in the Upper Palaeolithic, taking into account regional features. The last phase (VI) corresponds to the microblade culture (levels IX and X according to Suwama). Phase V corresponds to the transition from back knife culture to microblade culture. In this section the spear-shaped tips predominate.

Development of the stone equipment industry taking regional characteristics into account
Time [vh] phase Kyushu Kinki, Chūgoku, Shikoku Kanto Chūba Tōhoku Hokkaidō
13,000 VI Yadegawa technique (microblades)
( 矢 出 川 技法 ) 		Yadegawa technique (microblades)
Araya type
( 荒 屋 型 彫刻刀 ) with Yūbetsu technique 		Yūbetsu technique (microblades) Yūbetsu technique (microblades) Yūbetsu technique (microblades) Yūbetsu technique (microblades)
V Industry of tips
(<10 cm) 		Industry of tips
(<10 cm) 		Industry of tips
(<10 cm) 		Industry of tips
(<10 cm)
20,000 IV Back knives of the Tanuki-dan & Kyūshū type ( 九州 型 )
Hi-no-take type ( 日 ノ 岳 型 ) & Hyakkadai type ( 百花 台 型 ) 		Flank tee technique & Miyatayama knife ( 宮 田 山 型 ) Moro knife
( 茂 呂 型 ) 		Higashiyama knife ( 東山 型 ) trapezoidal back knife
25,000 Aira Caldera volcanic ash layer (AT)
25,000 III Tanuki-dan & Kyūshū-type ( 九州 型 )
back knife Ezarugi-type? ( 技 末 木 型 ) & Haru no tsuji type ( 原 の 辻 型 ) 		Setouchi technique ( 瀬 戸 内 技法 ) & Kou knife ( 国 府 型 ) pyramidal stone tools
( 角 錐状 石器 , kakusuijō sekki ) 		pyramidal stone tools
( 角 錐状 石器 , kakusuijō sekki ) 		Higashiyama knife ( 東山 型 ), Sugikubo knife ( 杉 久保 型 ) Hirosato knife ( 広 郷 型 ナ イ フ )
II short haircuts short haircuts, preliminary stage of the Setouchi technique ( 瀬 戸 内 技法 ) short haircuts short cuts
Sugikubo knife ( 杉 久保 型 ) 		long cuts
Sugikubo knife ( 杉 久保 型 ) 		long discounts
35,000 I. trapezoidal stone tools & cut stone axes cut stone axes cut stone axes cut stone axes cut stone axes trapezoidal stone tools

The microblade culture spread to Honshū 13,000 vh, which was immediately followed by the Mikoshiba culture . On the site of the same name, Mikoshiba Fundplatz ( 御 子 柴 遺跡 ), which also serves as the namesake, oval blocks (6.5 m long) were excavated. These blocks consisted of stone tools with a working point ( 尖頭 器 , sentōki ) and partially ground stone axes. On Hokkaidō, the microblade culture appeared around 20,000 vh and thus much earlier, but there was no pronounced back knife culture there. No back knife culture has been found on Okinawa either.

An exciting, as yet unanswered question is the connection between the make supply system and the raw material supply system. Excavations have shown that the workplaces for raw material extraction and raw material processing are sometimes far apart. Stone tools, especially tools made from lydite and obsidian, were not always made at the place where the stone blanks were extracted. According to the current find situation, obsidian seems to have been processed primarily at the beginning and at the end of the Upper Paleolithic. For example, 1092 pieces of obsidian from six different mining sites were found during excavations in Doteue ( 土 手上 遺跡 ) on Mount Ashitaka ( 愛 鷹山 ), in Shizuoka Prefecture . 495 of these discounts come from the island of Kōzu-shima , to which there was no land bridge and which was far too far off the Japanese coast to be reached without aids. In this context, it is controversial whether and how the raw materials were transported to the place of processing or whether they reached their destination through exchange.

Bone finds (paleology)

Model of the Minatogawa man, National Museum of Natural Sciences , Tokyo

Due to the small number of human bone finds, it has so far not been possible to differentiate reliably between Homo sapiens sapiens and its predecessors using stone tools alone . An exception is the Minatogawa man, who could be identified as Homo sapiens sapiens .

  • Akashi prehistoric man ( 明石 原人 , Nipponanthropus akashiensis ), Hyōgo prefecture , discovered on April 18, 1931, a hip bone fragment, original burnt in 1945 during an air raid on Tokyo.
  • Hamakita man ( 浜 北 人 ): 1960 to 62 in a cave in Hamakita (today: Hamamatsu , Hamakita District), human bone fossils found in Shizuoka Prefecture of a woman in her 20s (skull, lower jaw, fragment of a tibia, collarbone, Humerus, ulna, fragment of an iliac bone ) dated to 17,900 vh
  • Hijiri-daki cave ( 聖 嶽 洞穴 , ~ dōketsu ): stalactite cave in Saiki in Ōita prefecture , 45.5 m deep, 240 m above sea level. d. M. and 190 m high from the bottom of the valley, discovered by local residents in 1961, first researched in 1962 under the direction of Professor Mitsuo Kagawa, trapezoidal obsidian stone tools and fossil human bones, bones resemble according to the study of the anatomist Tamotsu Ogawa ( 小 片 保 ) from Niigata University the Shandingdong man , in 1999, fluorine was detected in a second examination, which cast doubt on the authenticity of the finds.
  • Mikkabi-Mensch ( 三 ヶ 日人 ), seven, bone fragments unearthed in Shizuoka Prefecture in 1959, five skull fragments, fragment of an iliac bone, and fragment of a femur, presumably from two different adult men and a woman, height (of the men) approx. 150 cm
  • Minatogawa man Yamahita-cho cave Okinawa 18,000 18,250 ± 650 years BP and 16,600 ± 300 years, with a height of 153 to 155 cm, resembles the Liujiang man from Guangxi and the Zhenpiyan man from South China or the Lang-Cuom and Phobinhgia man in northern Indochina.
  • Pinza-abu-Cave ( ピ ン ザ ア ブ 洞穴 ) on Miyako ( 宮 古 島 ), teeth of rodents ( Microtus ) 25,800 to 26,800 vh
  • Yamashita Cave No. 1 ( 山下 町 第 １ 洞穴 ) in Naha , Okinawa: In 1968, a team of researchers from Waseda University found remains of the bones of a six to eight-year-old child. Including a tibia, fibula (both in situ ) and a femur (layer VI 50 cm deep), which could be dated to 32,100 ± 1000 vh using the radiocarbon method.

Also of interest for Japanese archeology are bone finds from recent years on the neighboring Korean peninsula. The most important places where fossil human bones are found in Korea include: Yokpori Daehyundong ( Homo erectus , Middle to Young Pleistocene), Dokchon Soongnisan ( Homo sapiens , Middle to Young Pleistocene), Ryonggok Cave ( Homo sapiens , 400–500 BC / 46– 48%), Mandalli ( Homo sapiens , Young Pleistocene), Kumchon ( Homo sapiens , Young Pleistocene, 30%), Chommal ( Homo sapiens , Young Pleistocene, 40–60%), Sangsi ( Homo sapiens , Young Pleistocene, 30 percent), Turubong Hungsugul grotto (Homo sapiens sapiens, 40–50 percent)

Traces of settlement

The first traces of settlement in the Stone Age, which indicate the presence of humans, mainly include fire pits, slaughterhouses and post holes. Paleolithic man seems to have hardly used natural structures such as caves and rock overhangs. Rather, he lived on the edges of terraces, near small rivers.

The sites have three types of findings: stone tool blocks ( 石器 ブ ロ ッ ク ; sekki burokku ) with stone collections and cuttings, pebble groups with burned river pebbles and burned wood. Hearths with stone frames, such as those at the Nodai site, are rarer. Around 30,000 vh stone circles appear for the first time, i. H. blocks arranged in a ring ( 環状 ブ ロ ッ ク , kanjō burokku ).

For example, at the Kashiwadai I ( 柏 台 1 遺跡 ) site in Hokkaidō, remains of dugouts were discovered that date back to 20,500 BC. In addition, seven stone blocks with a diameter of 5 m and a fireplace in the middle were found. It is believed that the dwellings did not have a fixed structure, but that tents served as protection from the weather. So it seems as if the permanent dwellings of the Jōmon period were preceded by tents as dwellings.

So far around 150 pitfalls have been discovered at twelve different sites. The pitfalls are usually 1.5 m in diameter and are believed to have been used to catch wild boar and deer.

Falsification of findings

The Fujimura case

On November 5, 2000, a Mainichi-Shimbun newspaper article shook the world of archaeological exploration of the Upper Paleolithic. The article showed on the basis of a photo evidence, such as Shin'ichi Fujimura , chairman of the "Research Institute for Paleolithic Cultures Northeast Honshus" ( 東北 旧石器 研究所 , Tōhoku Kyūsekki Bunka Kenkyūjo ) stone tools that came from the Jōmon period at various excavation sites in dug a deeper layer of earth. He himself found these inlaid finds in a spectacular way, which is why he was nicknamed the "Hand of God" in the mass media. By placing the finds in deeper layers of the earth, the stratigraphic classification was incorrect and the finds were declared to be too old.

In 2001, a “Special Research Committee to Investigate the Problem of Old and Middle Paleolithic Stone Tools ” ( 全 中期 旧石器 問題 調査 研究 特別 委員会 , Zen Chūki Kyūsekki Mondai Chōsa Kenkyū Tokubetsu Iinkai ) was founded under the direction of Mitsunori Tozawa. The investigation showed that Fujimura had made almost 40 falsifications of findings on ancient and middle Paleolithic sites in seven prefectures since the 1970s. As a consequence, all ancient and middle Paleolithic sites where Fujimura was present, including all finds recovered there, were declared meaningless. The exploration of the Paleolithic was thus de facto thrown back to the beginning. Fujimura was present at 148 of 212 excavation sites in Miyagi Prefecture.

The Kagawa case

Barely a year after Fujimura's forgeries were uncovered, and before the Special Investigative Committee was formed, another suspicion of fraud sacked Japanese archeology. In its January 25, February 1, and March 15 issues, the Shukan Bunshun claimed that the findings in the Hijiridaki Cave were falsified. Professor Mitsuo Kagawa ( 賀川光 夫 ) of Beppu University was suspected of forging . However, these claims turned out to be false and untenable. Although there was no forgery, public abuse led to Professor Kagawa's suicide on March 9, 2001 . On July 15, 2004, the Fukuoka Supreme Court followed the Supreme Court's decision and dismissed the magazine's appeal . The Supreme Court had ordered the Shukan Bunshu to pay 9.2 million yen in damages and to publish an apology on the bereaved family's lawsuit.

literature

  • Fumiko Ikawa-Smith: Chronological Framework for the Study of the Palaeolithic in Japan . In: Asian Perspectives . XIX (1), April 23, 1976, p. 61-90 .
  • Keiji Imamura: Prehistoric Japan: New Perspective on Insular East Asia . University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1996, ISBN 0-8248-1853-9 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • Symposium Archeology in Japan - Upheavals and Continuities . A Japanese-European Discussion 21.-24. November 2004. In: Japanisch-Deutsches Zentrum Berlin (Ed.): Jdzb documentation . tape 8 . iudicium, 2006, ISBN 3-89129-948-6 , ISSN  1610-3602 (terminological not yet completely standardized.).
  • Constantin V. Kremenetski, Kam-biu Liu, Glen M. MacDonald: 1 The late Quaternary dynamics of pines in northern Asia . In: DM Richardson (Ed.): Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus . Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 95–106 (English, lsu.edu [PDF; accessed September 20, 2013]).
  • Christopher J. Norton, Youichi Kondo, Akira Ono, Yingqi Zhang, Mark C. Diab: The nature of megafaunal extinctions during the MIS 3–2 transition in Japan . In: Quaternary International . tape 211 . Elsevier, 2010, p. 113–122 (English, hawaii.edu [PDF; accessed on September 22, 2013]).
  • Shizuo Oda, Charles T. Keally: 宮城 県 の 旧石器 及 び 「前期 旧石器」 時代 研究 批判 (A Critical Look at the Palaeolithic and “Lower Palaeolithic” Research in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan) . In: 日本 人類 学会 (Ed.): 人類学 雑 誌 . tape 94 , no. 3 , 1986, pp. 325–361 (Japanese, jpn.org - with English abstract).
  • Peter Neal Peregrine, Melvin Ember (Eds.): Encyclopedia of Prehistory. tape 3 : East Asia and Oceania . Springer, 2001, ISBN 0-306-46257-5 (English, limited preview in the Google book search).
  • Werner Steinhaus: Small dictionary on Japanese archeology - Japanese-German (=  writings on Japanese archeology I ). epubli, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-86931-803-5 .
  • Tsutsumi Takashi: MIS3 edge-ground axes and the arrival of the first Homo sapiens in the Japanese archipelago . In: Quaternary International . Elsevier, 2011, doi : 10.1016 / j.quaint.2011.01.030 (English, ne.jp [PDF; accessed on September 21, 2013]).
  • Alfried Wieczorek, Werner Steinaus, Research Institute for Cultural Goods Nara (Ed.): Time of Dawn. Japan's archeology and history up to the first emperors. Volume 1: Catalog volume . (Publications of the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums, Volume 10). Translated into German by Gabriele Katrop-Fukui and others Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, Mannheim 2004, ISBN 3-927774-17-0 .
  • Alfried Wieczorek, Werner Steinaus, Research Institute for Cultural Goods Nara (Ed.): Time of Dawn. Japan's archeology and history up to the first emperors. Volume 2: Manual. (Publications of the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums, Volume 11). Translated into German by Gabriele Katrop-Fukui and others Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, Mannheim 2004, ISBN 3-927774-18-9 .

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ The two terms "Iwajuku culture" and "Pre-ceramic culture" are mainly used in Japan and are not widely used internationally because of their lack of universality.
  2. ↑ Note: The designation prehistory and early history is not an archaeological term. It comes from the periodization scheme of the historical sciences. As such, he primarily designates the prescribed time.
  3. ↑ Note that geology, history and archeology and antiquity come to different time divisions ( periodization ) and names depending on different sources on which they are based . These classifications are neither between the scientific disciplines nor for different geographical regions such as Asia and Europe.
  4. ↑ One can therefore still find classifications that only differentiate between an early and a late Paleolithic, for example in the publication of the Japanese German Center Berlin (jdzb) on the Archeology Symposium in Japan , 2004.
  5. ↑ The period from 130,000 to 100,000 vh is found as dating
  6. ↑ Note: The overview is not complete; he names the most important large animal species as examples.
  7. ↑ The term iseki is part of the Japanese name in the list, but not part of the German translation.
  8. ↑ The finds are now kept in the Nojiri See Naumann Elephant Museum on the lake and made available to the public.
  9. ↑ For obtaining micro-blades from a conically prepared core.
  10. ^ Back tip with retouched base, Steinhaus p. 74
  11. ↑ (flanks) cross tee technique , hit point on the long side of the tee .
  12. ↑ Long, narrow blade with retouched base.
  13. ↑ a b c A block denotes a location within a site with a high density of finds. A plurality of blocks together form a unit ( unit ). After Steinhaus, p. 155.
  14. ↑ For the source category workplaces, see: Manfred KH Eggert : Prehistoric Archeology , Tübingen, Basel, A. Francke Verlag, 2012, ISBN 978-3-8252-3696-0 , pp. 87–90.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ 先 土 器 時代 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved April 20, 2013 (Japanese).
  2. ↑ a b c after Inada Takashi: 御 子 柴 遺跡 の 謎 . In: 遊動 す る 旧石器 人 (先 史 日本 を 復 元 す る 1) . Retrieved on November 17, 2013 (Japanese, with a picture of the tent-like dwellings in the earth pit (図 90) and excavated stone artifacts from the Mikoshiba culture, undated).
  3. ↑ Akira Ono: Early Traces of Settlement: The First Humans - The Paleolithic. In: time of dawn. Volume 10, catalog volume, 2004, p. 20.
  4. ↑ a b Keiji Imamura: Prehistoric Japan: New Perspective on Insular East Asia . University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1996, pp. 3–4 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  5. ↑ a b c d Tsuji Seiichiro: The flora of the Japanese island chain from the Pleistocene to the Holocene. In: Zeit der Morgenröte, Handbuch, pp. 47–51.
  6. ↑ Mutsuhiko Minaki: 日本 の 中 ・ 後期 更新世 の 針葉樹 化石 と 大型 植物 化石 群集 の 三 つ の 類型 (Fossil Conifers from the Middle to Late Pleistocene of Japan and Three Types of Plant Macrofossil Assemblages). (PDF; 1.0 MB) 植 生 史 研 , June 1989, pp. 19–31 , accessed on November 14, 2013 (Japanese).
  7. ↑ Takehiko Watanabe: Environment and life around 20,000 before today. In: time of dawn. Volume 10, catalog volume, 2004, p. 25.
  8. ↑ Christopher J. Norton, Youichi Kondo, Akira Ono, Yingqi Zhang, Mark C. Diab: The nature of megafaunal extinctions during the MIS 3–2 transition in Japan . In: Quaternary International . 2010, p. 114 ( hawaii.edu [PDF; accessed September 22, 2013]). The nature of megafaunal extinctions during the MIS 3–2 transition in Japan ( Memento of the original from October 24, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.anthropology.hawaii.edu
  9. ↑ a b Christopher J. Norton, Youichi Kondo, Akira Ono, Yingqi Zhang, Mark C. Diab: The nature of megafaunal extinctions during the MIS 3–2 transition in Japan . In: Quaternary International . tape 211 . Elsevier, 2010, p. 113–122 (English, hawaii.edu [PDF; accessed on September 22, 2013]). The nature of megafaunal extinctions during the MIS 3–2 transition in Japan ( Memento of the original from October 24, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.anthropology.hawaii.edu
  10. ↑ Yoshinari Kawamura: Mammals of the Japanese island chain from the Pleistocene to the Holocene . In: time of dawn. Japan's archeology and history up to the first emperors (=  publications of the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen Volume 11 ). Munich 2004, p. 40-44 .
  11. ↑ 展示 室 に あ る 標本 . Osaka Museum of Natural History, 2002, accessed September 23, 2013 (Japanese, images of archaeological finds of Sinomegaceros yabei ).
  12. ^ I. + E. Seibold: News from the geologists' archive. Springer Verlag, 1992, pp. 601-603 , accessed on August 25, 2013 .
  13. ↑ ナ ウ マ ン 象 に 出 会 っ た 石器 た ち 「-3 万 ５ 千年 前 の 石器 製作 跡 か? . (PDF; 2.2 MB) か な が わ 県 民 セ ン タ ー , 2008, accessed on August 25, 2013 (Japanese).
  14. ↑ a b c Akira Ono: Early traces of settlement: The first humans - The Paleolithic. In: time of dawn. Volume 1, catalog volume, 2004, p. 19.
  15. ↑ a b ナ ウ マ ン ゾ ウ の 化石 . (No longer available online.) Taga City Museum, 2009, archived from the original on February 29, 2012 ; Retrieved August 25, 2013 (Japanese, with illustrations). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / museum.tagatown.jp
  16. ↑ 湖 周 辺 の 動物 相 . (PDF) Kubota, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese, undated).
  17. ↑ ハ ナ イ ズ ミ モ リ ウ シ . (No longer available online.) Iwate Prefecture, archived from original on April 25, 2008 ; Retrieved August 25, 2013 (Japanese, undated). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.pref.iwate.jp
  18. ↑ お と し 穴 か？ 土 抗 を 発 見 （先 土 器 時代 . Mishima City, 2006, accessed August 30, 2013 (Japanese).
  19. ↑ Takehiko Watanabe: Hinata-bayashi-B: A site from the first half of the Upper Paleolithic in Central Honshū. In: time of dawn. Volume 1, catalog volume, 2004, p. 22.
  20. ↑ 日 向 林 Ｂ 遺跡 (Hinatabayashi B site). Japanese Paleolithic Research Association, accessed August 24, 2013 (Japanese, undated).
  21. ↑ 長野 県 文化 財 保護 審議 会 へ の 諮 問 に つ い て . (PDF) (No longer available online.) Nagano Prefecture Education Committee, formerly original ; Retrieved August 24, 2013 (Japanese, undated).  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.pref.nagano.lg.jp  
  22. ↑ 星野 遺跡 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved April 20, 2013 (Japanese).
  23. ↑ 上 高 森 遺跡 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved April 20, 2013 (Japanese).
  24. ↑ 上 高 森 遺跡 問題 等 に つ い て の 委員会 見解 . Japanese Archaeological Association at kotobank.jp, November 12, 2000, accessed August 20, 2013 (Japanese).
  25. ↑ Takashi Uchiyama: Quaternary Stratigraphy and Paleoenvironments of the Tategahana Paleolithic Site In Nojiri-ko (Lake Nojiri), central Japan. (No longer available online.) International Union for Quaternary Research, 2011, archived from the original on June 10, 2015 ; accessed on June 23, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.inqua2011.ch
  26. ^ Nojiri-ko Excavation Research Group: The late-Quaternary environment around Lake Nojiri in Central Japan . In: RG Coleman, EH Juvigné (Ed.): Reconstruction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Proceedings of the 29th International Geological Congress . Part B. Utrecht, Tokyo 1994, ISBN 90-6764-174-X (English, limited preview in Google Book Search [accessed July 15, 2013]).
  27. ↑ Yoshikatsu Nakamura: The No-jiri lake at the time of the Naumann elephant. In: Zeit der Morgenröte, Vol. 2, pp. 44–47.
  28. ↑ 恩 原 １ ・ ２ 遺跡 (Onbara 1 and 2 sites). Japanese Paleolithic Research Association, accessed August 24, 2013 (Japanese, undated).
  29. ↑ 群 馬 の 遺跡 ・ 出土 品 ま い ぶ ん ギ ャ ラ リ ー . Gunma Archaeological Research Foundation, 2009, accessed August 30, 2013 (Japanese, with illustrations of the stone tools in chronological order).
  30. ↑ 旧石器時代 の 鈴木 遺跡 の 概要 と 人 々 の 暮 ら し . KSNC, August 2006, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese, with many illustrations).
  31. ↑ Akira Ono: Early Traces of Settlement: The First Humans - The Paleolithic. In: time of dawn. Volume 1, catalog volume, 2004, p. 21.
  32. ↑ 史跡 田 名 向原 遺跡 . (No longer available online.) Sagamihara City, 2009, archived from the original on December 3, 2013 ; Retrieved August 25, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.city.sagamihara.kanagawa.jp
  33. ↑ 史跡 名勝 天然 記念 物 . Cultural Affairs Office, 2013, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese).
  34. ↑ 富 沢 遺跡 Tomizawa site. Japanese Palaeolithic Research Association, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese, Illustrated, undated).
  35. ↑ 富 沢 遺跡 と 西 台 畑 遺跡 . (No longer available online.) Sendai City, archived from the original on December 2, 2013 ; Retrieved August 25, 2013 (Japanese, with illustrations, undated). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.city.sendai.jp
  36. ↑ 地 底 の 森 ミ ュ ー ジ ア ム (Revival of the World of the Glacial Period). (No longer available online.) Sendai City, archived from the original on August 20, 2013 ; Retrieved August 30, 2013 (Japanese, Official Website of the Forest Museum, undated). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.city.sendai.jp
  37. ↑ 山田 上 ノ 台 遺跡 に つ い て . (No longer available online.) Sendai City, archived from the original on July 16, 2013 ; Retrieved August 22, 2013 (Japanese, undated). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.city.sendai.jp
  38. ↑ 湯 の 里 遺跡 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved April 25, 2013 (Japanese).
  39. ↑ 北海道 湯 の 里 ４ 遺跡 土 壙 出土 品 . Cultural Heritage Online, accessed August 24, 2013 (undated).
  40. ↑ 座 散乱 木 遺跡 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved April 20, 2013 (Japanese).
  41. ^ A b c d e Inada Takashi: Settlement and Hunting in the Japanese Upper Palaeolithic Period , in Archeology in Japan, pp. 30–42.
  42. ↑ Jun Suwama ( 諏 訪 間 順 ): 相 模 野 旧石器 編 年 と 寒冷 期 の 適 応 過程 . In: Kagaku . tape 72 , no. 6 . Iwanami Shoten, June 2002, ISSN  0022-7625 , p. 636–643 (Japanese, with illustration).
  43. ↑ Own illustration based on Takashi Tsutsumi: Regional differences in the Upper Palaeolithic . In: Zeit der Morgenröte , pp. 61–66.
  44. ↑ a b c d e f 旧石器時代 . (No longer available online.) 歴 史 の 時間 , Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 ; Retrieved September 22, 2013 (Japanese, undated). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / rekisi.jimdo.com
  45. ↑ 荒 屋 遺跡 Araya site. Japanese Palaeolithic Research Association, accessed September 22, 2013 (Japanese, undated).
  46. ^ Akira Ono: The Upper Palaeolithic of the Japanese Archipelago: Dating and Criteria for Comparison. In: Archeology in Japan, 2006, p. 23.
  47. ↑ 明石 原人 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved October 6, 2013 (Japanese).
  48. ↑ 浜 北 人 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved October 6, 2013 (Japanese).
  49. ↑ 聖 嶽 洞穴 (Hijiridaki Cave). (PDF; 363 kB) 立 歴 史 民俗 博物館 春 成 研究室 , December 1, 1999, accessed on August 30, 2013 (Japanese).
  50. ↑ 縄 文 時代 の 人 骨 . In: Ogata Collection. Retrieved September 19, 2013 (Japanese, undated).
  51. ↑ 三 ヶ 日人 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved October 6, 2013 (Japanese).
  52. ↑ Kaneko Yukibumi, Hasegawa Yoshikazu: 琉球 列島 宮 古 島 ピ ン ザ ア ブ 洞穴 に お け る 化石 ハ タ ネ ズ ミ 科 臼 歯 に つ い て (Some Fossil Arvicolidents Island, the Japan) Rodyu Islands from the Pinza-Abu Cave, Miyakyo Cave. In: Bulletin of the Biogeographical Society of Japan. November 1995 Retrieved on November 16, 2013 (Japanese).
  53. ↑ Oda Shizuo: ピ ン ザ ア ブ 洞穴 と 南 琉球 の 旧石器 文化 (Pinza-Abu Cave and the Palaeolithic Culture in South Ryukyu). (No longer available online.) In: 南島 考古 . 沖 縄 考古学 会 , June 2010, pp. 1–20 , archived from the original on June 8, 2012 ; Retrieved November 16, 2013 (Japanese). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ao.jpn.org
  54. ↑ Hisashi Fujita: 人類学 か ら 見 た 琉球 列島 (Anthropological Study in the Ryuku Island). In: 旧石器 考古学 . Academia.edu, 2011, pp. 13-16 , accessed September 13, 2013 (Japanese).
  55. ↑ Oda Shizuo: 山下 町 第 １ 洞穴 出土 の 旧石器 に つ い て . (No longer available online.) 2003, archived from the original on January 15, 2013 ; Retrieved November 18, 2013 (Japanese). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ao.jpn.org
  56. ^ Christopher J. Norton: The current state of Korean paleoanthropology . In: Journal of Human Evolution . No. 38 , 2000, pp. 803–825 , doi : 10.1006 / jhev.1999.0390 (English, hawaii.edu [PDF; accessed on November 13, 2013]). The current state of Korean paleoanthropology ( Memento of the original from October 24, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.anthropology.hawaii.edu
  57. ^ The Early Upper-Palaeolithic edge-ground stone axes of Japan. June 19, 2012, accessed on November 15, 2013 (English, with illustrations of Takashi's findings).
  58. ↑ Suda Tsutomu: Trends in Japanese Archaeological Research, 2010. (PDF; 153 kB) The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012, pp. 1–10 , accessed on September 19, 2013 (English).
  59. ↑ 旧石器時代 遺跡 ね つ 造 事件 . In: デ ジ タ ル 版 日本人 名 大 辞典 + Plus at kotobank.jp. Retrieved April 20, 2013 (Japanese).
  60. ↑ 埋 蔵 文化 財 ｜ 藤 村 氏 関 与 旧石器時代 遺跡 一 覧 . Miyagi Prefecture, September 10, 2012, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese).
  61. ↑ 埋 蔵 文化 財 ｜ 「旧石器 発 掘 ね つ 造 関係 遺跡 の 検 証 調査 結果 と そ の 取 扱 い」 . Miyagi Prefecture, September 10, 2012, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese).
  62. ↑ 週刊 文 春 の 敗訴 確定 遺跡 ね つ 造 疑惑 の 名誉 棄 損 . 47 News, July 15, 2004, accessed August 25, 2013 (Japanese).