Cocoa bean

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Fruit and seeds of the cocoa tree
Whole and halved cocoa pods (with or without cocoa beans)
Small picture below: three cocoa beans (raw, fermented, roasted)
Cocoa beans

The seeds of the cocoa tree are called cocoa beans . They are enclosed in large numbers (25–50) in the fruit, are ovate, more or less flattened and generally purple or reddish in color. Its shell consists of a thin, brittle outer shell and a fine, whitish, inner membrane that surrounds the core, penetrates it and divides it several times. Cocoa beans have a slightly pungent and bitter taste. In order to soften this heat a little, to develop a special aroma and to make it easier to remove the peel later, they are lightly fermented ; they can also be treated with steam and then dried. Cocoa beans are roasted to make it easier to peel, to make the core more grindable , to remove the bitter substances and to improve the aroma . Then the beans are crushed by roller breakers and the germs are loosened; further processing will separate the shells, membranes and germs from the broken kernels.

etymology

The word "cocoa" comes from the Spanish word "cacao", which in turn comes from cacahuatl from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs . It found its way into other European languages ​​via Spanish.

history

The deity Quetzalcoatl, depiction from Yaxchilan

See also: History of the Cocoa Drink

Although the cocoa plant probably originated in South America, the history of its cultivation begins in Central America. Finds of vessels with adherence of theobromine suggest that the plant was used from around 1000 BC. Near. Remnants of such vessels were found near the town of Puerto Escondido in Honduras . However, it was probably not the cocoa bean that was used, but the sugary pulp that was fermented into an alcoholic drink .

The Aztecs had known the plant since the 14th century, when it was considered sacred and considered and revered as a gift from the god Quetzalcoatl . The beans obtained from the fruit were not only used as an offering, but also as a means of payment and for the preparation of a tangy spicy drink that differs in taste from the cocoa drink that is widespread today. His name is based on the god Xocóatl . The spice drink was a mixture of water, cocoa, corn , vanilla , cayenne pepper and a little salt. When the Spanish conquistadores conquered Mexico in 1519 and subjugated the Aztecs, they quickly discovered that they had "brown gold" into their hands.

With the spread of cocoa consumption in Europe, the cultivation of cocoa in plantations with the use of slaves also spread in the European colonies. In the 17th century, the regions around Guayaquil in Ecuador and Caracas in Venezuela became the main production areas, followed by Belém and Bahia (Brazil) towards the end of the same century . In the 18th century, cocoa cultivation was expanded to the Caribbean and the Dutch colonies in South America.

Around 1900, the São Tomé and Príncipe archipelago, ruled by Portugal, was the world's largest cocoa producer. Although slavery was now banned in all relevant growing countries, reports of the unofficial persistence of slavery-like conditions in São Tomé and Príncipe caused a sensation in the chocolate industry. This led to a boycott of São Tomé and Príncipe cocoa by Cadbury and other large English chocolate manufacturers.

Cultivation and production of cocoa beans

Young fruit of Theobroma cacao L.

The cocoa tree, a long, thin undergrowth tree with smooth, sword-like leaves, was named by the botanist Carl von Linné Theobroma , "food of the gods". It is not known whether he had in mind the role of cocoa in Aztec culture or the aphrodisiac properties it is said to have been. Cocoa was originally native to the Amazon region, but is now grown in tropical areas up to latitudes around 20 degrees north and south. Only in this area is the climate sufficiently warm and humid. In addition to high temperatures and precipitation, the cocoa also needs enough shade; it cannot develop to the desired extent under direct sunlight. This peculiarity, which still comes from the Amazon rainforest, is taken into account in plantation-like cultivation by mixed planting with, for example, coconut palms , banana trees , rubber , avocado or mango , the plants used for this are called cocoa mothers . In some cases, however, native forest trees are also suitable for the intermediate result. In this way, a certain degree of wind protection is achieved, growth is limited to a height of around six meters due to the shadowy location and harvesting is facilitated by the limited height. Without this measure, a cocoa tree can grow up to 15 meters high.

Unlike coffee and other crops, the flowers are not pollinated by bees, but by small mosquitos. In comparison to other influences such as the supply of water or nitrogen as well as the incidence of light, the pollination performance is essentially the limiting factor. In experiments, increasing the pollination rate from 10% to 40% doubled the cocoa yield.

The evergreen cocoa tree blooms all year round under favorable conditions and thus bears fruit all year round. It blooms for the first time when it is five to six years old; from 12 years he can bring the full yield. The ripe, green-yellow to red fruits, depending on the variety, are up to 30 cm long and weigh up to 500 grams. They contain up to 50 seeds embedded in the pulp, which are colloquially known as cocoa beans. In plantations, cocoa is harvested twice a year: the first time at the end of the rainy season until the beginning of the dry season, the second time at the beginning of the next rainy season; the first harvest is considered to be of higher quality.

No other agricultural product contains more virtual water than cocoa.

harvest

Cocoa beans during fermentation
Drying cocoa beans in Ghana

Cocoa trees grow up to twelve meters high, but are pruned to four to five meters high for easier harvest. Each of the ovoid fruits, which weigh about 500 grams, contains 25 to 50 beans, which are embedded in longitudinal rows in the fruit pulp.

  • The fruits growing directly on the trunk are cut from the tree with machetes . Because of the tropical and disease-promoting climate, the tree bark must not be damaged in order to prevent germs from entering.

Physical treatment

In order to obtain cocoa from the seeds of the cocoa tree, which have a high content of bitter substances and do not yet taste like chocolate, several steps are necessary:

  • The harvested fruits are opened with machetes and spread on banana leaves or filled into vats. The white, sugary pulp, the fruit pulp, then begins to ferment very quickly and develops temperatures of around 50 ° C. The beginning germination of the seeds is stopped by the alcohol produced during fermentation, and the beans lose some of their bitter substances. During this fermentation process, which lasts about ten days, they develop their typical flavors, aromas and color.
  • The drying is traditionally done in the sun, but due to climatic problems in some growing areas also in drying ovens. However, drying in conventional ovens is controversial, as a smoke taste that may occur can make the beans unusable for chocolate production. This problem was only solved with modern heat exchanger systems.
  • After drying, the beans are only about 50% of their original size and are now bagged and shipped to chocolate-producing countries, mainly in Europe and North America , or, to a lesser extent, processed into cocoa mass directly on site .
  • The first step in further processing consists of roasting the beans and then breaking them so that the husks can be separated from the core. The fragments of the kernel are called cocoa nibs and are occasionally offered as a snack or ingredient in baking and cooking. By grinding the nibs, cocoa mass is obtained , which can be refined into chocolate . Otherwise cocoa butter is separated by pressing the cocoa mass and the remaining de-oiled press cake can be ground further into cocoa powder.

Chemical reactions in cocoa fermentation

During fermentation , some of the sugar in the cocoa pulp and the beans are first fermented to alcohol, which is then oxidized to acetic acid . The acetic acid breaks down the plant material and releases aromatic substances. Most of the acetic acid is removed during the subsequent drying process.

The harmful tannins are also broken down during fermentation.

Dutch Process / alkalization

The Dutchman Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed the so-called Dutch process (also known as Dutching ) around 1830 , in which cocoa is more soluble in water, darker in color , through treatment with alkalis such as potassium carbonate (potash), calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) or sodium carbonate ( soda , Na 2 CO 3 ) the color and the taste becomes softer as the acidity and bitterness are reduced. Due to its improved properties, the product is used in many products such as chocolate and ice cream. The process reduces the amount of antioxidants in cocoa. Recent studies show that cocoa powder and chocolate still contain a high concentration of polyphenols despite the Dutch processing.

Economical meaning

World production

World harvest 2012 - in relation to Ivory Coast

The main cultivation areas have meanwhile shifted from Central America to Africa , the country with the largest cocoa production in the world is the West African Ivory Coast , which produced 37% of the global harvest in 2018. According to the FAO, 5.3 million tons of cocoa beans were harvested worldwide in 2018 . The world's ten largest cocoa bean producers together harvested 93.2% of the total in 2018. In 2018, 71% of all cocoa beans came from Africa and 16% from South America.

Largest cocoa producers (2018)
rank country amount

(in t )

1 Ivory CoastIvory Coast Ivory Coast 1,963,949
2 GhanaGhana Ghana 947.632
3 IndonesiaIndonesia Indonesia 593.832
4th NigeriaNigeria Nigeria 332,927
5 CameroonCameroon Cameroon 307,867
6th BrazilBrazil Brazil 239.387
7th EcuadorEcuador Ecuador 235.182
8th PeruPeru Peru 134,676
9 Dominican RepublicDominican Republic Dominican Republic 85.139
10 ColombiaColombia Colombia 52,743
world 5,252,376

The total cultivated area worldwide was about 11.8 million hectares. The average hectare yield was around 4438 hg / ha, which corresponds to 444 kg / ha.

trade

The cultivation differs significantly on the different continents. In America cocoa is grown on large plantations , which means that the natural environment is lost and monocultures can form. In Africa, on the other hand, small-scale family farms are still the predominant form of production.

Cocoa cultivation is one of the highly controversial activities of global companies in the black book of branded companies . In 2007 the human rights organization Global Witness published a report according to which government and rebels had financed the civil war in Ivory Coast with income from the cocoa trade. The wages of smallholders and farm laborers are barely a living wage, exploitation and child labor (including child trafficking and slavery in West Africa) are widespread. The United States, as the largest importer of cocoa from the Ivory Coast region, was threatened with an embargo under pressure from human rights organizations. In 2001, a joint declaration was signed in which one undertook to end child trafficking and curb child labor. The deadline set in the minutes was not met; a second deadline expired in June 2008.

In 2009, following ongoing customer protests, Cadbury UK and Nestle UK were the first large companies to use fair trade cocoa for their brands “Dairy Milk” and “Kit Kat” . TransFair e. V. is hoping for further companies "in order to be able to act against rural exodus, monocultures, illegal child labor and slave labor, especially in West Africa". The 778,000 kg of fair trade chocolate in 2009 still only accounted for a fraction of the cultivation volume of over three million tons.

In 2009 and 2010, increases in demand, declines in production and price speculation by hedge funds resulted in cocoa prices rising by 150 percent within two and a half years and reaching new highs.

The price per tonne of cocoa was around € 1,600 at the end of August 2012; In previous years, it fluctuated between € 800 and € 2,700, depending on the harvest and speculation. Cocoa is (as of 2014) traded in US dollars ; Exchange rate fluctuations in the dollar influence the cocoa price from the point of view of all non-dollar countries. In January 2014, the cocoa price rose to over US $ 2,850 per ton.

Until 2012, the US company Cargill was the world's largest cocoa producer. In July of the same year, the second largest company in this field, the Swiss group Barry Callebaut , took over the cocoa division of the Singapore company Petra Foods . This means that the Swiss company has passed Cargill. But now Cargill wants to take over the third largest group in this field, the US company Archer Daniels Midland for two billion US dollars. This means that around 60% of the cocoa processing industry would then be in the hands of two groups.

The cocoa producing and consuming countries are organized in the International Cocoa Organization .

A large study by Tulane University from 2013/14 found that the number of children who work in the cocoa plantations has risen sharply. According to this, around 2.26 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 were working in the main cultivation areas in Ivory Coast and Ghana, mostly under dangerous conditions in cocoa production.

Cocoa varieties

Cross section of a cocoa pod with the cocoa seeds / beans inside

The cocoa trade differentiates between consumer cocoa and fine cocoa , but this is not a botanical distinction. Fine cocoa makes up less than five percent of global production.

The cocoa imported into Europe originally came almost exclusively from Venezuela . The cocoa varieties native to Venezuela have been called " Criollo " (Spanish: local, Creole ), cocoa varieties that were later introduced into Venezuela as Forastero (Spanish: foreigner ). The Forastero has its origin in the primeval forests of the Amazon region . All varieties of the cocoa tree probably go back to these two basic types. The plants that were later imported from Trinidad , which are hybrids of Criollo and Forastero, are now called “ Trinitario ”. In addition, the Ecuador cocoa has a special position among the Forastero cocoa because of its distinctive aroma; it is also known as "Nacional" and is the only forastero among the fine cocoa.

Therefore, the following classification of cocoa varieties has been established in four basic types:

  • Criollo (for example Ocumare)
  • Trinitario (for example Carupano)
  • Nacional (for example Arriba, Balao)
  • Forastero (for example Bahia)

This classification says nothing about the genetic relationship of the cocoa varieties. The Venezuelan cocoa, traditionally known as Criollo, is not a pure-blooded variety. Today's Criollo is more closely related to the Trinitario. Original criollo is very rare and only occurs in isolated regions of Venezuela and Central America.

The Criollo is considered to be the finest among fine cocoa. As a rule, it is not very acidic, hardly bitter and, in addition to a mild cocoa taste, has distinctive secondary aromas. Most forasteros have a stronger cocoa taste, are hardly aromatic and sometimes bitter or sour. Nevertheless, due to its robustness and high yields, the Forastero is of the greatest importance for the world market and is cultivated in practically all major producing countries. Very good Ecuadorian cocoa such as the well-known Arriba are also classed as fine cocoa. Trinitario cocoa can produce a strong taste, only a slight acidity and expressive aromas. However, their share in world production is less than 10%. Since the taste of cocoa does not only depend on the genes of the plants, but also on the soil and climatic conditions, a distinction is made between the numerous cocoa varieties and their cultivation areas.

Genetics and Breeding

The University of the West Indies in Saint Augustine on the Caribbean island of Trinidad owns the largest cocoa gene bank in the world (International Cocoa Genebank, ICG) and conducts its basic research in Trinidad. In addition to the collection of DNA material, the university also runs projects for the recultivation of old fine cocoa plantations on Tobago.

The chocolate bar manufacturer Mars , the research department of the American Department of Agriculture and the computer company IBM announced on September 15, 2010 that they had deciphered 92% of the genome of the cocoa bean genotype Matina 1-6. The genome is freely accessible on a website and should not be subject to any patent claims in the future. The decryption should facilitate breeding progress and cultivation.

Products and parts

roasted cocoa beans
Press cake made from cocoa
  • Cocoa beans are referred to as a product when they are raw or roasted, with or without the shell, germ and inner membrane. No further processing takes place.
  • Broken cocoa beans / cocoa nibs are broken cocoa beans that have the same properties
  • Cocoa waste, this includes all waste that is generated in the production of cocoa powder and cocoa butter . Some of this waste can be reused to make cocoa butter; however, all can be used to obtain theobromine. In small quantities, they can also be used as an additive for animal feed. When ground, they are sometimes used in place of cocoa powder, which they resemble in smell but not in taste.
  • Cocoa shell and cocoa skins that come off when the beans are roasted and broken. They often contain core parts that are difficult to separate. Use for the production of cocoa butter
  • Cocoa sprouts , product that is obtained when the beans are sterilized in special machines. Only limited processing options as they hardly contain any fat.
  • Cocoa dust , this is generated when cleaning the shells. Its fat content is generally so high that it is worth extracting.
  • Press residues, in particular from the extraction of cocoa butter from shells or skins which still contain core particles or from whole cocoa beans. These residues contain parts of shells and skins, so they cannot be used to make cocoa powder or chocolate.
  • Cocoa mass is obtained by grinding and rolling roasted cocoa beans that have been freed from shells, skins and germs in heated special mills. The mass is generally formed into blocks, breads or bars. In this condition it is often delivered directly to confectionery manufacturers and confectioners; however, it is mainly used to obtain cocoa butter and cocoa powder and forms the semi-finished product for the chocolate industry.
  • Cocoa press cake , this is basically completely or partially defatted cocoa mass. This product is used to manufacture cocoa powder or chocolate, and sometimes also to produce theobromine .

The Tobacco Ordinance allows cocoa and cocoa products to be added to tobacco products.

Average composition

The composition of cocoa beans naturally fluctuates, both depending on the variety, the environmental conditions such as soil and climate, and the cultivation technique depending on fertilization and plant protection.

Content in grams per 100 g of edible portion:

Components g per 100 g
water 5-6
protein 11.5-14
fat 50-60
Cellulose 9.0
Starch and pentosans 7.5
Minerals 2.6
Organic acids and flavorings 2.0
Theobromine 1.5
Different sugars 1.0
caffeine 0.3

In addition to the high fat content, cocoa also has a large number of different and sometimes valuable ingredients (estimated values ​​are around 300 different substances). The most important are: anandamide , arginine , dopamine ( neurotransmitter ), epicatechin ( antioxidants ), histamine , magnesium , serotonin (neurotransmitter), tryptophan (which the body uses as a precursor for serotonin), phenylethylamine (PEA), polyphenols (antioxidants), tyramine and salsolinol and flavonoids .

Theobromine, serotonin and dopamine can generally have a mood-enhancing effect in people, but phenylethylamine cannot, because it is broken down too quickly in the body. However, a direct influence on the neurotransmitters in the brain is opposed by the fact that, for example, dopamine can not cross the blood-brain barrier and thus the dopamine in cocoa does not have any direct influence.

For some animal species, such as dogs and cats , theobromine can be poisonous ( theobromine poisoning ).

Airtight packaged cocoa powder has a long shelf life because the saturated fats it contains do not tend to go rancid and the antioxidant properties of the fat-free cocoa components limit oxidation by atmospheric oxygen. Cocoa that is not airtightly packaged should be stored dry and cold as it is hygroscopic and at risk of mold growth from a humidity of 80%.

The polyphenol epicatechin discovered in cocoa caused a sensation due to its health-promoting effects. Harvard professor Norman Hollenberg concluded that a study had a positive effect on humans, as he had found that epicatechin could reduce the incidence of four of the five most common diseases in the western world ( stroke , heart attack , cancer and diabetes ) to less than ten percent .
To this end, he compared the causes of death given in the death certificates between Guna Yala , an autonomous area on the east coast of Panama (formerly San Blas ), whose inhabitants have a very high consumption of cocoa, and the neighboring mainland of Panama over several years (2000-2004). However, science is divided on this result.

Individual health-promoting effects

Cocoa forms a complex mixture of substances from 300 known, different components, some of which are said to have a health-promoting effect. These include u. a. positive effects on the cardiovascular system, the nervous system, the lymphatic and hormonal system and the immune system. However, many of these findings are based on studies with individual substances or extracts and can therefore not be generalized.

Originally, the positive effect of cocoa was based on the antioxidant properties of some of the ingredients in cocoa, but this notion is now considered outdated. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration has shown that certain components of cocoa, cocoa flavanols, have an antihypertensive effect. However, the required quantities can hardly be achieved by consuming chocolate , not even chocolate with a high cocoa content . An EFSA health claim considers at least 200 mg per day to be necessary, which corresponds roughly to 200 g cocoa powder. The health aspects of cocoa consumption are still the subject of current research and have not yet been fully clarified. Current studies in this research area include a large, randomized, double-blinded nutritional supplement study, COSMOS (COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study). The COSMOS study, which will cover 18,000 men and women in the US over a period of 5 years, hopes to find out whether: 'Daily intake of cocoa flavanols and multivitamins can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and / or cancer'. COSMOS represents a collaboration between the National Institutes of Health of the United States (NIH), Harvard Medical School, the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Institute, and Mars, Inc. and Pfizer, Inc.

A relationship between chocolate consumption and mortality has been investigated in several observational studies. A summary of the studies suggests a protective effect of chocolate consumption, but the mechanism of action is unknown.

Finally, a study by the University of L'Aquila and the company Mars Inc. also found evidence of a positive effect of the flavanols contained in cocoa on the cognitive performance of older people. Later studies seem to confirm this statement and provide first insights into potential mechanisms and the relationship between dose and effect. The concentration-promoting effect of cocoa and its components has also been demonstrated in other studies.

literature

General information on the cultivation, trade, processing and cultural history of cocoa

  • Friedel Hütz-Adams: From the cocoa tree to the consumer. The chocolate value chain . Südwind - Institute for Economics and Ecumenism, Siegburg 2012, ISBN 978-3-929704-65-5 .
  • Laura Caso Barrera (Ed.): Cacao. Producción, consumo y comercio. Del período prehispánico a la actualidad en América Latina . Vervuert, Frankfurt am Main / Iberoamericana, Madrid 2016, ISBN 978-3-95487-457-6 .
  • Andrea Durry, Thomas Schiffer: Cocoa. Food of the gods . oekom Verlag , Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-86581-137-0 .
  • Gunther Franke, Albrecht Pfeiffer: Cocoa . Ziemsen, Wittenberg 1964; Reprint: Westarp-Wissenschaft, Hohenwarsleben 2006, ISBN 3-89432-746-4 (mainly deals with cocoa cultivation).
  • Rolf Hanisch, Cord Jakobeit (ed.): The cocoa world market. World market-integrated development and national control policy of the producing countries . German Overseas Institute, Hamburg 1991
  • Cocoa and chocolate. From cocoa tree to chocolate. Chocolate Info Center (IZS), Leverkusen 2004, ISBN 3-9808866-2-X .
  • Helga and Ulrich Schimmel: Indian luxury foods, raw materials and colors. Discovered by conquistadors and used by the ancient world . Verlag Die Werkstatt, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-89533-652-2 .
  • Einhard Schmidt-Kallert (Red.): For example cocoa . Lamuv-Verlag, Göttingen, 3rd, updated edition 1995, ISBN 978-3-88977-240-4 .

Individual points of view

  • Hans-Heinrich Bass: Structural Problems of West African Cocoa Exports and Options for Improvement (PDF; 174 kB) , in: African Development Perspectives Yearbook, Volume 11, 2005/06: Escaping the Primary Commodities Dilemma, Münster: Lit-Verlag 2006, Pp. 245-263.
  • C. Heiss, P. Kleinbongard, A. Dejam, S. Perré, H. Schroeter, H. Sies, M. Kelm: Acute consumption of flavanol-rich cocoa and the reversal of endothelial dysfunction in smokers. In: Journal of the American College of Cardiology , No. 46 (7), Oct. 4, 2005, pp. 1276-1283.
  • Davide Grassi, Stefano Necozione, Cristina Lippi, Giuseppe Croce, Letizia Valeri, Paolo Pasqualetti, Giovambattista Desideri, Jeffrey B. Blumberg, Claudio Ferri: Cocoa reduces blood pressure and insulin resistance and improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in hypertensives. In: Hypertension , No. 46 (2), August 2005, pp. 398-405. Epub dated July 18, 2005.
  • Ulrike Heinrich, Karin Neukam, Hagen Tronnier, Helmut Sies, Wilhelm Stahl: Long-Term Ingestion of High Flavanol Cocoa Provides Photoprotection against UV-Induced Erythema and Improves Skin Condition in Women. In: Journal of Nutrition , No. 136 (6), June 2006, pp. 1565-1569.
  • Adwoa Pinnamang-Tutu, Stephen E. Armah: An Empirical Investigation into the Costs and Benefits from Moving up the Supply Chain: The Case of Ghana Cocoa . In: Journal of Marketing and Management , 2 (1), 2011, pp. 27-50
  • Eric L. Ding, Susan M. Hutfless, Xin Ding, Saket Girotra: Chocolate and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. In: Nutrition & Metabolism , No. 3: 2, 3. 2006, doi: 10.1186 / 1743-7075-3-2 , PMID 16390538 , PMC 1360667 (free full text).

Fiction

  • Jorge Amado : Cocoa. Roman from the Brazilian jungle. Amandus Verlag, Vienna 1951.

Web links

Commons : Cocoa  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Cocoa bean  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Explanation to Chapter 18 of the Harmonized System and Pos. 1801 to 1803
  2. ↑ Cocoa drinks three thousand years ago . In: FAZ of November 14, 2007.
  3. ^ Hans Fässler : Reise in Schwarz-Weiss , ISBN 3-85869-303-0 (pp. 223-231).
  4. ^ JH Groeneveld, T. Tscharntke, G. Moser, Y. Clough: Experimental evidence for stronger cocoa yield limitation by pollination than by plant resources. "Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics", doi: 10.1016 / j.ppees.2010.02.005 .
  5. ↑ Pascal Blanc, Bruno Schädler: The water in Switzerland - an overview. (PDF; 8.9 MB) In: unibe.ch . 2013, accessed April 15, 2019 .
  6. ↑ Cocoa on Wissen.de
  7. ↑ EurekAlert: New study re-emphasizes natural cocoa powder has high antioxidant content , October 8, 2008
  8. ↑ Antioxidants in Dutched (Alkali-Processed) Chocolates. Blisstree.com, October 11, 2008, archived from the original on October 17, 2009 ; accessed on February 1, 2020 (English).
  9. ↑ a b c Crops> Cocoa, beans. In: FAO production statistics for 2018. fao.org, accessed on March 19, 2020 .
  10. ↑ BBC News: Report warns of 'conflict cocoa' .
  11. ↑ Michael Obert Reports: Children's Chocolate ( Memento from April 25, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (Greenpeace Magazin 3/2009; PDF; 47 kB).
  12. ↑ TransFair e. V. Annual Report 2009 ( Memento of the original from October 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 6.4 MB).  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.transfair.org
  13. ↑ Financial Times: The price of cocoa rises to unimaginable heights ( Memento of July 21, 2010 in the Internet Archive ), July 18, 2010.
  14. ↑ www.finanzen.net . At that time, USD 1 was quoted at around 0.732 ct ≥ $ 2850 = EUR 2086.
  15. ^ Adrian Lobe: The cocoa cartel. In: Sonntag Aktuell, issue of January 12, 2014.
  16. ↑ 2013/14 Survey Research on Child Labor in the West African Cocoa Sector
  17. ↑ Philipp Seibt: Raw material for chocolate: Millions of children have to toil on cocoa plantations , Der Spiegel , August 5, 2015
  18. ^ Association of companies involved in the raw cocoa trade e. V: Cocoa cultivation today. ( Memento from February 11, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  19. ↑ CFC Projects ( Memento of October 3, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
  20. ↑ The cocoa genome has been deciphered. FAZ.net, September 15, 2010.
  21. ^ Cacao Genome Database .
  22. ↑ Explanation to Chapter 18 of the Harmonized System and Pos. 1801 to 1803
  23. ↑ Appendix 1 to Section 1 Tobacco Ordinance
  24. ↑ Waldemar Ternes , Alfred Täufel, Lieselotte Tunger, Martin Zobel (eds.): Food Lexicon . 4th, comprehensively revised edition. Behr, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-89947-165-2 . , Page 895
  25. ↑ Irmgard Bitsch: Cocoa and Chocolate: Good for Health (PDF; 259 kB) (PDF) Institute for Nutritional Science at the Justus Liebig University in Giessen .
  26. ↑ Olaf Adam, Peter Schauder, Günter Ollenschläger : Nutritional medicine: prevention and therapy. 3rd edition, Elsevier, Urban and Fischer, Munich / Jena 2006, ISBN 978-3-437-22921-3 , p. 463.
  27. ^ Peter Mathes : Counselor heart attack. 5th edition, Springer, 2006, ISBN 978-3-7985-1569-7 , p. 37.
  28. ↑ Quarks & Co : Chocolate makes you happy! , Broadcast on December 9, 2008.
  29. ^ Heinrich Fincke, Handbook of Cocoa Products , p. 261, Springer Verlag; accessed in November 2016
  30. ↑ Rudolf Heiss, shelf life and sorption behavior of low-water foods , p. 151ff, Springer Verlag; accessed in November 2016
  31. ↑ QR De Araujo, JN Gattward, S. Almoosawi, MD Costa Silva, PA Dantas, QR Júnior: Cacao and Human Health: from Head to Foot - A Review. In: Critical reviews in food science and nutrition. [electronic publication before going to press] August 2013, ISSN  1549-7852 . doi: 10.1080 / 10408398.2012.657921 . PMID 24915376 .
  32. ↑ Ottaviani JI, Borges G, Momma TY, Spencer JP, Keen CL, Crozier A, Schroeter H1. "The metabolome of [2- (14) C] (-) - epicatechin in humans: implications for the assessment of efficacy, safety, and mechanisms of action of polyphenolic bioactives." Scientific Reports 2016 Jul 1; 6: 29034
  33. ↑ Karin Ried, Peter Fakler, Nigel P. Stocks: Effect of cocoa on blood pressure . In: The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . tape 4 , April 25, 2017, ISSN  1469-493X , p. CD008893 , doi : 10.1002 / 14651858.CD008893.pub3 , PMID 28439881 .
  34. ↑ Lee Hooper, Colin Kay, Asmaa Abdelhamid, Paul A. Kroon, Jeffrey S. Cohn: Effects of chocolate, cocoa, and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials . In: The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . tape 95 , no. 3 , March 2012, p. 740-751 , doi : 10.3945 / ajcn.111.023457 , PMID 22301923 .
  35. ↑ Scientific Opinion on the modification of the authorization of a health claim related to cocoa flavanols and maintenance of normal endothelium-dependent vasodilation pursuant to Article 13 (5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 following a request in accordance with Article 19 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 | European Food Safety Authority. Retrieved August 10, 2017 .
  36. ^ C. Andres-Lacueva, M. Monagas, N. Khan, M. Izquierdo-Pulido, M. Urpi-Sarda, J. Permanyer, RM Lamuela-Raventós: Flavanol and flavonol contents of cocoa powder products: influence of the manufacturing process . In: Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Volume 56, Number 9, May 2008, pp. 3111-3117, doi : 10.1021 / jf0728754 , PMID 18412367 .
  37. ↑ a b Welcome to the COSMOS Trial. In: cosmostrial.org. Retrieved July 26, 2016 .
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