Kulob

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Kulob
Кӯлоб
Basic data
State : TajikistanTajikistan Tajikistan
Province : Chatlon
Coordinates : 37 ° 55 '  N , 69 ° 47'  E Coordinates: 37 ° 54 '33 "  N , 69 ° 46' 55"  E
Height : 580  m
Residents : 99,700 (2014)
Kulob (Tajikistan)
Kulob
Kulob

Kulob ( Tajik Кӯлоб , Russian Куляб , Kuljab, Kulyab, from Persian kul-āb, "sea water") is a city and the capital of the district of the same name ( nohija ) in the province of Chatlon in southwest Tajikistan . With a population of 99,700 (as of January 1, 2014), Kulob is the fourth largest city in the country. Besides the economic role that Kulob has played as the center of irrigated agriculture in the Jachsu Valley since the middle of the 20th century, the city has been of political importance since the civil war in 1992 because a large part of the ruling elite in the state capital Dushanbe comes from there. The mausoleum of the 14th century Sufi scholar Sayyid Ali Hamadhani is venerated to this day.

location

Industrial ruins and cement stone production in the river valley west of the city. Looking into the afternoon sun, darkened by dust in the air.

The city of Kulob is located at an average altitude of 580 meters in the wide Jachsu valley, around 112 kilometers as the crow flies and 190 kilometers by road southeast of Dushanbe. The direct connection from Dushanbe to Kulob is the M41 to Wahdat and from there the A385, which leads past Norak through Danghara , then through the village of Kurbon Shahid and 70 kilometers after Danghara through the somewhat larger district capital Wose. Kulob is another 19 kilometers east of Wose. The only road to the autonomous province of Berg-Badachschan that is normally open all year round leads from Kulob further east to the Afghan border and in the rock valley of the Pandsch river to the provincial capital of Chorugh, 610 kilometers away . In January 1999, a 35-kilometer-long new line was opened between Kulob and the small border and overnight place of Qal'ai Chumb.

Today's district ( nohija ) Kulob within the province ( wilojat ) Chatlon is divided into four subdistricts ( jamoat ). In contrast to the broad river plains in the west, the eastern part of the province of Chatlon is predominantly mountainous with only a few fertile valleys in between. The treeless hills, covered only with grass, serve as pastureland, while cotton, wheat, maize and vegetables are grown on the irrigated fields of the loess plain. The arable land is 18,717 hectares.

The city is located about two kilometers east on the left bank of the Jachsu, which flows in a south-westerly direction to the Kysylsu , a tributary of the Pandsch. The closest mountains around Kulob reach an altitude of 1017 meters a few kilometers to the west and 1481 meters to the southeast. Kulob Airport, which has been internationally recognized since 1997, is located at an altitude of 700 meters in the Jachsu Valley, around eight kilometers north of the city near the village of Ziraki. From there, the road continues up the valley into the inaccessible and remote mountain region of the Muminobod district.

The average annual precipitation is around 500 millimeters and falls mainly in spring, especially in March and April. Average temperatures vary between 28.3 ° C in July and 2.2 ° C in January. The maximum temperature rises to an average of 38 ° C in July. Temperatures drop by a few degrees in summer, when on some days a dust wind partially covers the sun during the day.

In 1932 a narrow-gauge railway line from the Uzbek city of Termiz to Qurghonteppa was completed. Its continuation from Qurghonteppa via Kurbon Shahid and Wose to Kulob was put into operation in 1956. It is used to transport cotton and salt from the region. At that time there was still no asphalt road around Kulob and a car needed around 20 hours on the winding mountain road to Dushanbe. The railway line between Kulob via Qurghonteppa to Dushanbe, on the other hand, did not make travel easier, because the freight trains on the route traveled at an average speed of twelve kilometers per hour. Passenger train traffic was generally low on the narrow-gauge lines in the southwest and largely ceased in the 1960s. In the Soviet era, goods were transported over the great distances between the individual Union states for the most part by rail. Kulob is a terminus in the Trans-Eurasian rail network, which is designed as a broad-gauge railway . The section from Termiz in southwest Tajikistan (via Qurghonteppa to Yowon) was constructed from 1966 to 1980, the last 132 kilometers from Qurghonteppa to Kulob were completed in 1999. On two days of the week, trains run under normal circumstances from Kulob via Qurghonteppa and Termiz to Moscow , which mainly transport Tajik workers to Russia.

In the Middle Ages, Kulob belonged to the province of Chuttal within the area called Transoxania in ancient times and mā warāʾan-nahr by the Arabs in the Middle Ages . Chuttal lay - as the geographical names indicate - beyond (north) the ancient Oxus (today Amudarja , in this area Pandsch), bounded in the west along the Wachsch by the provinces Wachsch and Kubodijon, after which the today's cities Wachsch and Kubodijon are named, northwest of Chaghaniyan and to the east of Darwos (Darvaz). At times, Chuttal's sphere of influence extended from the valley of the Kizilsu to the valley of the Wachsch. During the rule of the Mongols and Timurids , Chuttal was famous for horse breeding and the manufacture of horse saddles. The province name Chuttal was given up in the 16th century in favor of Kulob, as today's eastern district was later called.

history

Business center at the south end of Somoni Street

In September 2006, the Tajik government celebrated the 2700th anniversary of the city in Kulob. The underlying historical basis for this event is unclear. In southern Tajikistan there were in the Bronze Age at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. BC and after the transition to the Iron Age, some settlements on the valley edges up to medium altitudes. The settlements of the early Iron Age, when the population density increased, are assigned to the Yaz-I culture in present-day Turkmenistan . The Karim-Berdi settlement in the Kysylzu valley north of Kulob, which was built at the end of the 2nd to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, also belongs to this transition period. Is dated. The ceramic finds from there resemble the objects made at the same time by Yaz Tepe on the Murgab River (Turkmenistan), Jarqoʻton (Uzbekistan) and Tilla Tepe (Northern Afghanistan).

The Kulob region belonged to the historical Bactria landscape , a name that began in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. A satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire . Around 330 BC In BC Alexander the Great crossed the area and until the 3rd century it belonged to the sphere of influence of the Kushana . From the beginning of the 5th century to around 560, the Hephthalites ruled a large part of south-central Asia and made a considerable profit from trade via the Silk Road . A route of the Silk Road led from Turkmenabat (in Turkmenistan) along the Amu Darya to Balch , further via Kunduz to the east to the historical province of Darwos and through Berg-Badachschan to Hotan (Pamir Strait). Another route ran north of Balkh via Tirmidh, Denov , Hissor (Dushanbe), Gharm to Kashgar in China (Karategin Street). Between the two was the middle Chatlon road over Kulob with connections to the northern and southern routes. Other goods came from the south of Mesopotamia via Balkh and later - according to finds in Hulbuk - from the Abbasid Iraq .

Around 570 the Turkic peoples conquered the former Hephthalite territory and penetrated into Afghanistan, which was controlled by the Sassanids . At the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th centuries there were troubled times for the small principalities that emerged from the succession of the Hephthalites and were between the Turkic peoples and the Sassanids.

In the middle of the 7th century, the Muslim Umayyads began to advance north of the Amu Darya. First they waged a campaign against Tirmidh, in 654 they first reached Sogdia further north , a little later, around 675/676, they conquered the Chuttal region and in 681 an Arab general wintered for the first time with his army north of Amu Darya. From 850 the Samanids ruled western Transoxania from the Ferghana Valley via Samarqand to Herat , while Chuttal was controlled in the 9th and 10th centuries by the short-lived Banijurid dynasty, presumably from Iran, about whose rulers little is known, especially from coin finds is. The capital of Khuttal was Hulbuk while contemporary geographers except Kulob other cities like Chela Werd (at Kolkhozobod ) Andijaragh (river of the same), Farghan (Farghar, as on the eponymous river) and Tamliyat (Tamliat) mention. After the dissolution of the Emirate of the Samanids, the Ghaznavids conquered Chuttal in 1024 under Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 997-1030). The Ismaili poet Nāsir-i Chusrau (1004-1072 / 78) noted that Mahmud trampled the prince of Chuttal with his war elephant.

2008 largely newly built mausoleum for Sayyid Ali Hamadhani in the city park

The first recorded reference to the city of Kulob comes from the historian Ibn al-Athīr (1160-1233), who describes the Mongol invasion around 1220 and mentions the conquest of Kulob. In Samarqand , Genghis Khan separated his army and sent a detachment of 1,000 men to the Wachsch Valley and Kulob, while Genghis Khan took the fortress of Tirmidh himself a little later. The next testimony about Kulob dates from around 1555. The Ottoman admiral Sayyid ʿAlī Raʾīs crossed the Amudarya from Afghanistan to the north on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Sayyid Ali Hamadhani (1314-1386) near Kulob. In Kulob he met the ruler of Chuttal, Jahangir Ali Khan. The admiral stated that the tomb was Dalli. It was probably the village of Dili (or Deli, now Imam-Ali), 15 kilometers west of Kulob. The sufi mystic Hamadhani (1314–1384) died on his pilgrimage ( Hajj ) from Srinagar to Mecca south of the Amu Darya in present-day Afghanistan and was brought here. The mausoleum must have been transferred to Kulob at a later time. This probably happened between 1584 and 1594.

Kulob remained an important trading post between Hissor and Afghanistan. From 1584 Kulob had the status of ruler's seat ( dār al-molk ). By the beginning of the 17th century, the name of the city had passed to the entire province, which since then has only been called Chuttal in historical contexts. A subdivision was made into the actual Kulob region in the southeast and the Baljovan region northeast of it. Abdullah II (r. 1583–1598), ruler of the Uzbek dynasty of the Scheibanids , conquered all of Khorasan from his capital, Bukhara, in the battle against the Safavids . In 1584 he took the fortress of Kulob, the following year he sacked Herat and Merw . Abdullah II commissioned his cousin to build a new one at a distance of one farsak ( farsang, equivalent to five kilometers) from the destroyed fortress, possibly on the site of the present-day city. Trade and agriculture soon flourished in the region, now completely under the control of the Sheibanids.

In the 17th century, various feudal lords appointed by the Uzbek dynasty of the Ashtarakhanids that followed the Scheibanids, administered the province of Kulob. Nadr Mohammad, prince of Balkh and Badachshan , appointed his eleven-year-old son as governor of Kulob in the first half of the 17th century. This succeeded in militarily ending the looting of Kyrgyz tribes. He was followed by two other brothers who only ruled for a few years, but under whose rule so much grain was grown that Kulob could pay his taxes in gold. Power in the region seems to have passed from the Ashtarakhanids to the Uzbek tribe of the Lakai, who advanced from the northwest. Another power factor was the Uzbek tribal confederation Qataghan, the center of which was a little south in the Afghan province of Kunduz . The influence of both Uzbek groups ended in 1751 when they submitted to the Afghan Durrani Empire (1747-1826) founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani . Against their rule, raids by the Kulob local lords did not help, who they had to pay for with heavy losses in the countermeasures of the Durranis. With one interruption, the Kulob region remained relatively independent until the second half of the 19th century between the powerful Emirate of Bukhara in the northwest, the Kokand Khanate in the north and the Emirate of Afghanistan in the south. The interruption was in 1832, when the rulers of Kunduz and Kokand fought for influence in the region in a battle near Kulob and the city was devastated. The Beg of Kulob, Sari Beg Ataliq (Sari Khan, ruled 1856-1870) had the city rebuilt. His empire extended in the west beyond the Wachsch valley to the valley of the Kofarnihon .

In 1868 the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Kokand became vassals of the Russian Empire after battles that were lost relatively quickly . The subjugated rulers were allowed to keep their offices in the newly formed General Government of Turkestan , just like the tribal leaders their privileges. With Russian support, Amir Mozaffar ad-Din, an emir of the Mangite dynasty of Bukhara, was able to expand his territory to the east two years later and win the entire western part of today's Tajikistan, including Kulob, as a new province. As an ally of the emir, however, Kulob remained largely autonomous. In 1886 a Russian traveler described the city of Kulob, which consisted of 17 districts ( machalla or gusar ), each with a mosque and the necessary utilities.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the Red Army began to conquer Central Asia. Local resistance to it rendered still 1920 in much of the region the Basmachi . In March 1921, after a population uprising, Russian troops took the city of Kulob. After the Basmachi had withdrawn from Bukhara and the Hissar Valley, the organized resistance collapsed in August 1922 after fighting in the mountains near Kulob. The Basmachis lacked the support from abroad that they only received from a few Muslim groups in Afghanistan. In addition, their only positive political goal was to revive the old Emirate of Bukhara. The last insurgents gave up a few years later. At this time the Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic of Turkestan already existed , from which the Tajik Socialist Soviet Republic, which existed until independence in 1991, was split off in 1929 . From 1934 to 1992 Kulob was the capital of the oblast of the same name (Russian for a larger administrative district). The area of ​​the old province of Kulob was 12,000 square kilometers and the number of inhabitants over 400,000 in 1979. Since 1992, the oblasts of Qurghonteppa and Kulob have been united to form the province of Chatlon.

Between the late 1920s and around 1940, the farms were expropriated and converted into state-controlled collective farms or state-owned sovkhozs . At the end of the 1940s, cotton cultivation began around Kulob, as had already happened a few years earlier in the Wachsch Valley . A system of irrigation channels had to be created for this. Most of the agricultural workers employed in the kolkhozes were forcibly relocated further north from the higher mountain valleys (especially the Gharm valley). A factory built in the city is used to process the cotton.

politics

Image of President Rahmon at the monument, which was built for the city's 2700th anniversary in 2006

After independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, a nationwide civil war began in May 1992 and lasted until 1997. Between May and December 1992, 50,000 people died in fighting in the provinces of Dushanbe, Qurghonteppa and Kulob; 650,000 Tajiks fled in the end. In this power struggle, confidants of today's President Emomalij Rahmon , who formed the ruling party, faced the United Tajik Opposition (UTO). Rahmon, who was born in Danghara , was initially a secretary, one of the heads of the kolkhoz there and later, when it became a sovkhoz, its director until 1992. In the same year he received the post of head of the People's Council of Kulob Province. He held this office for a few months; in November 1992 he was elected President of Parliament and Head of State after the forced resignation of Rahmon Nabiev at the beginning of September, and in November 1994 he was elected President. In mid-December, after the opposition had withdrawn from the capital, Rahmon arrived at his seat of government. According to foreign observers, the 58 percent vote approval came about through repression and fraud. With Rahmon, power in the country had passed from the previous elite in Khujand (then Leninabad) in the north to the family and allies of Rahmon in Kulob and Danghara in the south. Most of the militias from Kulob, to whom Rahmon owes his power mainly, called themselves Sitodi Melli ("Popular Front"). They formed in Kulob in the summer of 1992 and were later reinforced by forces from the Hissor valley. They received support from Uzbekistan and Russia. After Rahman took office, the Sitodi Melli were dissolved and integrated into the regular Tajik armed forces . Rahmon's Kulob followers were given key government positions.

Until 1999 there were individual acts of violence such as the murder of politicians, other influential citizens and journalists. On the government side, in addition to the Kulob militias, mainly Uzbek units from the west of the Chatlon province and the Hissor Valley fought against traditional Muslim groups from the Rasch Valley (former name: Qarategin) and the Berg-Badachschan province . The peace agreement between the two opponents at the negotiating table was possible because the neighboring countries were not interested in a continuation of the conflict. In addition, groups from Kulob and from the eastern mountain valleys fought against each other, so they both came from the south and were both excluded from political participation under Soviet rule. This facilitated the agreements that brought the civil war to a peaceful end with the integration of oppositional forces into the government apparatus. The former elite from Leninabad was excluded from the negotiations, which further weakened their position of power. The peace treaty included a 30 percent power participation by the Islamic opposition. Tajikistan thus became the only post-Soviet country in Central Asia in which an Islamic party is legally represented in parliament. In the following elections in November 1999, Rahmon received around 97 percent of the vote.

Great market hall

Since 1992 the Kulob elite has occupied a large part of the country's key political and economic positions. In 2010, for example, these were the Minister of Health, Minister of Education, the Supreme Court President, the Head of the Presidency, the Chairman of the House of Lords (Majlis Melli ) of Parliament (Mahmadsaid Ubaidulloev, officially the second man in the state), the Directors of the National University, the Medical University and the State Pedagogical University as well as the Mayor of Dushanbe. In addition, there are management positions in the large state-owned industrial companies. Ghaffor Mirzoev, who was head of the President's life guard until 2004 and had a financial stake in the state-run aluminum factory TALCO , also comes from Kulob . He fell from grace and was imprisoned for life on charges of murder and other offenses. The case of Mirzoev, who was a warlord in the 1990s and one of the most influential political forces in the country, has been seen as part of a power struggle since the late 1990s between the Kulob faction and the Danghara faction. Sherali Nazarov, who headed TALCO's financial operations from 1996 to 2004, was replaced at the same time as Mirzoev. Rahmon's son-in-law Hasan Sadulloev, head of the state-owned Oriyonbank, was also involved in the change of office at TALCO. This and other personnel changes show a progressive shift in power away from Kulob and in favor of Rahmon's clan from Danghara. The two factions, named after their region of origin, are part of a regional clientelism called mahalgaroi in Tajik . In this system of patronage networks, the President now focuses on confidants from his native Danghara.

Although the Kulob military had brought Rahmon to power and the Kulob political elite had come to power and prosperity in the state capital, the majority of the region's residents remained in poverty. As in other provinces, remittances from men working abroad, often in Russia, make up a considerable proportion of the income of average families. Nevertheless, the region around Kulob, i.e. the east of the province of Chatlon, remained the poorest part of the country. Tajikistan, on the other hand, is the poorest of the former Central Asian Soviet republics.

In the first half of 2010 there was a surge in the number of symptoms of paralysis among the population in the southwest of the country. Until 9 May 2010, Tajikistan reported to the WHO a total of 278 cases of acute paralysis in the southwest, of which 56 by laboratory tests as polio were diagnosed (polio). By July 2010, the number of flaccid paralysis had risen to 643, in 334 of these cases polio was detected. Of these, 21 polio cases came from the Kulob region.

At the same time as the outbreak of polio, heavy rainfall in the southwest of April and June 2010 caused the heaviest floods, mudslides and landslides in a long time. The Kulob region was hardest hit by the floods. 4,500 residents of the city were made homeless and far more lost their livestock. Fields and pastureland were devastated. Until mid-June there were problems with the drinking water supply in Kulob for several weeks. Aid organizations distributed chlorine tablets to disinfect water. However, drinking water is constantly contaminated in all Tajik cities, depending on the region, primarily through pesticides from cotton cultivation, heavy metals from industrial production as well as fertilizer residues and bacteria in general from agricultural land. The temporal connection between the natural disaster and the occurrence of the paralysis promoted the discussion about clinical pictures and their causes presumably based on the hygienic conditions.

Cityscape

Simple residential area in the west. Street parallel to Somoni Street

The population doubled to 8,400 between 1926 and 1939. According to official censuses, the population was 23,455 in 1959, 39,764 in 1970 and 54,841 in 1979. In 1989 the number had risen to 74,456, in 2000 it was 77,692 and in 2010 it was 94,950. For 2014 99,700 inhabitants are estimated. After Dushanbe, Khujand and Qurghonteppa, Kulob is one of the few large urban settlement areas in valley plains in which the majority of the population of Tajikistan lives.

The business center is at the southern end of downtown. Here is a large market hall with several restaurants on the upper floor, most of the shops and one of the two large hotels. A few meters south, on the other side of a deeply cut creek, which also serves as a sewer, the private shared taxis leave from a small square, which are the only regional means of transport for people. From this place the central axis of the city, Somoni Street ( ulitza Somoni , named after the Samanid ruler Ismoil Somonij, 849-907), runs around three kilometers to the northeast. About 200 meters from the main market, a large roundabout was erected on this street in 2006 as a memorial to the city's 2700th anniversary. The opening in September, shortly after the presidential elections held on November 6, 2006, are seen by critics as support for the election campaign and - like the 2500th anniversary celebrations in Istaravshan in 2002 - as a waste of the state's few available financial resources. The city administration building ( hukumat ) follows a few 100 meters north .

The city park on Somoni Street is roughly in the geographical center of the built-up urban area and 1.5 kilometers north of the market. In it is the mausoleum of Sayyid Ali Hamadhani, which was completely restored in 2008. The essentially newly built brick building with several small domed rooms contains Hamadhani's cenotaph as well as memorials to other Islamic people. It can only be entered by men. Opposite is a small museum that shows Hamadhani's writings and old editions of the Koran. In the back of the park, the remains of buildings dating from the 1st millennium BC were uncovered. Should come from BC.

Far outside the center, in the northern area of ​​Somoni Street, a memorial commemorates the victims of the Second World War. At the level of the city park, a wide street leads east into a large part of the city with apartment blocks from the socialist era and another market that mainly sells flour, vegetables, fruit and household goods. Tomin Street, which leads southeast from the Jubilee Monument, is named after Nikolai Tomin, the commander of a brigade who was killed in the battle against the Basmachi in 1924. There is a municipal hospital and numerous pharmacies.

Economy and Infrastructure

Sacks of flour from Kazakhstan on the food market in the east of the city

The Kulob region is and was shaped by agriculture. In the Soviet era, 1989, only 16.5 percent of the working population were workers in industry. Cotton processing is the only major industrial production. The region is dependent on food imports from neighboring regions and from Kazakhstan.

The airport in Kulob is not served by the Tajik airline Tajik Air on domestic flights. Ural Airlines , S7 Airlines and East Air fly to Moscow several times a week. Between 1994 and 2001, Tajikistan provided military assistance to some Shiite groups from Tajiks and Hazara in the fight against the Taliban during the Afghan Civil War . The Kulob airport served as a base for the Northern Alliance , whose center was in the Punjjir province . Until 2002, the United States maintained a modest force of around 200 men at Kulob Airport, compared to the stations in neighboring Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, who took part in the fight against the Taliban with a fleet of helicopters. They were supported by some French and Italians.

Around 7,000 Russian soldiers, mainly from the garrison of the 201st Motorized Rifle Division in the Russian military district of Volga-Urals, are stationed at three locations in Tajikistan. In addition to the headquarters near Dushanbe, the stationing locations are Qurghonteppa and Kulob. The Russian division consists of three infantry regiments, the 149th regiment is stationed in Kulob. The only other country in southern Central Asia with Russian soldiers - in a much smaller number - is Kyrgyzstan.

Culture

The vast majority of the population profess Sunni Islam. During the Soviet period, all mosques across the country except for a few officially recognized mosques were closed and public practice of religion was suppressed by the state. Islam survived in the private sphere for almost 70 years. There were few recognized mullahs (Islamic clergy). Police took action against unauthorized clergymen who practiced popular religious practices. Nevertheless, the number of popular Islamic preachers in Kulob Oblast was estimated at 150 in the mid-1980s. In the Soviet era, the mausoleum of Ali Hamadhani was considered a museum that believers could visit and pray there for a fee.

The Tajik music style Falak is predominantly cultivated in the south-west of the country , which represents a singing tradition accompanied by lute instruments and has been arranged with keyboards, drums and electric guitar since the 1990s, in line with western pop music. Some of the best-known Falak singers come from Kulob.

Town twinning

Personalities

literature

  • Kulob . In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan. Scarecrow Press, Lanham (Maryland), 2010, p. 211
  • Habib Borijan: Kulāb . In: Encyclopædia Iranica

Web links

Commons : Kulob  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. Kulob Nohiya . In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, p. 211
  2. ^ Kulob, Tajikistan . weatherbase.com
  3. ^ MV Hambly: Road vs. Rail. A Note on Transport Development in Tadzhikistan. In: Soviet Studies, Vol. 19, No. January 3, 1968, pp. 421-425, here pp. 422f
  4. ^ Railways. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan , p. 297
  5. ^ Russian railway workers suspend the sale of tickets to Kulob. avesta.tj, November 18, 2011
  6. ^ Boris A. Litvinsky: The Hephthalite Empire . In: Boris A. Litvinsky (Ed.): History , p. 146
  7. Clifford Edmund Bosworth : Lot valley. In: Encyclopædia Iranica
  8. ^ Natalia M. Vinogradova, Giovanna Lombardo: Farming Sites of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages in Southern Tajikistan. In: East and West, Vol. 52, No. 1/4, December 2002, pp. 71–125, here p. 116
  9. ^ Hans Wilhelm Haussig : The history of Central Asia and the Silk Road in pre-Islamic times. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1983, p. 80.
  10. ^ Pierre Siméon: Hulbuk: Architecture and Material Culture of the Capital of the Banijurids in Central Asia (ninth-eleventh centuries). In: Muqarnas. An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World, Vol. 29, 2012, pp. 385-421, here pp. 389f, 407; K. Baipakov: Prominent archaeological sites of Central Asia on the Great Silk Road. UNESCO Library, 2011, map p. 49 (Chapter: Tajikistan , p. 49–69)
  11. ^ J. Harmatta: History of the Regions. In: Boris A. Litvinsky (Ed.): History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. III, pp. 360f
  12. Étienne de La Vaissière : Sogdian Traders. A history . ( Handbook of Oriental Studies . 8th section: Central Asia , Volume 10) Brill, Leiden / Boston 2005, pp. 265f
  13. See: Vladimir N. Nastich: A Survey of the Abbasid Copper Coinage of Transoxania , pp. 1-80
  14. Michael Fedorov: New Data on the Appanage Rulers of Khuttalān and Wakhsh . In: Iran, Vol. 44, 2006, pp. 197–206, here p. 201
  15. ^ Wilhelm Barthold : Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion. Luzac & Co, London 1928, p. 419
  16. Gavin Hambly (Ed.): Central Asia . (Fischer Weltgeschichte, Volume 16) Fischer, Frankfurt / Main 1966, p. 180
  17. Rahmon, Emomali (1952-) . In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan , p. 296
  18. Introduction. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan , p. 31
  19. Sitodi Melli . In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan , p. 329
  20. Shahram Akbarzadeh: Geopolitics versus Democracy in Tajikistan. In: Demokratieizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, 14th vol., No. 4, 2006, pp. 563-578, here p. 565
  21. Introduction. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan , p. 37
  22. ^ John Heathershaw: State transformation: the Tajik Aluminum Company. In: John Heathershaw, Edmund Herzig (Ed.): The Transformation of Tajikistan: The Sources of Statehood. Routledge, London 2013, p. 188
  23. Jennifer Mitchell: Civilian Victimization in the Tajik Civil War. How the Popular Front Won the War and Ruined the Nation. (Dissertation) King's College London, 2014, p. 142
  24. ^ Johan Engvall: The State under Siege: The Drug Trade and Organized Crime in Tajikistan . In: Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 58, No. September 6, 2006, pp. 827-854, here p. 849
  25. ^ Corruption . In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, p. 105
  26. Erali Paiziev: Gods of Central Asia: Understanding Neopatrimonialism. (Dissertation) Central European University, Budapest 2014, p. 14
  27. Michael A. Hall: Tajikistan: the mirage of stability. In: Perspective , Vol. 13, No. 2, November – December 2002, p. 7
  28. ^ Polio update: Tajikistan and central Asia. World Health Organization, May 10, 2010
  29. Epidemiological Bulletin . No. 27 , Robert Koch Institute, July 12, 2010, pp. 253–262, here p. 259
  30. 21 cases of polio reported in Kulob in H1 2010. Asia Plus, July 20, 2010
  31. Andrea Lepold: Virus or poisoned drinking water? An Examination of the Tajik Poliomyelitis "Epidemic" (The Complete Study) . nebancs.hu, December 30, 2011
  32. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1959 г. demoscope.ru
  33. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1970 г. demoscope.ru
  34. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1979 г. demoscope.ru
  35. ^ The provinces of Tajikistan as well as all cities and urban settlements of more than 10,000 inhabitants. City population
  36. ^ Tajikistan. Trends in Conflict and Cooperation. Swiss Peace, FAST International, April – May 2007
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  39. ^ Kulon Airport Seeks Support of EBRD for Implementation of its Development Program. Asia Plus, July 10, 2013
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  41. Russian Military Base in Tajikistan. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, 2010, p. 308
  42. Muriel Atkin: The Survival of Islam in Soviet Tajikistan. In: Middle East Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4, Herbst 1989, pp. 605-618, here pp. 609, 615