Lacedaemon tombs

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Front of the Lacedaemonian graves, excavation photo from 1914/1915

The Lacedaemonian Tombs are a monumental tomb on the Kerameikos , the most important cemetery at the gates of ancient Athens . They are named after the ancient name Lakedaimonier for the inhabitants of Sparta . The grave building is located in the north of today's excavation area on the south side of the ancient Kerameikos Street , which led from the city to the northwest to the so-called Academy . It is an elongated, flat building made of stone blocks with a total width of about 24 meters.

The Lacedaemonian tombs are generally regarded as grave structures for the fallen of the Spartan army , which was defeated in the Athenian civil war of 404/403 BC. Fought on the side of the " thirty tyrants ". The ancient writer Xenophon describes in this context in his historical work a battle against the democratic party in Piraeus . The Spartans who died in the process have been identified with the burials in the Lacedaemonian graves since a corresponding epitaph was found .

This makes it one of the few ancient tombs in which an archaeological finding can be linked to both an inscription and a contemporary written source. At the same time, the finds made there are of particular scientific relevance, as there are only a few known Spartan graves on the one hand and only a few laconic (Spartan) ceramics in the red-figure style on the other . In addition, the ceramics, but also the weapons finds from the Lacedaemonian graves can be dated to the exact year due to the connection to historically documented fighting, thus improving the dating possibilities of stylistically similar objects from other excavations.

Historical context

The state cemetery road in Kerameikos

Excavation plan of the Kerameikos area after the first excavations by the German Archaeological Institute in 1914/1915; The Lacedaemonian graves are located in the area of ​​the dark red circle

The Lacedaemonian tombs are located on the edge of Kerameikos Street , which led from Dipylon , a city gate in the northwest of ancient Athens, to the "Academy". This sacred grove later gave its name to Plato's academy and today's academies . The road to the academy developed from the 6th century BC. To an important street for the processions and cults of the Athenian citizenship. In the early classical epoch , from the establishment of Athenian democracy at the end of the 6th century BC. It was also intended for the newly emerged state funerals of the Athenians. In order to strengthen the citizens' identification with the city-state, the previously customary ornate private burials were restricted and state burial rituals were enforced. Among other things, large-scale funeral ceremonies , so-called epitaphs , were held every winter on Kerameikos Street for all fallen Athenian soldiers; their ashes were then buried in a shared tomb called the Demosion Sema . On such an occasion, for example, the speech of the fallen by Pericles was given . Because of this increased importance, the road was used in the late 5th century BC. BC expanded to a width of about 40 meters. In the 2nd century AD, the travel writer Pausanias described the complex in detail, even if some of the graves had already been robbed and / or filled in at that time.

The warriors were buried in the state graves according to phyle ; their names were given on simple steles. Outstanding generals and statesmen such as Pericles , Kleisthenes , Harmodios and Aristogeiton , however, were able to get their own tombs on the way to the academy after a decision by the people's assembly. No clear archaeological findings have been discovered from these buildings or from the Sema demosion. Only two buildings that can be regarded as state graves have so far been significantly uncovered and examined more intensively: the Lacedaemonian graves and the rotunda at the third horos .

Battle of Piraeus 403 BC Chr.

The concrete interpretation and naming of the Lacedaemonian graves is based on the inscription found next to it. The two names preserved on it are from the history of the Athenian writer Xenophon , the Hellenika , for the year 403 BC. Occupied.

The episode described there is related to the defeat of Athens against Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). Following this long-standing dispute, a group of oligarchs , the " Thirty Tyrants " , ruled over Athens with the support of the victorious power Sparta . A civil war broke out between the city's Democratic Party and the oligarchs. The democratic politician Thrasybulus returned from his exile and marched with troops towards the city of Athens. After a short time the "thirty tyrants" had to withdraw to Eleusis , but left power in Athens to a group of three thousand citizens loyal to them. Together with the thirty oligarchs, the latter asked the Spartans for military help, whereupon they sent Lysander and Libys with troops to Athens. However, Pausanias , one of the two Spartan kings, also moved to Attica with his own army , as he feared too much power would be concentrated in Lysander's hands.

When his soldiers explored the area near the Athens port of Piraeus in May, a scuffle broke out with some democrats at the foot of Munychia Hill , who ultimately had to flee and retreat to the theater of Piraeus. There were more democratic soldiers there.

Xenophon describes the situation as follows: “The light troops [of the Democrats] immediately ran out [from the theater] and hurled spears, javelins, arrows and stones. The Lacedaemonians, among whom there were many wounded, backed away step by step, badly pressed, but at the same time the opponents hit them all the harder. Then Chairon and Thibrachos, both Polemarchs , and Lakrates, the winner of the Olympic Games, as well as other Lacedaemonians, who are all buried outside the city gates on the Kerameikos, fell. When Thrasybulus saw the situation, he came to the rescue with the rest of his hoplites , who rushed to fight in front of Halai ... "

After this dangerous military conflict, however, King Pausanias quickly succeeded in persuading the two parties of the Athenian citizenship to hold talks. The negotiations took place under Pausanias' control and ended in the autumn of 403 BC. With the establishment of a moderate democratic government in Athens.

Historical classification of the graves

The Spartan fallen in this battle at the Theater of Piraeus can be identified with the dead in the Lacedaemonian graves. This is certain because of their mention in the funerary inscription by Chairon and Thibrachos, which dates back to 403 BC. Belonged to the six Polemarchs of Sparta, so each commanded a division of the army.

The other Lacedaemonian named by Xenophon is Lakrates, who won a competition at the Olympic Games . Olympic champions were generally highly regarded in ancient Greece and had the task of protecting the king as a bodyguard in the Spartan army. Whether Lakrates is also buried in the same tomb complex depends, among other things, on the addition of the incompletely preserved inscription (see below in the chapter on the grave inscription ). The Lacedaemonian graves represent the only known burial place of Spartans that can be dated to the classical era.

Today's condition of the narrowly narrowed Kerameikos Street: View from the Lacedaemonian graves (in the foreground the central core building) towards the remains of the city wall; The Acropolis can be seen in the background

The fact that the Spartans received a state grave right outside the gates of Athens is due to the fact that they were the allies of the Athenian ruling class in the specific war situation. Since the 6th century BC It became customary in the Spartan army not to bury the fallen in individual graves in their hometown, but in group graves, the Polyandria , in the immediate vicinity of their place of death . Since the area in front of the city walls of Athens had been devastated in the previous Peloponnesian War , the place was now free to build the Lacedaemonian graves at such a prominent place.

In addition, the close proximity to the city wall in the civil war months of 403 BC. BC have facilitated the protection of the construction work and the funeral ceremonies from possible enemy attacks. The burial must have taken place within a few days, since the bodies could hardly be preserved longer in May due to the temperatures. It can be assumed that King Pausanias was present at the funeral of his generals and his bodyguard, especially since this event was a welcome opportunity to demonstrate Spartan virtues and bravery to the Athenian people. The tomb of the Spartans must have been completed by the end of the oligarchic rule in autumn, as the democratic party then took power in Athens.

Nevertheless, the Lacedaemonian graves were also preserved in the future. The orator Lysias refers in his Epitaphios, his funeral oration for the fallen Athenians of the year 394 BC. BC, on the bravery of their compatriots who had withstood the Spartans at Piraeus a few years earlier. He then went on: “Nevertheless, they were not frightened by the crowd of their opponents, but risked their lives and erected a monument to victory over their enemies. For them, witnesses of their bravery are the graves of the Lacedaemonians located near this place of remembrance (μνῆμα). ”This passage makes it clear that the Athenians later presented it as a sign of their special nobility that they cherished the graves of their defeated enemies directly in front of their city walls not destroyed. The word "μνῆμα" can be translated both with "tomb" and with "monument". Therefore, it is controversial in research whether Lysias with "this" μνῆμα, which according to him was located near the Lacedaemonian graves, the victory monument of the Athenian democrats on the occasion of the victory of 403 BC. Chr. Means that he mentioned in the sentence before, or whether he is referring to the tomb of the war dead from 394 BC. Chr. Refers to which he may have stood when he gave the speech.

Building description

Viewed from above, the Lacedaemonian tombs have the shape of an elongated rectangle, the front broad side of which extends directly to the street. The structure is 3.77 meters (12 Attic feet ) deep and approximately 24 meters wide. It is divided into several sections by internal walls, the history of which is very complex.

Two older core buildings were apparently joined together by various connecting and extension buildings to form the overall complex that is visible again today. The exact chronology of these construction measures is largely unclear.

Front view of the Lacedaemonian tombs in their current state

General information on construction

The Lacedaemonian graves rest on a foundation that compensates for the unevenness of the ground. Up to four layers of stone blocks have been preserved on it, whereby research assumes that the top layer of stone has been lost, i.e. there were originally five. Only in a small section of the tomb complex, the central core building, the walls have been preserved up to a height of six cuboids, so that the complex there seems to have been a little higher. Each layer of stone jumps back a few centimeters from the one below; the entire structure is thus slightly stepped.

For the tomb blocks were of yellowish calcareous sandstone used, each in the middle of something protruding ( bosses but which can easily smoothed), at the edge on all four sides ( rim shot ). The building material of at least the southern part of the complex had been reused, i.e. it had already been used architecturally elsewhere. However, efforts were made to hide the traces of the older use by turning the already hewn sides of the stones inward. Overall, however, the stones used were quite uniform, so that they probably came from a single larger structure and had not been "randomly" collected. For the origin of the building material, for example, the older building of the nearby Pompeion could be considered; but there is no concrete archaeological evidence for this. The interior of the Lacedaemonian graves was filled with earth. Traces of a possible coverage have not been preserved.

Components and phases

Drawings of the excavation findings: Front view of the Lacedaemonian graves in their modern condition (above) and stone plan of the complex (below)

The individual parts of the building are referred to as the "north", "middle" and "south" section, disregarding the fact that the tomb was not built exactly in a north-south direction. In reality, the northern section points slightly to the northwest, the southern section accordingly to the southeast. The side facing the road is just as imprecisely addressed as the east, the side facing away from the road as the west.

Northern side wall of the middle construction section (the highest preserved wall section of the Lacedaemonian graves), on the right in the picture the rear wall of the northern construction section

The northern section, 4.85 meters wide, is very incomplete. There is only a part of the west wall and a single stone that probably belonged to the east wall. At the northern end of the west wall there are connection surfaces in the masonry, which suggest that the northern end wall of the system was attached there. Accordingly, the rear wall of the northern section has been preserved in full length. At its southern end, it adjoins the adjoining building section without being integrated into its masonry structure. Accordingly, it was probably added there later, so that the northern section of the Lacedaemonian tombs is probably younger than the middle one. There is said to have been a later addition to this north building to the north, which can only be proven on excavation photos by the foundations visible there, but now underground, from which no rising masonry has been preserved.

The middle section of the building is best preserved: there the complex is still up to six stone layers high in places. Originally there was a small core building 3.30 meters wide and 4.15 meters deep that stood on its own. Two short walls were later added to the south to connect it to the masonry there. The fact that these two connecting walls were only connected to the core structure later cannot be seen from the outside, as the stones there were integrated into the existing wall and interlocked. The construction sequence can only be recognized by the fact that the south wall of the central core building is laid out in steps, i.e. it was originally intended as an outer wall. It was only later that it was apparently connected to the southern section by the corresponding walls.

View of the grave complex from the east, in the foreground the southern construction section

The 12.50 meter wide southern section of the Lacedaemonian Tombs is the longest part of the monument. Like the middle section, it consists of a core structure and an extension, but here, too, the southern part that was added later has been well integrated into the existing masonry. Unlike the rest of the foundations of the Lacedaemonian tombs, the foundation of the southern extension does not consist of rubble stone , but of large limestone or breccia blocks. In addition, it extends much less deeply into the earth and bends slightly to the east, i.e. towards the street. It is possible that there was another, independent building there, which was oriented slightly differently and whose foundation was taken over for the newly erected tomb. This extension of the southern section is likely to be younger in view of its higher foundation; it is divided into itself again by an inner wall. The surviving inscription of the Lacedaemonian graves (see section on tombstone inscription ) is generally regarded as the cornice of the southern section, which was closed by the ashlar wall at the top. It is considered unlikely that further building elements or inscription stones followed.

Overall, the Lacedaemonian graves consist of two core structures - the core of the middle section, also known as the "tower", and the long core of the southern section - as well as of three "extension buildings" - the northern section, the narrow space between the two core structures and the two-part extension of the southern section. Which of the core structures existed first and in which order the additions and connections were added is unclear. The difference between the levels of the foundations and, above all, of the graves could be an indication that the various parts of the building were laid out at a certain time interval and that the general ground level of the area had risen in between. Jutta Stroszeck, on the other hand, classifies the construction phases very closely together. According to this, the first Lacedaemonian fallen in the war year 403 BC. BC was buried in the earlier parts of the complex, for those who died later or who died of injuries, the supplementary buildings were built in the same year. In addition, after the end of the Athenian civil war, there were Spartans in the city who monitored the implementation of the peace agreements, including a far-reaching amnesty . It could also be that there were also deaths among these people, for which an extension of the Lacedaemonian graves was then laid.

The latest excavations in 2008/2009 have shown that before the construction of the stone complex, preliminary grave structures had been built over some of the skeletons, which were then torn down and leveled after a short time to make space for the structures that are still visible today : At the beginning there were adobe buildings above the northern half of the southern core structure and the southern extension building, the southern half of the southern core structure in between was briefly covered with a small burial mound.

Epitaph

Inscription of the Lacedaemonian graves, placed on the front wall; in the foreground the boundary stone of Kerameikos Street can be seen

description

An inscription that was found on April 7 or 8, 1930 near the structure in a later wall is decisive for the historical classification of the Lacedaemonian graves . It was found 4.50 meters northeast of the boundary stone from the 4th century (see below in the Archaeological Context chapter ) and 1.50 meters above the original road foundation of Kerameikos Street, where it was used as a spoil in a wall from Roman times . Today the stone is in the Kerameikos Museum . It is a flat slab of white-blue Hymettic marble , which is not completely preserved, but has a break on the left. It is 16.5 cm high, 41 cm deep and the preserved part is 2.10 meters wide. On the neatly smoothed underside of the stone there are two rectangular inlets with a width of 17 and 14 centimeters, which probably originate from an earlier or later use. They could suggest that the block served as a holder for (grave) steles at the time, which were fixed with a metal pin in the two holes. Accordingly, the use as building material for the Roman wall is at least its third use after that as a stele base and that as an inscription frieze in the Lacedaemonian graves, although the order of the first two uses cannot be clarified.

The inscription is written from right to left , which was still relatively common in early Greek, but is very unusual for the classical period to which the inscription and the Lacedaemonian tombs are dated. The text that has been preserved comprises two large, carved letters with a letter height of 5 cm, namely a lambda and an alpha , which were probably part of a word written over the entire stone. Between the letters there are names in half the size of the font, the two surviving titles having the official title “Polemarch”: “ΘΙΒΡΑΚΟΣ ΠΟΛΕΜΑΡΨΟΣ” (“Polemarch Thibrachos”) and “ΨΑΙΡΩΝ ΠΟΛΕΜΑΡΨΟΣ” (“Polemarch Chairon”). On the far left of the stone there is also a sloping hatch of a letter with which the third name on the stone (counting from the right) began. Earlier research interpreted this letter as My , but a lambda is now also considered plausible. The inscription is not written in the Attic-Ionic form of the ancient Greek alphabet , as it was used in Athens, for example, but in the Peloponnesian alphabet common in Sparta , in which a psi was written instead of Chi .

Completion and reconstruction

The inscription found at the Lacedaemonian graves evidently mentions the two Spartan Polemarchs of the year 403 BC. Who are known from Xenophon. If the letter at the fracture point of the stone, which is only partially legible, is a lambda, it was probably the name of the Olympic champion Lakrates, the third person named by Xenophon. Werner Peek even assumed that Xenophon copied the names of the fallen from the Lacedaemonian graves for the creation of his work. The only Spartans for whom grave inscriptions were allowed to be made were soldiers who died in battle (and possibly women who had died in childbed).

The two capital letters lambda and alpha are the beginning of a longer word that apparently went on to the left. As a supplement, "ΛΑ [κεδαιμονίων]" ("[the city] of the Lacedaemonians") is assumed, ie the genitive plural of the official name for the Polis Sparta, as would be expected in an inscription at such a point. Further personal names are likely to have stood between the remaining letters, so that there are 13 or 14 names in the entire inscription. If the 13 letters of the word "Λακεδαιμονίων" were evenly spaced on the stone, as the excavator Alfred Brueckner suspected in an entry in his excavation diary, the size of the total inscription can be extrapolated and reconstructed at 12.37 meters. As a result, he suspected that the inscription formed the cornice of the Lacedaemonian tombs. The southern part is 12.45 meters long, so that the presumed size of the epitaph would be well integrated there.

However , when Alexander von Kienlin examined the stone again, he found that Brueckner was assuming somewhat inaccurate measurements on the stone and therefore made a total of 27 centimeters in his calculation. Accordingly, the inscription should have been projected a total of 12.64 meters long. In addition, von Kienlin pointed out that the right side of the stone shows anathyrosis , i.e. is somewhat deepened. This technique was used in antiquity so that two stones of a wall connected neatly to one another - so the inscription stone from the Lacedaemonian graves must have been followed by another stone on the right. This means that the entire reconstructed frieze does not fit either on the southern core structure of the tomb or on any other component there. This gave von Kienlin two options: Either the inscription did not belong to the neighboring Lacedaemonian graves or the addition to the inscription, which had not been questioned until then, was incorrect. Instead of “Lakedaimonion” he is considering another name for the Spartans, namely “Λάκωνες” (“Lakones”). This means that one can assume a much smaller size for the original full inscription, and the architectural reconstruction would be possible without any problems. Against this approach, however, speaks that "Lakones" is a colloquial short form that would be extremely untypical on a grave inscription. Despite these objections, the connection between the inscription and the grave building is still regarded as certain, even if the exact architectural reconstruction remains unclear.

Why the inscription was written from right to left, even though it was written in the 5th century BC BC was no longer common is not certain. Among other things, the theory was put forward that the text was based on a passer-by who walked towards the city from the direction of the academy and could then have read the large-format grave mark in the right direction. The target audience was therefore more likely to be visitors to Athens than the locals. It is also possible that it is merely a deliberate anachronism ; the motives for this, however, are also in the dark. Franz Willemsen suspected that the Lacedaemonian tombs were part of a larger, symmetrically constructed complex (see the Archaeological Context chapter below ) and that the block of inscriptions found would therefore have had a clockwise counterpart that had not yet been found further north.

Graves

Skeletons

More than 20 body burials were uncovered in the Lacedaemonian graves, all of which were male skeletons. The bones were already badly damaged in the 1930s due to the repeated excavation and refilling. For the individual examination, the dead were numbered, whereby the numbering is not consistently in one direction, but is determined by the order of the excavations. The front wall of the Lacedaemonian graves partially stands on top of the filled pits in which the burials took place; as a rule, the burials must have taken place before the construction of the building.

In the central core building, the “tower”, there was only a single grave, which is also the only sarcophagus burial in the complex (skeleton 15). The marble coffin is undecorated on the outside, but stuccoed on the inside . All remaining dead were simply laid in the ground. Nine people were buried in the southern core structure, with their corpses being divided into two groups by a small partition wall, a group of six (skeletons 1-6) and a group of three (skeletons 7-9). The three separated skeletons are more distant from each other and are bedded more carefully, which indicates social differences to the rest of the dead.

In the middle extension, between the two core buildings, there is another burial (skeleton 16). The pit created for this is relatively deep, so the time lag between the two core structures seems to be very short. To protect the body, six roof panels had been leaned against each other at an acute angle; the top and bottom of this construction were each closed with another roof panel. In the southern extension building, another five skeletons have been uncovered (skeletons 10–14) - at a significantly shallower depth than in the other components, corresponding to the much shallower foundations there. One of these five dead (skeleton 14) is separated from the other four by the inner separating wall of this construction section and was once again higher than the rest. A total of eight burials have been excavated in the northern section of the Lacedaemonian graves, but only one of them (skeleton 17) definitely belongs to the time the complex was built. Six dead (skeletons 19-24) lie in two pits that reach under the (presumed) northern wall, so that their belonging to the original structure is questioned. One of them is missing the entire left upper eye arch, which was apparently cut off with a sword in a fight situation. Finally, the eighth skeleton in the north building is on a higher level and at right angles to all other graves parallel to the street (skeleton 18) and is therefore certainly not part of the original complex. Since an arrow head was found in the elbow area of his right arm, it seems to be a fallen warrior as well. Unlike almost all the actual burials of Lakedaimoniergräber him adding one has been laid in the grave, strigilis from bronze .

With the exception of skeleton 18, which was buried across the others, all the graves mentioned were laid out according to the same principle: the bodies were placed in the grave pit with their heads facing the street on their backs. From the arrangement of the bones it can be reconstructed that they were each wrapped in a cloth that would rot after a while. For example, the ankles did not fall to the side, but down. The heads of the corpses were placed on a pillow, which in turn was placed on a small stone. The pillows and the shrouds have not survived, so at the time of the excavation only the stone under or next to the skull was found. The three skeletons of the southern core building, in which the larger distance between the burials is a symbolic highlight, received two stones instead of one under their pillow as a further distinction. These findings correspond to what is known from written sources about Spartan burial customs. Their usual practice included resting their heads on a pillow, which was supported by a stone, as well as treating all dead bodies equally and wrapping the corpses in their typical red coats ( phoinikis ).

The 13 to 14 personal names that are reconstructed on the inscription correspond exactly to the number of skeletons found in the southern core and extension building, which supports the assumption that the grave inscription belonged precisely to this component (but see the architectural objections in the section grave inscription ). It also corresponded to the Spartan custom, regardless of the principle of equal treatment of all, at the funeral to honor particularly outstanding statesmen and warriors at the funeral to their compatriots. The excavator Alfred Brueckner put forward the plausible thesis that the skeletons 7–9 in the southern core building with their greater distance from one another and the two stones under the head are the three fallen soldiers named by Xenophon, the Polemarchs and the Olympians . This thesis is supported by the fact that there was a tumulus (burial mound) above these three skeletons before the construction of the stone south building, while above the neighboring skeletons 1–6 and 10–14 only clay structures were detectable for this intermediate phase. The skeleton 9, which is again separated from the other two by a quarry stone, was estimated in an anthropological study to be 18-20 years, the skeletons 7 and 8 on the other hand to 25-30 and 25-35 years respectively. Accordingly, the latter two could be the military leaders of the Spartan army, Tibrakos and Chairon, and the third corpse could be the king's bodyguard, Lakrates. Alternatively, however, it was also suggested that the skeleton 15, buried completely separately in the central core building, was Lakrates, as this burial was the only one of the Lacedaemonian graves to take place in a sarcophagus and was also given a grave. There is evidence from Sparta that Olympic champions were buried particularly richly there. For corpse 15, the age of death was determined to be just over 20 years. If the broken letter on the grave inscription was a lambda and was therefore named there after the two Polemarchs Lakrates, one would have to locate his burial in the southern section (i.e. identify him with skeleton 9), since the stone with the inscription is not architecturally on the middle Core building can be reconstructed. Franz Willemsen in turn tried in 1977 to identify the neighboring rotunda on the third horos as the burial place of Lakrates (see below in the Archaeological Context chapter ), but his suggestions were mostly rejected. The extensions to the Lacedaemonian graves each have two grave pits, which were apparently built at the same time and thus possibly also served to highlight individual buried people.

Weapons finds

A few metal weapon parts were found between the bones in the Lacedaemonian graves. Five of them are arrowheads found on the legs and in the head area of ​​skeletons. But so far only two of them have been scientifically published. These two are short and light three-sided arrowheads made of bronze, which did not have an elongated spout part to put on the arrow , but where the pointed end was hollowed out for this purpose. This short form of arrowheads had developed from the Persian Wars at the beginning of the 5th century BC. And was established well into the 4th century BC. Occupied. The two specimens from the Lacedaemonian graves are 1.5 and 1.7 cm in length and one was barbed . They were found on the right leg of skeleton 12, one in the shin and one on the thigh near the hip joint . There they were probably not fatal for the fighter, but could have prevented him from escaping when the Spartans had to withdraw and were thus indirectly responsible for his death. The lower legs were particularly endangered in Greek soldiers, as they were not protected by the round shields . Individual arrowheads that have not yet been published have also been found in the foot area of ​​skeleton 10, on the skull of the sarcophagus burial (skeleton 15) and in the left chest of the corpse in the middle extension (skeleton 16).

An iron spike 17.1 cm long was found in the chest of skeleton 3 in the southern core structure, which must have penetrated directly into its heart. The upper, pointed part is solid and square, the lower half consists of the round spout with a slot on one side. It is unclear whether the object is the tip of a throwing spear or a Sauroter , i.e. a lance shoe . These were common with Greek lances and not only held the weapon on the ground, but could also be used to attack if, for example, the upper tip broke off. The comparatively large diameter of the sleeve speaks for this interpretation of the object. On the other hand, it is likely that an Athenian soldier would take his lance back with him after use - unlike a thrown spear - provided the lance shoe was not stuck too firmly in the body of the enemy.

There is also a piece of iron, 21.7 cm long, which has the shape of an elongated trapezoid and a piece was found above the skeletons. Therefore it is not clear whether it actually belongs to the buried Spartans or rather the remainder of another burial. It could be the rest of the blade of a sword , but that interpretation is not certain either.

It is believed that the wounds of the fallen Lacedaemonians were presented at the burial to highlight their bravery. This could explain that the weapons were not removed and ended up in the grave.

Vessel finds

The only addition found in the entire complex was an alabastron , a small bottle for storing oils and other precious essences. The specimen from the Lacedaemonian graves is made of alabaster , measures 19.2 cm in height and was uncovered in the sarcophagus during the individual burial. Two red-figure lekyths , which are assigned to grave 24 in internal documents of the Kerameikos excavation, are not mentioned in the excavator's reports and therefore probably do not belong to the Lacedaemonian graves. The extensive lack of grave goods is characteristic of Sparta. Instead, some ceramics were found in the higher layers of the earth of all components , but these are not additions, but dishes for the sacrificial ceremonies that were carried out at the grave in the period after the burial. However, because of a water pipe that was later laid across the earth's layers in ancient times, these vessels were severely damaged.

The ceramic found has not yet been systematically published. Nine small drinking bowls ( skyphoi ), the clay basic color of which had been left in the fire , as well as four red-figure drinking vessels ( kantharoi ), all of which must have had a similar painting depicting fights and hunts , were only mentioned . The Kantharoi were pierced on the underside before the fire and, although they may have come from Athenian producers, they were specially made for the burial. Kurt Gebauer has published photographs of individual other shards . Some of them could be put together to form a foot shell, which is coated with black -fired varnish and belongs to a characteristic type of vessel, the so-called acrocups. These were made in Attica around 400 BC. And appear to be related to Sparta, as can be seen from the representation of a personification of the city on another Acrocup. One of the other shards depicted by Gebauer is the remainder of a red-figure bell crater , also produced in Attica , as it was used as a vessel for mixing wine and stylistically can be assigned to the so-called Suessula painter or his artistic environment. The fragment depicts a mythological theme that is known from Spartan vase painting : one of the Dioscurs is shown at the birth of Helena .

  • Pottery shards from the Lacedaemonian graves; in the middle left the crater fragment depicting a Dioscuri

  • Modern reassembled fragments of a drinking bowl (type “Acrocup”) from the Lacedaemonian graves

Some of the found shards can be clearly assigned to Spartan production due to the peculiarities of the clay and the varnish. These pieces are the only ones to have been fully scientifically published. They belonged to four very similar vessels that widened outward in the upper area. The diameter at the mouth was about 30 cm; the vessels tapered towards the bottom to a diameter of about 15 cm; Foot fragments are not preserved. By type could be around craters (mixing vessels for wine) or Kalathoi (basket-shaped clay pots), possibly the typical Spartan form of lakaina have acted. All the pieces, in which a portion of the upper edge is received, were there with Efeumustern of white body color decorated, but they are largely exfoliated today. Ivy was considered a symbol of the god Dionysus in ancient iconography . In some cases, approaches for handles and decorative elements have been found in the remains of the vessels.

  • Several sherds have been preserved from vessel 1, most of which fit together and show remains of the white ivy pattern. They belonged to the top of the vessel. Two further fragments can be assigned to the same vessel. One shows a fighter seen from behind and turning left so that his face is shown in profile . His beard apparently identifies him as a Spartan warrior, although he wears an Attic helmet . The last fragment of the vessel depicts a short-haired, beardless young man who wears a very wide crown on his head - albeit only in opaque white and therefore peeled off. This special headdress can be associated with an annual Spartan dance ritual, which was celebrated during the Gymnopedia and probably also during Carneia and which was a reminder of the strength and military victories of Sparta. Such a representation on the sacrificial vessel was in the situation of the year 403 BC. Of particular symbolic importance.
  • Only a fragment of the upper edge of vessel 2 has survived, showing a battle scene under the ivy decoration. A round object can be seen on it, which may be a shield. In addition, the tip of the hair and the tip of the lance directed at the opponent can be seen of a man with no helmet and short hair, i.e. not yet fully grown according to the Spartan hairstyle regulations.
  • Only a fragment of the upper edge of vessel 3 is known. The head and shoulders of a jumping hare can be seen under the ivy tendrils, indicating that a hare hunt was probably depicted.
  • Several shards can be assigned to vessel 4, the tone of which is slightly different in color and lean than the other three pieces. Two of the fragments show two hoplites , the right one turning to the left one and attacking him with the lance. In addition to parts of both shields, the rest of the equipment of the right man, a sword on the sword belt and a Chalcidian helmet can be seen . Only bare legs can be seen on the remaining pieces; they too must have belonged to fight scenes.

What exactly the different combat depictions are supposed to depict and whether a Lacedaemonian or an opponent of the Spartan army is depicted in each individual case cannot be fully clarified.

It is noteworthy that despite the burial away from home, typically Spartan ceramics were used for the subsequent offerings, which were probably not delivered to Athens specifically for this purpose, if only because of the risk of breakage. Another argument against importing it from Sparta specifically for burial is the short-term nature with which at least the earlier construction phases were built. The normal luggage of the Lacedaemonian army was more likely to contain metal dishes. Possibly there were craftsmen in the train of the Spartan army who were able to manufacture products of this quality and who made the sacrificial vessels in Athens in the weeks after the burial. In this case, the hunting and fighting representations would be representations with an official character, which should present Spartan values ​​and virtues.

Today's view of the excavated western edge of the ancient Kerameikos Street: In the foreground a side wall of the rotunda at the third horos, in the middle of the picture the northern narrow side of the Lacedaemonian tombs

Archaeological context

The Lacedaemonian graves were erected in an area that was previously built up mainly by pottery companies and the premises of a bathing facility (the "round bath"). The buildings adjoining today to the north were probably built around the same time as the Spartans' grave: the “three-chamber complex” is directly adjacent to its northern extension, the function of which is not fully understood, but may have had something to do with the grave cult. To the north of this is the rotunda at the third horos , which is interpreted as a magnificent individual grave or as a victory monument ( tropaion ). To the south of the Lacedaemonian tombs, a connecting path between the Holy Road and the Kerameikos Road was laid out at about the same time . From the 4th century BC on the opposite side of this path stood A new building of the round bath.

The boundary stone (Horos) of Kerameikos Street, embedded in the lower stone layers of the Lacedaemonian graves

The delimitation of the Lacedaemonian graves and the relationship to the neighboring burial places are still not completely clear, partly because the individual construction phases can only be related to one another with difficulty. Much of the earlier research has only designated the southern section with a total of 14 skeletons as the "Lacedaemonian grave". In the meantime, however, given the common forms of burial, it is assumed that all burials from the southern extension to the northern section of the building form a single grave complex and house the corpses of the Spartans who fell near Piraeus. Therefore, the plural form “Lacedaemonian graves” is now preferred. Franz Willemsen arranged the three-chamber system and the rotunda at the third horos to the Athenian and other Greek fallen soldiers of the civil war in 403 BC. Chr. To. He designed the model of a systematically planned, symmetrically constructed large burial area from this war year. He suspects the grave of the Olympic champion Lakrates in the rotunda and not in the Lacedaemonian graves. However, his theses have hardly found approval in research. The buildings adjoining to the north are generally viewed more cautiously as individual graves or other memorials that may be related to the Spartans' graves but do not form a permanent unit with it.

On the back of the Lacedaemonian graves there were pottery facilities again shortly after their construction, of which two kilns and a basin for sludging the clay have been identified, and some graves. In the centuries that followed, the area behind the fallen graves was used intensively for burials (mainly with Kioniskoi ), with the graves also partially cutting into the back walls of the Spartan grave. But the craft activity also continued into the late Hellenistic era, as the discovery of another pottery kiln from this time shows.

Along the Kerameikos Street in the middle of the 4th century BC. Uniform boundary stones ( Horoi ) with the inscription “ΟΡΟΣ ΚΕΡΑΜΕΙΚΟΥ” (“boundary stone of Kerameikos”) were set up, one of which was incorporated into the lower ashlar layers of the Lacedaemonian graves. Over the next few centuries, however, all the facilities on the western edge of Kerameikosstrasse were gradually covered by layers of earth, so that the level of the new graves and pottery facilities in this area continued to rise. The street itself was narrowed and private tombs were built on its former western part, i.e. directly in front of the position of the Lacedaemonian tombs. The exact time of this embankment is highly controversial in research; partly it is still in the 4th century BC. Dated until the 1st century BC in some cases. Located in BC. In the 2nd century AD, the Lacedaemonian graves were probably completely filled in, which is why the travel writer Pausanias does not mention them in his description of Kerameikos.

Photo of the excavations in 1914/1915: View from the Dipylon Gate over the excavation section of the German Archaeological Institute towards the Academy

Research history

The Kerameikos area developed into one of the most important archaeological excavation sites in Athens in the second half of the 19th century. In 1914, the Athens Department of the German Archaeological Institute started an excavation project there, which continues with interruptions to this day. The declared aim of the first head of the excavation, Alfred Brueckner, was to find the state grave route described by Pausanias, as the graves of historically important personalities were to be assumed there. For this he had a long excavation cut from the direction of the academy on the Dipylon gate. The area there had been expropriated from the previous owners decades earlier by the Greek state . At a distance of about 75 meters from the city wall, Brueckner came across the Lacedaemonian graves, which are now known as these, in the spring of 1914. He exposed large parts of the interior of the south building and found 13 skeletons in their strictly parallel arrangement, which made it possible to interpret the structure as a state grave. However, only brief notes of his results were published in the specialist journal Archäologischer Anzeiger .

The real identification of the complex was only possible when the associated inscription was fully exposed in 1930. This was followed by renewed examinations of the Lacedaemonian graves, in which the burials of the southern building, which had previously only been excavated at the knees, were completely exposed. A third opening was made by Kurt Gebauer , who also discovered the burials in the remaining parts of the building. In July 1937, Emil Breitinger anthropologically examined the skeletons in the south building, recognizing the “racial” research tendencies of the Third Reich as having “a very strong Nordic influence” in the skeletal structure. However, the excavation manager Gebauer and the responsible building researcher Heinz Johannes died during the Second World War , so that only brief summaries of the excavations in the 1930s and early 1940s are available in the Archäologische Anzeiger . Many of the excavation documents were lost during the Second World War; in the magazine supported by findings came to each other and the Kerameikos Dig then left under the extensive on deposit partially identify more.

Modern stone in front of the Lacedaemonian graves

Under the direction of Dieter Ohly , the above-ground part of the Lacedaemonian graves was therefore completely examined and signed again in 1961, the building structures were supported and restored to protect against further deterioration. Ursula Knigge carried out further excavations in 1971, during which primarily the water pipes running under the tombs were examined. The anthropologists John Lawrence Angel and Sara C. Bisel carried out new analyzes on the skeletons, but their results were not published. Finally, Jutta Stroszeck examined the Lacedaemonian graves again in the years 2006-2010 in collaboration with the building researcher Alexander von Kienlin and the anthropologist Theodoros Pitsios. The results have been published in the form of articles; the original plan to document all the state graves of the excavation site that have been uncovered so far has not yet been implemented.

Web links

Commons : Lacedaemonian Tomb  - Collection of Images

literature

Excavation reports

  • Alfred Brueckner : New finds on Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger . Volume 29, 1914, Col. 91-95, especially Col. 93.
  • Alfred Brueckner: Report on the Kerameikos excavation 1914–1915. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 30, 1915, Col. 109-124, especially Col. 118 f.
  • Alfred Brueckner: Ἀνασκαφαι Κεραμεικοῦ. In: Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον. Volume 2, 1916, pp. 58-61.
  • Alfred Brueckner, written excavation report from the Kerameikos, reprinted in: Georg Karo : Archaeological finds from 1929 and the first half of 1930. Greece and Dodecanese. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 45, 1930, Col. 88-167, here Col. 90 f.
  • Emil Breitinger , written report on the anthropological investigations, printed in: Kurt Gebauer , Heinz Johannes : Excavations in Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Vol. 52, 1937, col. 184-203, here col. 200-203.
  • Kurt Gebauer: Excavations in Kerameikos II. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 53, 1938, Col. 607-616, especially Col. 613-616.
  • Dieter Ohly : Kerameikos excavation. Activity report 1956–1961. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Born 1965, col. 277–376, especially col. 313–322.
  • Ursula Knigge , Bettina von Freytag called Löringhoff : The excavations in Kerameikos 1970–1972. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Born 1974, col. 181–198, especially col. 192.

Find publications and other research contributions

  • LaRue van Hook: On the Lacedaemonians Buried in the Kerameikos. In: American Journal of Archeology . Volume 36, 1932, pp. 290-292.
  • Marcus Niebuhr Death : Greek Inscriptions IV: A Spartan Grave on Attic Soil. In: Greece & Rome. Volume 2, Number 5, 1933, pp. 108-111.
  • Werner Peek : Inscriptions Ostraka escape panels (= Kerameikos. Volume 3). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1941, p. 40 f. (No. 30) and Plate 14.1.
  • Franz Willemsen : To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department . Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157.
  • Holger Baitinger : The weapons from the Lacedaemonian grave in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 114, 1999, pp. 117-126.
  • Alexander von Kienlin : To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122.
  • Jutta Stroszeck : Laconic red-figure pottery from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120.
  • Jutta Stroszeck, Theodoros Pitsios: Ταφές λακεδαιμονίων πολεμιστών στον Κεραμεικό της κλασικής Αθήνας. In: Theodoros Pitsios (ed.): Καιάδας άπο το μύθο στην ιστορία. Επιστημονικό συμπόσιο 20-22 Μαϊου 2005 (= Ανθρωπολογικές Εκδόσεις. Volume 9). Athens 2008, pp. 110-124 ( online ).
  • Claudia Ruggeri: The ancient written documents about the Kerameikos of Athens. Part 2: The Dipylon area and the outer Kerameikos (= Tyche . Special volume 5/2). Holzhausen, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-85493-186-7 , pp. 182-184.
  • Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Second Conference of the Sosipolis International Institute of Ancient Hellenic History, Pyrgos and Ancient Olympia, September 2005. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402 ( online ).
  • Daniela Marchiandi: Il Monumento degli Spartani e l'adiacente polyandreion anonimo. In: Emanuele Greco: Topografia di Atene. Sviluppo urbano e monumenti dalle origini al III secolo dC Volume 4: Ceramico, Dipylon e Accademia (= Studi di Archeologia e di Topografia di Atene e dell'Attica. Volume 1,4). Pandemos, Athens / Paestum 2014, ISBN 978-88-87744-42-2 , pp. 1327-1331.
  • Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Claudia Ruggeri: The ancient documents about the Kerameikos of Athens. Part 2: The Dipylon area and the outer Kerameikos. Holzhausen, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-85493-186-7 , pp. 29–32 and pp. 120–123.
  2. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 34.
  3. ^ Nathan T. Arrington: Topographic Semantics. The Location of the Athenian Public Cemetery and Its Significance for the Nascent Democracy. In: Hesperia . Volume 79, 2010, pp. 499-539.
  4. ^ Claudia Ruggeri: The ancient documents about the Kerameikos of Athens. Part 2: The Dipylon area and the outer Kerameikos. Holzhausen, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-85493-186-7 , pp. 36–40.
  5. ↑ On this political context see, for example, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei : The classic Athens. Democracy and Power Politics in the 5th and 4th Centuries. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1999, pp. 247-253.
  6. ↑ For more information on the battle of Piraeus, see Silvio Accame: La battaglia presso il Pireo del 403 ac In: Rivista di Filologia e d'Istruzione Classica. New series, year 16, 1938, pp. 346–356.
  7. ↑ Xenophon, Hellenika 2,4,33 . Translation: Gisela Strasburger: Xenophon, Hellenika ( Tusculum-Bücherei ). Heimeran, Munich 1970, pp. 142-145.
  8. ^ Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: The classical Athens. Democracy and Power Politics in the 5th and 4th Centuries. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1999, pp. 252-254.
  9. ↑ a b c Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 383.
  10. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 388.
  11. ↑ Stephen Hodkinson: Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta. Gerald Duckworth & Co./ The Classical Press of Wales, London / Swansea 2000, ISBN 0-7156-3040-7 , p. 243.
  12. ^ LaRue van Hook: On the Lacedaemonians Buried in the Kerameikos. In: American Journal of Archeology . Volume 36, 1932, pp. 290-292, here p. 291.
  13. ↑ Stephen Hodkinson: Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta. Gerald Duckworth & Co./ The Classical Press of Wales, London / Swansea 2000, ISBN 0-7156-3040-7 , pp. 251-255.
  14. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 259.
  15. ↑ Rudolf HW Stichel : On the 'State Grave' on the 3rd Kerameikos Horos in front of the Dipylon in Athens. In: Athenian communications. Volume 113, 1998, pp. 133-166, here p. 147.
  16. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 106 f.
  17. ↑ Lysias, Epitaphios 2.63; Translation after Claudia Ruggeri: The ancient written documents about the Kerameikos of Athens. Part 2: The Dipylon area and the outer Kerameikos. Holzhausen, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-85493-186-7 , p. 184 (the μνῆμα, however, translated as “tomb”).
  18. ^ LaRue van Hook: On the Lacedaemonians Buried in the Kerameikos. In: American Journal of Archeology. Volume 36, 1932, pp. 290-292, here p. 292.
  19. ↑ So Jutta Stroszeck: Greek Trophy Monuments. In: Synnøve des Bouvrie (ed.): Myth and Symbol II. Symbolic Phenomena in Ancient Greek Culture (= Papers from the Norwegian Institute at Athens. Volume 7). Norwegian Institute at Athens, Bergen 2004, ISBN 8291626227 , pp. 303-332, here p. 328.
  20. ↑ Daniela Marchiandi: Il Monumento degli Spartani e l'adiacente polyandreion anonimo. In: Emanuele Greco: Topografia di Atene. Sviluppo urbano e monumenti dalle origini al III secolo dC Volume 4: Ceramico, Dipylon e Accademia. Pandemos, Athens / Paestum 2014, ISBN 978-88-87744-42-2 , pp. 1327–1331, here p. 1327.
  21. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 256 (modern dimensions); Alfred Brueckner: New finds on Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 29, 1914, Col. 91–95, here Col. 93 (conversion into Attic feet).
  22. ↑ a b Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here p. 113.
  23. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 256 and reconstruction drawing on p. 259.
  24. ↑ a b c d Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here p. 114.
  25. ↑ a b Kurt Gebauer: Excavations in Kerameikos II. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 53, 1938, Col. 607-616, here Col. 613.
  26. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 257.
  27. ↑ See for example Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here pp. 113 f.
  28. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here pp. 114 f.
  29. ↑ See for example Dieter Ohly : Kerameikos excavation. Activity report 1956–1961. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Born 1965, Sp. 277–376, here Sp. 314 and Sp. 319.
  30. ↑ Ursula Knigge : The Kerameikos of Athens. Guided tour of excavations and history. Krene, Athens 1988, p. 162; Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here p. 115 and p. 121.
  31. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 385.
  32. ↑ a b Daniela Marchiandi: Il Monumento degli Spartani e l'adiacente polyandreion anonimo. In: Emanuele Greco: Topografia di Atene. Sviluppo urbano e monumenti dalle origini al III secolo dC Volume 4: Ceramico, Dipylon e Accademia. Pandemos, Athens / Paestum 2014, ISBN 978-88-87744-42-2 , pp. 1327–1331, here p. 1330.
  33. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here p. 130.
  34. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381-402, here p. 382.
  35. ^ Alfred Brueckner, written excavation report from the Kerameikos, printed in: Georg Karo : Archäologische Funde from 1929 and the first half of 1930. Greece and Dodecanese. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 45, 1930, Col. 88-167, here Col. 90.
  36. ^ Dieter Ohly: Kerameikos excavation. Activity report 1956–1961. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Born 1965, col. 277–376, here col. 320.
  37. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here p. 131.
  38. ↑ a b c Werner Peek : Inscriptions Ostraka escape boards. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1941, p. 40.
  39. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here pp. 130-132; Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113–122, here p. 117. Christoph W. Clairmont is critical of the reconstruction as a stele base: Patrios Nomos. Public Burial in Athens during the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC The archaeological, epigraphic-literary and historical evidence. Volume 1 (= British Archaeological Reports. International Series. Volume 161.1). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford 1983, ISBN 0-86054-205-X , pp. 315 f., Note 82.
  40. ↑ Marcus Niebuhr Tod : Greek Inscriptions IV: A Spartan Grave on Attic Soil. In: Greece & Rome. Volume 2, number 5, 1933, pp. 108-111, here p. 110 f.
  41. ^ For example: Werner Peek: Inscriptions Ostraka Fluchtafeln. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1941, p. 41; Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here p. 136.
  42. ^ William Kendrick Pritchett : The Greek state at war. Volume 4, University of California Press, Berkeley 1985, ISBN 0-520-05379-6 , pp. 133 f .; Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure pottery from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 102.
  43. ↑ Johannes Kirchner (ed.): Inscriptiones Graecae . Volume II / III 2 : Inscriptiones Atticae Euclidis anno posteriores. Part 3, fascicle 1: sepulcral tituli. Tituli memoriales. Insunt tabulae duae. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1940, p. 769, No. 11678.
  44. ↑ Stephen Hodkinson: Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta. Gerald Duckworth & Co./ The Classical Press of Wales, London / Swansea 2000, ISBN 0-7156-3040-7 , p. 250 (on the restriction to fallen soldiers) and pp. 260–262 and p. 266 f., Note 39 (on tombstones for women).
  45. ^ Alfred Brueckner, written excavation report from the Kerameikos, printed in: Georg Karo : Archäologische Funde from 1929 and the first half of 1930. Greece and Dodecanese. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 45, 1930, Col. 88-167, here Col. 91.
  46. ↑ a b Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here pp. 117 f.
  47. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113–122, here p. 121. On the form “Lakones” Felix Bölte , Victor Ehrenberg , Ludwigzug , Georg Lippold : Sparta. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume III A, 2, Stuttgart 1929, Sp. 1265–1528, here Sp. 1280–1291 and especially Sp. 1287 f ..
  48. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 102 f.
  49. ↑ John McK. Camp : The Archeology of Athens. Yale University Press, New Haven / London 2001, ISBN 0-300-08197-9 , pp. 133-135.
  50. ^ LaRue van Hook: On the Lacedaemonians Buried in the Kerameikos. In: American Journal of Archeology . Volume 36, 1932, pp. 290-292, here p. 292; Marcus Niebuhr Death: Greek Inscriptions IV: A Spartan Grave on Attic Soil. In: Greece & Rome. Volume 2, number 5, 1933, pp. 108-111, here p. 110 f.
  51. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here pp. 152-154.
  52. ↑ a b Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381-402, here p. 386.
  53. ^ A b c Emil Breitinger, written report on the anthropological investigations, printed in: Kurt Gebauer, Heinz Johannes: Excavations in Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Vol. 52, 1937, col. 184-203, here col. 200-203.
  54. ↑ a b Dieter Ohly: Kerameikos excavation. Activity report 1956–1961. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Born 1965, col. 277–376, here col. 314.
  55. ↑ a b Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113–122, here p. 116. The numbering and number of graves according to Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 399, Fig. 2 (von Kienlin sometimes mentions an incorrect number of graves in one construction phase).
  56. ↑ a b c Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381-402, here p. 387.
  57. ^ A b c Alfred Brueckner, written excavation report from the Kerameikos, printed in: Georg Karo : Archäologische Funde from 1929 and the first half of 1930. Greece and Dodecanese. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 45, 1930, Col. 88-167, here Col. 92.
  58. ↑ Kurt Gebauer: Excavations in Kerameikos II. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 53, 1938, Col. 607-616, here Col. 614.
  59. ↑ a b Kurt Gebauer: Excavations in Kerameikos II. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 53, 1938, Col. 607-616, here Col. 615.
  60. ↑ a b c d Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 384.
  61. ^ A b Stephen Hodkinson: Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta. Gerald Duckworth & Co./ The Classical Press of Wales, London / Swansea 2000, ISBN 0-7156-3040-7 , p. 247.
  62. ^ Alfred Brueckner, written excavation report from the Kerameikos, printed in: Georg Karo : Archäologische Funde from 1929 and the first half of 1930. Greece and Dodecanese. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 45, 1930, Col. 88-167, here Col. 91 f. Brueckner had only uncovered 13 skeletons, but carefully reconstructed "13 to 14 fallen" on the inscription. In fact, a fourteenth skeleton at the very southern end of the southern extension could later be assigned to the Lacedaemonian graves.
  63. ↑ Stephen Hodkinson: Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta. Gerald Duckworth & Co./ The Classical Press of Wales, London / Swansea 2000, ISBN 0-7156-3040-7 , p. 256 f.
  64. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck, Theodoros Pitsios: Ταφές λακεδαιμονίων πολεμιστών στον Κεραμεικό της κλασικής Αθήνας. In: Theodoros Pitsios (ed.): Καιάδας άπο το μύθο στην ιστορία. Επιστημονικό συμπόσιο 20-22 Μαϊου 2005. Athens 2008, pp. 110–124, here p. 115 (with different numbering of the skeletons).
  65. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here pp. 387–389.
  66. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 389.
  67. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381-402, here p. 386 f.
  68. ↑ Holger Baitinger: The weapons from the Lacedaemonian grave in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 114, 1999, 117-126, here pp. 120-124.
  69. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck, Theodoros Pitsios: Ταφές λακεδαιμονίων πολεμιστών στον Κεραμεικό της κλασικής Αθήνας. In: Theodoros Pitsios (ed.): Καιάδας άπο το μύθο στην ιστορία. Επιστημονικό συμπόσιο 20-22 Μαϊου 2005. Athens 2008, pp. 110–124, here p. 112.
  70. ^ A b Holger Baitinger: The weapons from the Lacedaemonian grave in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 114, 1999, 117-126, here p. 120.
  71. ↑ Holger Baitinger: The weapons from the Lacedaemonian grave in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 114, 1999, 117-126, here pp. 124-126.
  72. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 258.
  73. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here p. 137.
  74. ↑ a b Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure pottery from the Lacedaemonian tombs at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 107.
  75. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here p. 133.
  76. ^ Kurt Gebauer, Heinz Johannes: excavations in Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 52, 1937, Col. 184-203, here Col. 193 f. and Col. 197 f.
  77. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 107 f.
  78. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here pp. 108–115.
  79. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 115 f.
  80. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: To the state graves in Kerameikos. In: Architectura. Volume 33, 2003, pp. 113-122, here p. 113; Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , pp. 95 f.
  81. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , pp. 261-265.
  82. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 49 and p. 94-98.
  83. ↑ See for example Franz Willemsen: On the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here p. 130 and supplement 4; Ursula Knigge: The Kerameikos of Athens. Guided tour of excavations and history. Krene, Athen 1988, pp. 160–162 (which only names 13 skeletons).
  84. ↑ See for example Claudia Ruggeri: The ancient written documents about the Kerameikos of Athens. Part 2: The Dipylon area and the outer Kerameikos. Holzhausen, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-85493-186-7 , p. 182.
  85. ↑ Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian graves in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, especially pp. 151-156; Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , pp. 254-265 (with further literature).
  86. ↑ a b Daniela Marchiandi: Il Monumento degli Spartani e l'adiacente polyandreion anonimo. In: Emanuele Greco: Topografia di Atene. Sviluppo urbano e monumenti dalle origini al III secolo dC Volume 4: Ceramico, Dipylon e Accademia. Pandemos, Athens / Paestum 2014, ISBN 978-88-87744-42-2 , pp. 1327–1331, here p. 1331.
  87. ^ A b Franz Willemsen: To the Lacedaemonian tombs in Kerameikos. In: Communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Athenian Department. Volume 92, 1977, pp. 117-157, here pp. 133 f.
  88. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: ΟΡΟΣ ΚΕΡΑΜΕΙΚΟΥ. To the landmarks of Kerameikos in Athens. In: Polis. Studi interdisciplinari sul mondo antico. Volume 1, 2003, pp. 53-83.
  89. ^ Claudia Ruggeri: The ancient documents about the Kerameikos of Athens. Part 2: The Dipylon area and the outer Kerameikos. Holzhausen, Vienna 2013, ISBN 978-3-85493-186-7 , p. 183 with references to older literature.
  90. ↑ Christoph W. Clairmont: patrios Nomos. Public Burial in Athens during the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC The archaeological, epigraphic-literary and historical evidence. Volume 1, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford 1983, ISBN 0-86054-205-X , p. 204.
  91. ^ Alfred Brueckner: New finds on the Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger . Volume 29, 1914, Col. 91-95, here Col. 91 f. See also Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 101; at the time of discovery Jutta Stroszeck: The Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 257.
  92. ^ Alfred Brueckner: New finds on the Kerameikos. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 29, 1914, Col. 91-95, here Col. 91 f .; Alfred Brueckner: Report on the Kerameikos excavation 1914–1915. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Volume 30, 1915, Col. 109-124, here Col. 118 f .; Alfred Brueckner: Ἀνασκαφαι Κεραμεικοῦ. In: Αρχαιολογικον δελτιον, Παράρτημα. Volume 2, 1916, pp. 58-61.
  93. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Kerameikosgrabung 1998. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 1999, pp. 147–172, here p. 152.
  94. ↑ Dieter Ohly: Athens: Kerameikos excavation (1961). In: Αρχαιολογικον δελτιον, Χρονικα. Volume 17, 1961/1962, pp. 16-20, here p. 19.
  95. ↑ Ursula Knigge, Bettina von Freytag called Löringhoff : The excavations in Kerameikos 1970–1972. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Born 1974, col. 181–198, especially p. 192.
  96. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Laconic red-figure ceramics from the Lacedaemonian graves at the Kerameikos of Athens (403 BC). In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. Year 2006, part 2, pp. 101–120, here p. 104.
  97. ↑ Jutta Stroszeck: Το Μνημείο των Λακεδαιμονίων στον Κεραμεικό. Ένα ταφικό μνημείο στο προσκήνιο του αθηναϊκού εμφυλίου πολέμου του 403 π. Χ. In: Nikos Birgalias et al. (Ed.): War-Peace and Panhellenic Games. Kardamitsa, Athens 2013, pp. 381–402, here p. 384. On the period of the investigations Jutta Stroszeck: Der Kerameikos in Athens. History, buildings and monuments in the archaeological park. Bibliopolis, Möhnesee 2014, ISBN 978-3-943741-04-9 , p. 257.

Coordinates: 37 ° 58 '44.5 "  N , 23 ° 43' 5.5"  E