Mycenaean palace period

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Approximate distribution area of ​​the Mycenaean culture during the palace period

The Mycenaean palace period ( Späthelladikum (= SH) III A1 – SH III B2; 1420–1190 / 80 BC) is the heyday of the Mycenaean culture in the late Bronze Age , in which on the Greek mainland in many - but far from being all - regions settlements rose to great palace centers, from which a larger territory was ruled and organized. Palace centers developed in Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis , Pylos in Messenia , Thebes and Orchomenos in Boeotia , Athens in Attica, and Knossos and Kydonia in Crete . The settlement of Agios Vasilios in Laconia , which has only been systematically explored since 2010, was probably a palace center. It is uncertain whether there was also a palace center in the south of Thessaly with Dimini or possibly near Volos . In addition to being the seat of a king, the palaces were also administrative centers with a sophisticated bureaucracy to oversee tax revenues and control the palace economy . In some regions, which are often referred to as the “Mycenaean periphery”, no palace states evidently formed; instead existed z. B. in the northwest of the Peloponnese ( Achaia , Elis ), in central Greece ( Phokis , Lokris , Aitolien ), but also among other things in Arcadia and in parts of the Korinthia continue a number of fortified settlements ("princely seats"), mostly from a local Aristocratic class, ruled only small territories and offered protection to the surrounding population in case of danger.

Mycenaean documents

Linear B tablets from Mycenae

Since contemporary written documents play an important role in researching the historical conditions, research into the Mycenaean written documents is an important undertaking. The bearers of the late Helladic culture took over the linear script A from Crete before the palace period , but so far only a few short inscriptions in this script have been found in the Peloponnese, for example in Argos and Tiryns. At the latest at the beginning of the Mycenaean palace period, the linear font B developed , which, in contrast to the older font, was only used by a select elite in palaces and neighboring administrative houses and which served the administration. This is particularly clear on Crete, where more than thirty sites with linear A texts are known in the Minoan period, while in the Mycenaean palace period archives with linear B texts were found only in Knossos and Chania , as well as some inscribed vases on a few others Places.

The tablets in linear B are all written in the Mycenaean dialect , a primitive form of Greek . The contents of the Mycenaean archive tablets are dry, concise and mostly contain accounting information such as which district or which community has already paid which taxes, or which taxes are still outstanding. There are also food rations to slaves, deliveries of chariots and war material to the nobility, offerings to the gods or information about land ownership and leases and the like. There is no historical information about the Mycenaean period and presumed connections with historical events - such as the destruction of the palace of Pylos - are difficult to prove.

The richest archives come from Knossos and Pylos, these were also the best researched. Excavations in Chania in western Crete and Thebes in Boeotia bring to light new archives and tablets that complement previous research results. The tablet finds from other centers such as Mycenae or Tiryns are meager because the archives there have not been preserved so well. In 2009, linear B tablets were discovered for the first time in Laconia , which came to light at the beginning of the excavation of a complex near Xirokambi, south of Sparta. Since then, more Linear B documents have been found there and the excavations are still ongoing.

history

Map of the main Mycenaean places
Early Mycenaean jug based on the Minoan model; around 1425 BC Chr.

Pre-palace period

In the late Middle Helladic period , an aristocratic class began to develop in the Peloponnese. This stood out from the population by having its own grave sites. During the early Mycenaean period (SH I – II, 1680–1420 BC), this aristocracy began to orientate itself on Cretan models, which led to the adoption of Minoan cultural values that displaced the older indigenous culture. This affected not only material goods, but also the structure of society, and a strong kingship developed. While the Mycenaean culture previously had no external contacts, intensive trade contacts began with Crete and the Balkans , from where metals and amber were imported from Central and Northern Europe, while Mycenaean ceramics (SH II) appeared in Sicily .

The Mycenaean aristocracy was warlike, as the valuable show weapons with war and hunting scenes show. It is believed that the Minoan palaces in Crete were built around 1450 BC. Were destroyed by Mycenaean warriors who took power, although the exact process is still unclear and the opinions of researchers differ widely. Even Minoan settlements outside Crete, such as Ialysos on Rhodes and Miletus on the west coast of Asia Minor, took on a clearly Mycenaean character, judging by the finds.

Palace time

This article or section needs to be revised: The article gives the impression that palace centers have sprung up all over the Mycenaean culture, which is incorrect. Even on the Greek mainland there were not a few regions apparently without a palace center (Achaia / Elis, Arcadia, western central Greece, etc.) The takeover from the Minoan culture appears, as it is formulated, to be quite speculative and is not proven by individual records.
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Around 1420 BC A uniform Mycenaean palace culture had developed, which can be regarded as a legacy of the Minoan palace culture . The culture was very uniform with only minor local differences. It reached in the north to Iolkos in Thessaly and in the south it included Crete, which was largely administered from Knossos. In the west the Ionian Islands belonged to the Mycenaean culture and in the east the islands of the Dodecanese . In addition, early colonies formed on the Anatolian coast of the Aegean Sea, including Miletus , which was previously a Minoan settlement. In addition, Mycenaean artisan quarters may have emerged in local settlements in southern Italy, especially for Scoglio del Tonno (in what is now Taranto ), this is assumed because of the large amount of painted Mycenaean ceramics found there. In Thapsos , Sicily , a large rectangular building was erected that has parallels to Mycenaean or Cypriot buildings. However, researchers are now very skeptical as to whether these are Mycenaean colonies, as native elements still predominate. Even with Roca Vecchia , modern research assumes that at most a few Mycenaean Greeks settled in a still Italian settlement.

Over time, individual Mycenaean princes succeeded in subjugating neighboring principalities, so that in some places large palace centers emerged that controlled a larger area.

This article or the following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.
The alleged earthquake around 1250 BC Should be well documented.

Around 1250 BC A violent earthquake in the Peloponnese and Crete caused great damage. Soon afterwards the first signs of troubled times became noticeable and the castles of Mycenae and Tiryns were strengthened and renewed. At that time, corridors to underground cisterns were dug to secure the water supply to the palaces. A wall was built on the Isthmos of Corinth , apparently to protect against incursions from the north. The east trade suffered significant losses and shifted more to the west.

The Mycenaean palace culture collapsed shortly after 1200 BC. Together, the palaces were destroyed and not rebuilt, although it is not clear whether external or internal unrest caused the destruction. One possibility is that the Sea Peoples first invaded Greece and destroyed the Mycenaean centers before causing the collapse of the Hittite Empire . It is also conceivable that the destruction of the trading centers on the Levant by the Sea Peoples meant that no more metals were exported to the Aegean and that the lack of bronze led to the loss of power of the Mycenaean nobility.

Internal causes are also discussed. The exploitation of the subjects could have led to revolts or emigration, but the emptying of the soil through intensive agricultural use or dynastic feuds are also being considered.

Post-palace period

After the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces, the Mycenaean culture continued to exist. In the absence of a central regulating power, local styles began to develop, material culture became simpler and simpler, and writing evidently disappeared. In Messinia and Laconia the population was then a tenth of the previous population, while the Argolida remained fairly stable. On the other hand, peripheral regions such as Arcadia , Achaia , Phocis and the Aegean Islands even gained in importance during this period. The Mycenaean post-palace period (= SH III C) lasted until around 1050/30 BC. BC and then passed into a short sub-Mycenaean phase, which is followed by the protogeometric period .

Timetable

Archeology was able to use ceramics to establish a finely differentiated relative chronology for Greece, whereby different cultures existed regionally. The culture existing in the Peloponnese and Central Greece is called the Helladic culture, the term Mycenaean culture is also used for the late Helladic culture. Since there are no historical records for the Aegean Bronze Age that allow an absolute chronology , it depends on Minoan and Mycenaean finds in the Middle East, for which several different chronologies are discussed. For Greece, the dating of the Thera eruption , which falls in the late SM IA due to the ceramics in Akrotiri , is also decisive . The Uluburun shipwreck , which was loaded with SH IIIA2 ceramics, offers another clue . Dendrochronological examinations of the ship's beams revealed a date around 1305 BC. It should be noted, however, that it is unknown how long the ship was in use before it sank off the Anatolian coast.

period Peloponnese &
Central Greece		 Crete time Events in Greece archaeologically documented simultaneities
  late Helladic late Minoan v. Chr.    
Pre-palace
period		 SH I SM IA 1680-1600 Grave circle A in Mycenae
eruption from Santorini 		Hyksos (1648-1536)
SH IIA SM IB 1600-1520 Minoan palaces in Crete  
SH IIB SM II 1520-1420 "Warrior graves" in Knossos Thutmose III. (1479-1424)
Palace
time 		SH IIIA1 SM IIIA1 1420-1370 Knossos sole palace in Crete Thutmose IV. (1397-1388)
Amenhotep III. (1388-1351)
SH IIIA2 SM IIIA2 1370-1300 Uluburun shipwreck
older palace in Pylos		 Amarna Period:
Akhenaten (1351–1334)
SH IIIB1 SM IIIB1 1300-1250   Ramses II (1279-1213)
violent earthquake in the Peloponnese and Crete
SH IIIB2 SM IIIB2 1250-1190 Defense systems in Mycenae, Tiryns, Athens heavily expanded
Wall was built on the Isthmos 		Ramses II.
Merenptah (1213-1204) |
  Destruction of the palaces of Thebes, Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos Sea peoples
Post-palace
period		 SH III C SM IIIC 1180-1050 In the middle phase, the Mycenaean culture
bloomed sharply, especially in the late SH III C		  
Submycenaean Subminoic 1150 / 30-1020 / 00 Only a few settlements have been found on the mainland  

geography

Map of the Empire of Pylos

During the palace period, there were several palaces that controlled a larger area. Since the limits of power cannot be determined archaeologically, written records are required.

Pylos

The domain of the palace of Pylos (Myk. Pulos "city with gate (s)") is best known. Based on the linear B texts, the palace dominated an area that roughly corresponds to today's Messinia , but is unlikely to have extended beyond the Nedon River in eastern Messinia . The border to Arcadia cannot be determined either. The Pylian Empire was divided into two provinces, with the Messenian main mountains, the Aigialeon (myk. * Aigōn-lāhōn "goat rock "), forming the border. The area "this side of the Aigialeon" (Deuro-Aigōnlāhiā) was on the coast of the Ionian Sea and consisted of nine districts. The northernmost district Pīswā (ev. "Spruce forest") was against Triphylia and Metapā ("intermediate water ") around the area of ​​today's Kyparissia . To the south, the large district of pe-to-no joined and then came Sphagiānes (“place of slaughter”, according to blood sacrifices), where the palace of Pulos also stood. The Alphu district (or similar) was probably near Iklaina , where a linear B tablet from the early palace period (SH IIIA1) was found. Agrewā (or similar) was probably on the bay of Navarino , while Lousos-Elatos should be localized more on the slopes of the Mathia Mountains and Kharadrō ("gorge") perhaps near Finikia on the south coast. Finally, Rhion ("foothills") is likely to have been located near today's Koroni on the Messenian Gulf, even if no significant Mycenaean finds have come to light there to this day. The localization of the individual districts of the province “Beyond Aigialeon” (Perā-Aigōnlāhiā) presents greater difficulties. It is generally assumed that Tirminthōn ankos (" Terebinthen Valley") was at today's Nichoria . The place Leuktron, which was probably the main place of the otherworldly province, cannot be located either . Each district was headed by a khoretēr and a prokhoretēr . The province may have been called dāmos , and the dāmokoros would then be the name of the provincial governor . But it is also considered that dāmos referred to the village community and dāmokoros the mayor.

The Linear B tablets name over 200 place names, the number of Mycenaean sites in Messinia is not quite as high, although it should be noted that smaller places may have disappeared without a trace and, despite intensive research, not all places have yet been discovered. The total population for Messenia in the 13th century BC Is estimated at 40,000 to 50,000. It shrank after 1200 BC. Chr. To 5000.

Argolis

The texts from the Argolida do not provide any information about the administrative structure and also not whether the Argolida consisted of several states, as it did later during antiquity. It is conceivable that Mycenae and Tiryns were two adjacent independent royal seats. The relationship between these two castles and with other neighboring central locations is unknown.

Thebes

The analysis of the place names found in the archives of Thebes (Myk. Thēgwai ) in Boeotia shows that the palace apparently also had an influence over part of the island of Evia . However, the texts found do not provide any information about the structure and exact size of the Theban Empire.

Crete

During the early Mycenaean palace period (SM IIIA), Knossos (myc. Knosos ) was the only Mycenaean administrative center of Crete, and controlled most of the island. The core area of ​​the Knossian Empire included not only the palace and the port city of Amnīsos , but also the Mesara plain in the south of the island with the city of Phaistos . The west Cretan city of Kydonia (Kudōniā) and neighboring cities such as Aptera (Aptarwā) were also under the king of Knossos. In contrast, Eastern Crete does not seem to have been under the influence of Knoss, or only loosely. The Mycenaean texts reveal a similar structure of the empire as in Pylos, but many questions about Cretan geography remain open. The total population for Crete in the 13th century BC Is estimated at 80,000 to 140,000.

Construction

The Mycenaeans knew how to build great structures that still make a great impression today, such as the Lion Gate of Mycenae .

Cities and fortifications

Model of Mycenae

Mycenae has been settled since the early Bronze Age. In the early Mycenaean period, a powerful dynasty ruled here that was buried with rich prestige objects. Mycenae was also the most important center during the palace period. The palace was on top of the citadel, which also included other buildings, as well as the grave circle A from the pre-palace period (SH I). This was restored during the palace period (LH IIIB1), probably for propaganda reasons of the ruling dynasty. The citadel was walled and had to be entered through the lion gate. A staircase led from the citadel to underground cisterns to secure the water supply in times of crisis. The lower town covered around 32 hectares. Several buildings were found here in which linear B texts were found and thus belonged to the palace. Palace and lower town were built around 1200 BC. Destroyed BC, but the settlement was only abandoned at the end of the Mycenaean period. No later than the 6th century BC. The citadel was rebuilt and part of the Mycenaean palace was completely destroyed.

Tiryns was already settled in the Neolithic and quickly developed into a central place. The citadel consisted of the "lower castle" and the "upper castle" with the palace. It was alsofortifiedwith Cyclopean walls . The lower town covered around 25 hectares. After the destruction of Tiryns around 1200 BC. The place remained inhabited. In ancient times, a temple of Hera was built over the Mycenaean megaron.

Pylos was settled during the Middle Bronze Age. A first palace was built in the early Mycenaean period and fortification walls can also be seen from this period. The younger palace was extended several times, but a fortification wall around the upper town where the palace stood seems to be missing. The lower town covered around 15 hectares. Since, based on the linear B texts from Pylos, the palace was subordinate to 450 women with roughly the same number of children, the population of the entire city is cautiously estimated at 2500 people. The city and palace were completely destroyed around 1200 and the place was no longer inhabited.

Thebes and Athens were the most important centers in central Greece. Both places were densely populated during antiquity and especially in modern times, which is why the Mycenaean layer in Thebes was severely damaged. In Athens, only a few remains of buildings and a few remains of the wall of the Mycenaean fortifications on the Acropolis can be seen.

Knossos was already settled in the early Neolithic and was an important center with the largest palace in Greece during the Minoan period. When the Mycenaeans conquered the place, they continued to use parts of the Minoan palace, but the place seems to have been around 1300 BC at the latest. To have been abandoned.

Gla in Boeotia was surrounded by a huge wall in Mycenaean times, so that the place could serve as a refuge for the entire region, but Gla was not a palace or royal seat.

The most important port of Mykenes was possibly in Kalamianos , where there was also a city designed according to a uniform plan.

Finally, the erection of a wall on the Isthmus of Corinth is to be mentioned, the construction of which after 1250 BC. Was started. It cannot be determined whether the gigantic structure was ever completed.

Palaces

Ground plan of the Mycenaean megaron: α: anteroom; β: antenna space; γ: throne room; δ: hearth; ε: throne
Bathtub in the palace of Pylos

So far only two Mycenaean palaces have been fully excavated, that of Pylos and Tiryns. The palace of Mycenae was partially destroyed by later overbuilding and the presumed palace on the Acropolis of Athens gave way to completely later buildings. The palace of Thebes could only be partially explored, as the complex lies beneath the modern city. The discovery of Linear B tablets in Agios Vasilgios, near Xirokambi, about eleven kilometers south of Sparta , suggests that the Mycenaean palace of Laconia was located here. The palace in Knossos was originally a Minoan building and says nothing about Mycenaean architecture.

The Megara , which can be interpreted as the seat of a prince, were typical of the early Mycenaean period . The palaces of Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos all had a megaron that was entered from a courtyard. After the vestibule came the antenna room, from which side doors led to adjoining rooms. The throne room was entered from the anteroom, in the middle of which was a round hearth surrounded by four pillars. The throne was on the right wall. The walls of the throne room were painted with frescoes. In both Pylos and Tiryns there was a bathroom with a preserved bathtub near the megaron. In the past these rooms were interpreted as “the queen's private rooms”, today it is assumed that they are the guest rooms. The palace with storage and administration rooms as well as archives was built around the megaron. In both Pylos and Tiryns there is another smaller megaron in the palace, which shows a simpler architecture. The Mycenaean palaces had at least one floor.

Other structures

The Mycenaeans were also able to divert rivers. The river Selas, which flows past the palace of Pylos, was channeled into an artificial lake just before the coast. By means of locks, the river could be diverted south into the bay of Navarino or through an artificial mountain breakthrough into a second basin, which served as a port and from which an opening led to the open sea. Even today the Selas flows directly into the sea through the artificial canal. It is believed that the port of Pylos is identical to the place Rhohowā ("current") mentioned in the tablets .

The Mycenaean bridges of Arkadiko are also remarkable .

Corporate structure

Mycenaean hunting scene, fresco by Pylos

The Mycenaean society was structured hierarchically. The wanaks were at the top and the lāwāgetās in the second place . The upper class was supported by an aristocracy, the followers, plus various ranks of officials for the administration of the empire. Peasants and other members of the broad middle class hardly appear in the Mycenaean documents, in contrast to the slaves.

Wanaks

The wanaks was the most powerful person in the Mycenaean Empire. He lived in the palace, in the center of which was the megaron with the throne room. He probably held primarily religious functions, but also economic and military functions. Its religious function is archaeologically recognizable in Pylos by the fact that next to the throne a channel for libations was embedded in the ground. Like other people, he is named together with the god Poseidon (Poseidāhōn) as the recipient of gifts. It is also discussed whether the wanaks was responsible for public banquets, which could have been similar to Nestor's great sacrificial banquet to Poseidon, which Homer sang in the Odyssey (III, 43). It is possible that such a ceremonial banquet is depicted in the throne room of Pylos, where a fresco of a lyre player was found.

In addition to the religious functions, there was also the appointment of high officials. This fact makes it clear that the wanaks was not a deity, as is sometimes assumed. In addition, royal potters, textile workers and purple dyers are also mentioned. The royal land holdings were three times greater than that of the lāwāgetās .

Shortly before the destruction of the palace of Pylos, the wanaks there seems to be identical to e-ke-ra 2 -wo ( Enkheliāwōn or similar), who owned large estates with over 1,000 vines and had 40 rowers. In addition, he had to contribute by far the most for a festival of sacrifice to Poseidon.

A characteristic of the Mycenaean culture was that, as in the Minoan culture, there are no images of rulers.

Lāwāgetās

The lāwāgetās came second after the wanaks. Since there was a smaller megaron in each of the palaces of Pylos and Tiryns, it is conceivable that this belonged to the lāwāgetās . He owned his own lands and had various workers under him. He had to contribute wine, flour and two rams to the festival of sacrifice for Poseidon.

In Pylos, we-da-ne-u could have been the lāwāgetās who, like the wanaks , received sacrifices together with Poseidon and were due to the oarsman.

Followers

The followers, or hekwetai, formed the aristocracy. If they are named, it is often with the patronymic . They commanded army units and received chariots, wheels and weapons from the palace, but also slaves. In addition to their military tasks, they could have a wide variety of functions, including religious ones. It cannot be said whether they belonged to the royal clan or were the descendants of subjugated local princes.

Officer

The administration was taken over by civil servants. The rank and function of the many official titles and titles can only be partially determined. The dāmokoros (or similar) could have been the provincial overseer , while the districts were presided over by a khoretēr (or similar) and a prokhoretēr (or similar). The damartes or dumartes were minor officials with specific tasks, perhaps a kind of superintendent. A religious office was obviously held by the key holder , klāwiphoros , which was always exercised by women. The gwasileus presided over special groups of people. The tablets name other titles, the meaning of which is unclear.

Landowner

The palace also had an interest in property and the wanaks and lāwāgetās owned a lot of land, but there were also other large landowners, the telestai, who partly owned as much land as the lāwāgetās. Sphagiānes were recorded in the district and there were 45 telestai in the Cretan town of Aptarwā . They seem to have represented the dāmos and could also hold public offices. Another group of landowners were called morokkwai , otherwise this title remains unexplained .

slaves

Slaves often specialized in a particular job. The palace of Pylos employed several hundred female slaves, most of whom came from places on the Anatolian coast of the Aegean Sea, some are also referred to as prisoners. These female slaves lived together with their children, with the boys being assigned to certain male groups from a certain age.

The position of the Mycenaean slaves was not as bleak as it was during antiquity. This is how slaves are called as tenants of land. A fragmentary tablet deals with the sale of a slave, possibly with the note that she had consented to it.

Position of woman

Few women held public religious functions; called priestesses (iereiā) and the key holder (klāwiphoros), whose function is not entirely clear. Notably, the key holder is Karpathia - one of many women from the cult area in Pylos - who owns land; so does the priestess Erithā, who on the same board also claims a piece of land for the deity, while the community states that she has only leased it.

military

The documents from Pylos and Knossos also give some information about the army. Based on the delivered chariots it can be assumed that Knossos had 500 to 600 chariot fighters and Pylos around 120. It should be noted that mountainous Greece is not very suitable for real chariot battles, as they are known from the Middle East and therefore the chariot is more one Could have been a status symbol of the aristocracy.

Based on the 600 rowers recorded in Pylos, a smaller fleet can be expected, which were stationed in at least five locations.

The most precise information about the military organization of the Pylian Empire is provided by the so-called five boards of the coast guard. Afterwards, 800 men were divided into ten sectors to guard the coast, each of which was placed under a follower. The maneuver took place in the month of Plōwistos ("sailing month"). The coast guard boards are a much-discussed object of mycenaeans and they have been interpreted, among other things, as an indication of an imminent attack by the Sea Peoples, although such a reference is missing on the boards. A routine deployment of the coast guard at the beginning of the seafaring season is just as conceivable.

The palace economy

The Mycenaean economy was very similar to the Bronze Age economy in Egypt and Mesopotamia . The economy was based on barter for equivalents. The Mycenaean palace centrally controlled the economy administered by the palace bureaucracy. The palace received taxes, mainly food and raw materials:

  • Food: Wheat, olive oil & olives, various spices and aromatic substances such as coriander, saffron or cyprus grass and honey
  • other goods: gold, bronze, flax, wool, wood
  • Animals and animal products such as hides and goat horns
  • there are also goods that only played a minor role or that cannot be identified

Contributions to the palace can also come from royal estates.

The food served not only to nourish the royal family, but also the servants and slaves and was also offered as sacrifice to the gods. From the raw materials ingested, specialized people or groups produced high-quality goods, which were then distributed or traded by the palace. The production of simple goods for the everyday use of the population does not seem to have been controlled by the palace.

The industries maintained by the palaces were either housed in the palace itself or in outbuildings, but could also have been in the lower town or outside. The most important industries were:

  • Textile industry
  • Leather processing
  • Oils and perfumed essences and ointments
  • Manufacture of valuable tables, chairs and stools
  • Bronze tools of various kinds
  • War material like chariots and weapons

The slaves subordinate to the palace were often specialized in a certain work, which led to high-quality products. The number of well-known Mycenaean job titles is extraordinarily large. In addition to spinners, weavers and shepherds, this also includes more specialized professions such as goldsmiths, horn carvers or ointment cookers, but also service personnel such as bath pourers. In contrast, potters and bakers are only mentioned as an exception, arable farmers or fishermen not at all, although these professions were naturally widespread.

Textile industry

Mycenaean lady with a colorful dress, fresco from Mycenae

The manufacture of textiles played an important role in the palace economy and some of the fabrics were probably exported as luxury goods. In Pylos, linen fabrics were mainly produced, in Knossos wool fabrics predominated. This agrees with the country's nature: Messenia is one of the few Greek landscapes that is suitable for flax cultivation, especially the west coast; so it played an important role there in the Middle Ages. On the other hand, the abundance of sheep and goats on the mountainous island of Crete is well known.

The number of women employed in the textile industry is considerable. In Knossos there were over 1000 women who lived in different places. The palace of Pylos employed around 750 women in the textile industry, some of them prisoners of war and foreigners from the Anatolian coast, who were responsible for the manufacture of the textiles. Of these, 450 lived in Pylos, 200 in Leuktron, the capital of the otherworldly province, and 100 in other places. The mentioned professions in the textile industry include: wool chambers, linen workers, spinners, weavers, weavers, tailors, tailors and finishers. The texts mention types of textile, but it is difficult to determine which type of fabric is meant, especially since textiles rot quickly.

The wool was probably plucked, as was still common in ancient times, which resulted in around two and a half kilograms of wool flakes per sheep. The cleaned wool was about half the mass and was spun into yarn, with a spinner taking about two hours to make the wool of a sheep. The undyed fabrics were white, gray or reddish.

More precisely identifiable products of textile manufacture were tepas, a heavy material for which around 30 kg of raw sheep's wool was needed. It could be used as a bedspread or rug. The pharwos was a medium-weight material for various purposes, which was also colored and decorated and made from around five kilograms of sheep's or lamb's wool. The puktaliā (or similar) was a light fabric, made from about three kilograms of raw wool, which is most often mentioned in the texts and was red in color. The wehanos ("robe") was a light fabric made of linen. The khitōn was an undergarment, usually made of linen, but it also seems to have been made of wool.

Leather products

The palaces used animals as taxes, which were also used for leather production. While only pets are mentioned in Knossos, the palace of Pylos also lists deer and buckskin as taxes. Leather was processed for various purposes, so chariots and shields could be covered with leather to increase protection. Part of the armor called qe-ro 2 could have been a type of leather garment worn under the armor. The footwear may also have been made of leather.

Spices, ointments and perfumed oils

Mycenaean jug for perfumed oils, from Ugarit in Syria

Spices and aromatic substances served not only to refine the kitchen, but were also used for body care and medicine. For this they were made into perfumed oils and ointments, popular luxury goods, worthy enough to be offered as sacrifices to gods. In order to produce such ointments and oils, an ointment cooker (aleiphadzohos) in Pylos was supplied with coriander , cyprus grass , fruits, honey, two kinds of wine and wool. These ingredients go well with the descriptions of the manufacture of perfumed oils by the ancient author Dioscurides . After that, astringent herbs were first chopped up and soaked in wine and then heated with the olive oil while the saucepan was smeared with honey. The filtered olive oil could then be mixed with the desired flavor. The coriander mentioned in the tablet and the cyprus grass are excellent astringents. The ointment cooker was also able to extract lanolin from the wool , a well-known fat for skin care. The Mycenaeans perfumed the oil with roses , sage and cyprus grass and part of it was colored red, apparently with henna , which had to be imported from Egypt. The tablets also mention anointed vestments in a religious context.

A tablet from Mycenae lists coriander, caraway , white and red saffron, sesame , fennel , mint and bulrush as tax revenue , with the exception of the latter, all of these products that are still known today for the kitchen. Rush could possibly mean calamus (Acorus calamus) , which can be used as a spice, flavoring and for medicinal purposes.

Furniture

Few pieces of furniture are mentioned in the Mycenaean documents, and they are always valuable tables, chairs and stools that have been decorated with glass, gold, ivory , aquamarine , lapis lazuli , shells and other materials. The motifs of the decorations are human and siren heads, lions, octopuses, palm trees, nuts or spirals. Some tables have been labeled nine-footed, which is probably related to their length.

Bronze and arms industry

Mycenaean chariot, fresco from Tiryns

The arms industry and especially the manufacture of chariots were closely connected to the palace and the bronze smiths (khalkeus) are mentioned particularly frequently in the documents, in Pylos over 280 are mentioned. They made blades for swords, daggers and knives, which were then provided with handles made of horn or valuable ivory. Archeology also unearthed magnificent weapons, the blades of which were decorated with gold, silver or niello . The spear and lance tips were also made by the bronze smith and then provided with wooden shafts. Arrow bows were made by the bow maker (toksoworgos) . Arrows are also listed in large numbers on the tablets.

The armor (thōrāks) consisted of breastplate and helmet (korus) with accessories such as shoulder pieces or cheek guards and other components that cannot be identified. A whole preserved armor with helmet was found in Dendra in the Argolis. It is noticeable that shields are completely absent from the documents, although they are often used in images. They were eight-shaped and covered with leather. Apparently the palace only manufactured part of the equipment. The valuable boar-tooth helmets , as found by archeology and as described by Homer in the Iliad (X 261-265), are also not mentioned in the Mycenaean documents, but clearly belonged to the palatial environment.

Much more complicated was the manufacture of the chariots (ikkwiā), which offered space for two men - drivers and warriors - and were pulled by a team of horses. Chariots were a sign of high rank and were also depicted on Mycenaean paintings. First the car body with drawbar and yoke was made of wood. The car body could be covered with leather and was apparently colored red. It could also be decorated with valuable materials such as ivory. The floor was made of braided goatskin, as can be assumed from the deliveries of goats to the Knossos wagon factory. Then the carriage axle made by the bronze smith was mounted and two four-spoke wooden wheels were attached. The car was also equipped with running boards, holders for weapons and leather whips or a wooden whip. The finished chariots were delivered from the palace to certain places and people who undoubtedly belonged to the nobility, along with a pair of horses and armor. Since sometimes only part of the equipment was delivered, it can be assumed that the palace will replace defective and missing parts. Defective wagons obviously went back to the wagon workshop, where they were repaired.

Vessels and dishes

Ceramic vessels were the most important commodity of ancient societies. Since vessels and dishes were constantly changing and new styles appeared from time to time, be it in shape or decoration, and ceramics are well preserved, archeology uses ceramics to date the layers of finds. Although vast quantities of crockery were stored in the palaces and the palace economy also required a great deal of amphorae and jugs for the storage and export of oils and other products, potters (kerameus) are rarely mentioned and there are no other signs that the palace controlled the manufacture of ceramics, although ornate drinkware was exported to the Levant in large quantities.

More valuable vessels made of gold and other metals are listed in the tablets as offerings to deities, among other things. Since they could only be made by bronze and goldsmiths (khrūsoworgos) , the palace also had control over their manufacture.

trade

Trade between the individual Mycenaean states is well documented archaeologically. Mycenaean ceramics were found not only throughout the Aegean region, but also in southern Italy and the Middle East. They testify to the extensive and lively trade of the Mycenaeans not only with one another but also with other countries.

Aegean trade contacts

Aegean trade routes can be established as early as the Minoan period (approx. 2200–1400 BC) on the basis of archaeological finds. The eastern route ran from eastern Crete via Karpathos to Rhodes and from there eastwards via Cyprus to the Levant and northwards to Kos , Miletus and Samos . The middle route went from Central Crete to Thera via Melos to Argolis or Keos and from there to Attica . The western route went from western Crete via the island of Kythera to Laconia and Messenia . These trade routes were maintained in the Mycenaean palace period, only Thera was no longer an option because of the devastating destruction caused by the volcano.

Characteristic for the Aegean trade contacts are amphorae of the Cretan type, which were found in the Peloponnese and Central Greece, but which are conspicuously absent in Pylos. The chemical analysis of these amphorae showed that 90% come from western Crete around Chania (Kydonia), the remaining 10% from central Crete around Malia and Knossos. Some vases also show painted inscriptions with place names, all of which also appear on the tablets from Knossos and some of them can be found in western Crete.

International trade contacts

But international trade contacts were more important. Since Greece does not have extensive metal deposits, the Mycenaean rulers were dependent on metal imports. Also had to be imported. a. Lapis lazuli , amber and ivory .

Here, too, there were closer contacts with Cyprus, the Levant and especially with Egypt as early as the Minoan period. These contacts were maintained in Mycenaean times, were encouraged by the stable political conditions in the Middle East and reached their peak in the Amarna period. The list of Aegean place names in the mortuary temple of Amenophis III also testifies to the close trade relations with Egypt . (1390-1353).

For the Mycenaean period, archaeological finds have shown mainly Aegean export goods along the Levant (Lebanon, Israel & Palestine), with Ugarit as an important trading center and in Egypt. Archaeologically verifiable are Mycenaean drinking utensils and jugs for perfumed oil. But special textiles were apparently also exported to the East. The Mycenaeans demanded metals and luxury goods in return.

Western Mediterranean

Mycenaean ceramics came to the western Mediterranean as early as the pre-palace period. There were already more intensive contacts to the Lipari and Phlegraean Islands in SH I or at the transition from the Middle to the Late Helladic Era . The latter are documented by early Mycenaean ceramics at three sites on Vivara alone . The relationships were established from around 1400 BC. Extended to other regions of southern Italy and Sicily and after 1250 BC. Partially intensified, possibly to compensate for losses in stagnant trade in the east. Contact with the Aeolian Islands and the trading center Thapsos in eastern Sicily was broken around 1270/50 BC. BC, however, apparently from, probably due to demographic shifts in this region. Mycenaean ceramics were found in the Tarentine Gulf , especially on the so-called Scoglio del Tonno , in Calabria (e.g. Punta di Zambrone , Broglio di Trebisacce ), in Sicily (especially Thapsos in the east and Cannatello in the south) and on the Adriatic coast of Apulia ( e.g. Roca Vecchia , Punta Meliso ) and found in the Po Valley . Intensive trade contacts existed from the late 14th century BC. BC also to Sardinia , especially the southeast of the island. The Mycenaean trade also closed some trading places on the northern Adriatic (e.g. Monkodonja ) and possibly also the Iberian Peninsula, where so far, however , some fragments of Mycenaean pottery have only been discovered in the interior, in Llanete de los Moros ( Cordoba province ), as well today's Tunisia (discovery of a Mycenaean bow-handle amphora in Carthage ).

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ In detail on the question of where palace centers existed and the relationship between larger, fortified settlements in these regions: Birgitta Eder : Reflections on the political geography of the Mycenaean world, or: Arguments for the supra-regional importance of Mycenae in the Late Bronze Age Aegean. In: Geographia Antiqua. XVIII, 2009, pp. 15-34.
  2. ↑ See also Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy : Mycenaean forms of rule without palaces and the Greek polis. Aegaeum 12-2, 1995, pp. 367-377 ( online ).
  3. ↑ Vassilis Aravantinos , Adamantia Vasilogamvrou: The first Linear B Documents from Ayios Vasileios (Laconia). In: Études Mycénienne 2010. Actes du XIII. Colloque International sur les textes Égéens. Pisa / Rome 2012, pp. 41–54.
  4. ↑ a b Pia de Fidio: Mycenaean History. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 89 f.
  5. ↑ Pia de Fidio: Mycenaean History. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 92-96.
  6. ↑ Pia de Fidio: Mycenaean History. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 103 f.
  7. ↑ Penelope A. Mountjoy : Mycenaean Pottery - An Introduction. Oxford University School of Archeology, 2nd ed. 2001, ISBN 0-947816-36-4 , pp. 28-30; 114-118.
  8. ↑ Pia de Fidio: Mycenaean History. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 85.
  9. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. P. 67.
  10. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine : Iklaina-Tablet IK X 1. In: Études Mycéniennes 2010. Pasiphae, 2012. ISBN 978-88-6227-472-2 , pp. 75-77.
  11. ^ Pierre Carlier: La royauté en Grèce avant Alexandre. Strasbourg 1984. pp. 98 f.
  12. ↑ Pia de Fidio: Palais et communautés de village dans le royaume de mycénien Pylos. In: Tractata Mycenaea. 1987. pp. 129-149.
  13. ↑ E.g. Eder 2009 p. 23f. (with further references to the corresponding Linaer B texts); Tassilo Schmitt : Comments on the identification of the Ahhijawa. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann , Dorit Engster, Alexander Nuss (eds.): From the Bronze Age History to the Modern Reception of Antiquities , Syngramma Vol. 1, Universitätsverlag Göttingen 2012, p. 126. Skeptical, however: Jorrit M. Kelder: The Kingdom of Mycenae. A Great Kingdom in the Late Bronze Age Aegean. CDL-Press, Bethesda, Maryland 2010, pp. 9, 69; Thomas G. Palaima : Euboea, Athens, Thebes and Kadmos. The Implications of the Linear B References. In: David W. Rupp, Jonathan E. Tomlinson (Eds.): Euboea and Athens Colloquium in Memory of Malcolm B. Wallace. The Canadian Institute in Greece, Athens 2009, pp. 74f.
  14. ↑ Pia de Fidio: Mycenaean History. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 89 f.
  15. ↑ V. Aravantinos, A. Vasilogamvrou: The first Linear B documents from Ayios Vasileios (Laconia). In: P. Carlier et al.: Études Mycéniennes 2010. Biblioteca di “Pasiphae” X, Pisa / Rome 2012. ISBN 978-88-6227-473-9 , pp. 41–54.
  16. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 122, 124, 126.
  17. ^ Eberhard Zangger: The Port of Nestor. In: Sandy Pylos. Pp. 69-74.
  18. ^ Thomas G. Palaima : Maritime Matters in the Linear B Tablets. In: Aegaeum. 7 (1991). P. 285.
  19. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 127 f.
  20. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 129.
  21. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 129 f.
  22. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 131 f.
  23. ^ Pierre Carlier: La royauté en Grèce avant Alexandre. Strasbourg 1984.
  24. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 133 ff.
  25. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. Pp. 101-104.
  26. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 138 f.
  27. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. Pp. 100, 156.
  28. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. P. 221 f.
  29. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. P. 237 ff.
  30. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 147.
  31. ↑ J. T. Killen: Mycenaean Economy. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 189 ff.
  32. ^ JT Killen: Mycenaean Economy. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 191 ff.
  33. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 142-144.
  34. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 142.
  35. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. P. 203 f.
  36. ↑ John Chadwick: The Mycenaean World. P. 111.
  37. ^ Marie-Louise B. Nosch: The Textile Logograms in the Linear B Tablets. In: P. Carlier et al.: Études mycéniennes 2010. Actes du XIIIe colloque international sur les textes égéens. Biblioteca di "Pasiphae" X, Pisa / Rome 2012. ISBN 978-88-6227-473-9 . Pp. 303-344.
  38. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: The Perfumed-Oil Industry. In: Sandy Pylos. Pp. 101-109.
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  41. ^ Alberto Bernabé, Eugenio R. Luján: Mycenaean Technology. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 213-215.
  42. ^ Alberto Bernabé, Eugenio R. Luján: Mycenaean Technology. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 206-210.
  43. ↑ Cynthia W. Shelmerdine: Mycenaean Society. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, p. 144.
  44. ↑ Peter G. van Alfen: The Linear B inscribed Vases. In: A Companion to Linear B. Vol. 1, pp. 235-242.
  45. ↑ Fundamental to the Mycenaean pottery in Italy: Lord William Taylour: Mycenaean Pottery in Italy and adjacent areas. Cambridge 1958; among other things also on more recent finds see e.g. Reinhard Jung: ΧΡΟΝΟΛΟΓΙΑ COMPARATA. Comparative chronology of southern Greece and southern Italy from approx. 1700/1600 to 1000 BCE Vienna 2006.
  46. ↑ Laura Soro offers an overview of the finds of Mycenaean and Eastern Mediterranean origin: Sardinia and the Mycenaean World: The research of the last 30 years. In: Fritz Blakolmer et al. (Ed.): Austrian research on the Aegean Bronze Age 2009. Files from the conference from March 6th to 7th, 2009 at the Department of Classical Studies at the University of Salzburg. Vienna 2011, pp. 283–294.
  47. ↑ Christian Podzuweit : Comments on Mycenaean ceramics from Llanete de los Moros, Montoro, Prov. Cordoba. Praehistorische Zeitschrift 65, 1990, pp. 53-58.
  48. ^ Massimiliano Marazzi: The Mycenaeans in the Western Mediterranean (17th - 13th c. BC). In: Nicolas Chr. Stampolidis (ed.): Sea Roues. From Sidon to Huelva. Interconnections in the Medeterranean 16th - 6th c. BC. Museum of Cycladic Art, Athens 2003, p. 110.