Dutch uprising

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The Dutch uprising took place in the middle of the 16th century in what was then the Netherlands and ended in the Eighty Years War . The uprising resulted mainly from the opposition to the restrictions that the Spanish rule of Philip II offered the Dutch, but the struggle between the denominations also played a major role. The war ended in 1648 with the Treaty of Münster , which sealed the independence of today's Netherlands .

causes

Influence of the Burgundians and Habsburgs in the Netherlands

The Netherlands were under the influence of Burgundians and Habsburgs until 1555 . The influence of the Burgundians on power began with Philip the Good (1396–1467), who had installed his illegitimate sons as bishops. It took half a century before this procedure prepared him for the rule of today's Benelux countries and northern France. Philip the Good was thus Duke of Burgundy , Brabant and Luxembourg as well as Count of Flanders , Artois , Hainaut , Holland , Zeeland and Namur . The Blijde Inkomst (Eng. Solemn entry) was a document that came into effect when he took office at Brabant and vehemently restricted his rights. It says that his subjects have the right to disobey him should he knowingly harm their interests. After Philip the Good, his son Charles the Bold (reign 1467–1477) came to power and waged wars during his time in office to expand the territories. After his death on January 5th, 1477, his inexperienced seventeen year old daughter Maria of Burgundy came to power. The great privilege of the Blijde Inkomst was granted under their rule, which limited the influence of the Burgundians in the Netherlands, as the estates were now allowed to work together without the prince's consent. With the successors of Maria, the effectiveness of this privilege decreased again. After Philip the Fair , Charles V came to power in the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515. On October 23, 1520 he was crowned Emperor of the German Empire in Aachen, which meant that the Netherlands, Spain , Austria and half of Italy were under his influence. During the reign of Charles V there were wars and numerous threats, including France , the Ottomans and the new threat to the Reformation movements in Europe. Charles V waged a severe religious war against Luther and his followers and tried to expand the territories of the Netherlands. His great reputation enabled him to seize secular power in the diocese of Utrecht in 1528 . As a result, Utrecht, Overijssel and Drenthe were added to his empire. With the privilege of electing a bishop himself, he gained further areas of influence with the dioceses of Cambrei , Besançon and Liège as imperial enclaves . Then there was the County of Lingen . He was unsuccessful in expanding his Dutch sphere of influence to include East Frisia and the diocese of Münster .

Philip II takes power

King Philip II of Spain in a portrait by Sofonisba Anguissola

On October 26, 1555, Philip II , the son of Charles V, was solemnly entrusted the government of the Netherlands in the Brussels Palace . In general, the prevailing situation at that time was extremely depressing for Charles V. His money reserves were used up by his numerous military campaigns. Again he was at war with France and the Turks were a constant threat in the Mediterranean. In addition, the emperor did not succeed in completely subjugating the Protestants in the German Empire. The fact that the emperor voluntarily transferred control of the Netherlands to his son was highly unusual at the time. Usually you ruled until your death. However, as a loyal Catholic, Charles V wanted to retire to a monastery for the last years of his life in order to prepare for his death there. A far more significant reason for voluntarily resigning from government was probably a political one. Even before Philip II took office, doubts were repeatedly expressed by the Dutch estates about Charles' heir to the throne. As a result, one was no longer sure whether the estates would recognize Philip II as ruler after the sudden death of Charles. Even the first official appearance of the young prince was not a sovereign one, so Granvelle had to take over the personal address to the assembled stands due to Philip's insufficient knowledge of French. In his first years in office he tried to continue his father's government. Therefore, among other things, he also pursued the fight against heresy and at the same time showed great consideration for the high nobility and the institutions, since unity was urgently needed for the war against France. In order to bind the high nobility to himself, he gave them important offices, for example.

He also had to continue to convene the old Estates General. This is what happened in 1556 due to the threat of national bankruptcy. Tired of the war against France, the Estates tried to pursue their interests and demanded that two thirds of the troops should consist of Dutch people under a Dutch commander. Philipp had to agree and Count von Egmont won a victory at St. Quentin and Grevelingen . In 1558 the Estates General was convened again in Arras . Philip II asked them to introduce a sales tax. They refused and suggested a fixed sum that they would make available. Reluctantly, Philipp also had to comply with these suggestions. After the peace between Spain and France in Cateau-Cambresis, Philip II left the Netherlands to be recognized as king in Spain and never returned to the Netherlands. He appointed the illegitimate daughter of Charles V, Margaret of Parma, as his deputy, as governor . Philipp did not change anything in the predominant government institutions. Therefore, Margaret of Parma continued to be assisted by the three councils, namely the State Council, the Secret Council and the Finance Council. The three top officials Granvelle, Viglius and Berlaimont therefore had a great influence on politics and deliberately diminished the influence of the high nobility. At this time, two major dissatisfactions among the population can be seen, on the one hand the soldiers stationed since 1553 and on the other hand the persecution of Philip II.

A project that Charles V was already pursuing and that his son Philip II then tried to put into practice was the reallocation of the church districts. In 1559 the plans for the reallocation were approved by the Pope. The Netherlands should form a single ecclesiastical province, which is divided into three archbishoprics. In the course of this, Granvelle was first promoted to Archbishop of Mechelen by Philip and later by the Pope to Cardinal. The new regulations irritated the entire nobility, as a bishop had to be a doctor of theology in the future. As a result, the bishopric could no longer be transferred to the younger brothers and sons of the nobles. Criticism also intensified within the clergy, as every bishop had to be the abbot of a rich abbey and the income from these should only benefit the dioceses. The aim was to make the dioceses financially independent.

First conflicts with the nobility

William of Orange

An example of the growing anti- Spanish propaganda were rumors that Philip II wanted to introduce the particularly cruel Spanish Inquisition in the Netherlands as well. From today's perspective, however, it can be stated that this never really happened, but was only intended to stir up the revolutionary mood. At that time, the nobility was the mouthpiece of the population, and they felt themselves increasingly excluded from government affairs in the Netherlands , largely represented by people such as William of Orange and the Counts of Egmont and Hoorn . The aristocracy also feared the traditional participation model, through which all citizens could exert political influence through the estates assembly .

As an important representative of the nobility, William of Orange demanded freedom of religion and the admission of several denominations in a speech with revolutionary clarity in December 1564 . Inspired by these demands, the representatives of the aristocracy wrote several letters of protest and petitions to the king and also decided to organize themselves together in an oath of the lower aristocrats. Together they demanded again participation in the Estates General and the suspension of religious persecution. However, this petition was rejected by the Spanish government, as was a subsequent second request, in which it was proposed that the government of the Netherlands be entrusted to well-known nobles such as William of Orange or Egmont. The king could not be dissuaded from the strict persecution of heretics . The religious tensions were further exacerbated by mass unemployment and military conflicts as well as a famine and the Protestants received more and more influx. Sebastian Matte , a Protestant preacher, finally led the first iconoclasm in Catholic churches in 1566 , which was repeated in many Dutch cities. In the same year, the poor set the prices themselves in a bread riot. These iconoclasts and insurgents remained in the minority for a long time. Due to the uprisings, the nobility distanced themselves more and more from the opposition and the aristocratic association dissolved itself in 1566. This meant that an initial resistance against the Spanish government was broken for the time being.

Revolution time and way to war

First skirmishes and Wilhelm's campaigns

Duke of Alba on a painting by Titian

After the devastation in the Dutch churches and monasteries, royal authority and belief in the Catholic Church were to be restored. Charles V commissioned the Duke of Alba , who was known for his tough line and an excellent general, to restore Spanish rule in the Netherlands. Alba believed that submission of the Netherlands could be guaranteed within six months. The Spanish troops needed for this were stationed in Italy, and it took months of preparation alone to let them advance successfully across the Alps to the north. When Alba arrived with the troops in Brussels , he was appointed governor-general as the successor to Margaret of Parma and thus took over the government. In order to win over as many opponents as possible , he showed himself from his most polite side at the beginning. Alba arrested those who did not recognize the danger early enough and went into exile on September 10th. The arrests were legitimized by charges of high treason , but basically they were politically motivated. The judgments were passed by Alba, who presided over the council, and Dutch people, who were loyal to the Spanish king. Over 1,100 people were sentenced to death and 9,000 people were deprived of their property. Among those executed were the Counts of Hoorn and Egmond. Due to the high number of beheaded, the special court was given the nickname " Blood Councilor ". Alba also had criminal law and the code of criminal procedure systematized under his rule.

The Prince of Orange saw it as his duty to stand up for the people. He planned that his brothers Ludwig and Adolf von Nassau would invade the Netherlands from the north. He himself would attack the heart of the Netherlands, Brussels, with a large army unit and hope for the support of the Dutch. Wilhelm justified himself by stating that he was not directing his fight against King Philip, but only against Duke Alba. His guiding principle was pro rege, lege et grege ("For King, Law and People"). With his written justification published in April 1568, a "paper war" started as a propaganda war of the 16th century. Wilhelm's brother, Ludwig von Nassau, marched into Groningen and was able to celebrate his first successes at Heiligerlee . This only lasted for a short time, however, until Alba gained respect and obedience by beheading nobles who had been sentenced to death and then followed Ludwig's troops with his army to the north, where they were forcibly stopped. Ludwig von Nassau had survived by jumping into the river. William of Orange's campaign to Brussels with an army of 30,000, but without the support of the population, was unsuccessful. Alba avoided a battle, but followed Wilhelm until he finally besieged Liège . This siege also failed and Wilhelm finally dismissed his troops.

Alba planned a tax reform in 1569, for which he summoned the Estates General to Brussels for one day. He called for three changes: a one percent wealth tax on possessions, a five percent sales tax on property sales (the twentieth pfennig) and a ten percent sales tax on movable goods (the tenth pfennig). The points were rejected and Alba was only satisfied with a one-time severance payment for two years, then he ordered the tenth pfennig unconditionally. This form of tax collection caused great horror among the population.

For William of Orange the water gullies now played an important role. These were pirates from the Netherlands who hijacked other ships of their compatriots. But they also made forays into the mainland. William of Orange's goal was to win over this undisciplined band of pirates. The first “letters of appointment for war” were unsuccessful.

In 1572 Wilhelm forged new plans: With the military support of the French, especially the Huguenots , and with the help of the Geusen fleet at sea, a new campaign was to be successful. Wilhelm appointed his brother Ludwig to command the Geusen fleet. Already on April 1st he conquered the city of Vlissingen , which the Geusen let in out of anger over Alba's tenth pfennig. The governor of Holland, Maximilian de Hennin Graf von Boussu, was unable to recapture the city. On May 23, De la Noue , the leader of the Huguenots, took the city of Valenciennes and a day later Ludwig von Nassau captured Mons (German mountains) in Hainaut. In June 1572, Enkhuizen sided with the prince. Wilhelm's supporters took over more and more Dutch and Zeeland cities without violence, as this gave the residents free access to the sea for trade and fishing.

The elimination of the Huguenot party came in handy for Phillipp. From this point on Philip could devote all his money and attention to the subjugation of the rebellious provinces. To set a chilling example, Alba sent his son Don Fadrique to lead a punitive expedition to Mechelen . This was followed by raids by the Spanish troops, which induced the Brabant cities to voluntarily open the gates and allow the troops to enter. All other cities also submitted. Don Fadrique moved on with his army through loyal Amsterdam to Haarlem . He assumed that this city, like cities before it, would submit to them at once, but Haarlem resisted resolutely. The Haarlemers withstood the siege, because help came from other cities with arms and food deliveries under Wilhelm's leadership. After a Geusen fleet was defeated by a squadron loyal to the king , which also consisted of Amsterdam ships, the situation seemed hopeless. It took the Spaniards from mid-December 1572 to mid-July 1573 to subdue the city. This endeavor claimed many lives on both sides. The number of casualties on King Philip's side was 8,000 men. That is why Haarlem was also called the Spanish cemetery. On August 21, Alkmaar was captured by the Spaniards. This was followed by a consultation with the city fathers, during which the Geusen department was allowed into the city by two energetic supporters of the prince. This siege lasted another eight and a half months. Subsequently, at Wilhelm's suggestion , Diederik Sonoy had the dykes broken and Alkmaar flooded. The siege of the Spaniards was lifted on October 8, 1573. The victory of the Geusen lifted the spirits of the rebels.

In the meantime, the struggle for freedom had taken on a different character than in the second half of the 1560s. During the first uprising, the initiative was borne by the high and low nobility, because the most important opposition members of the high nobility fell victim to the executioner. Prince of Orange was the only one from the nobility who still supported the Dutch and Zeeland insurgents. He organized the resistance against the Spanish regime and stayed in the provinces by the sea. In the insurgent party, the Calvinists were the driving force. In December 1573, Wilhelm joined Calvinism. After the Alkmaar debacle, the Spanish troops decided to starve out Leiden . In the besieged city there was a dispute about whether it was a question of freedom of the country or freedom of religion. Of the 18,000 inhabitants, 6,000 perished from hunger and plague. On October 3, 1573, Leiden let the Geusen in as liberators after the surrounding area had been flooded. The Spaniards finally broke off the siege.

Since the war claimed numerous lives and had a significant impact on trade, the new governor-general Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens tried to reconcile the warring parties by taking a series of measures to create a favorable public mood. So he abolished the hated blood advice and the tenth pfennig and spoke out in favor of a general pardon, which offered the government opponents an amnesty, but in practice did not work. The expensive army also devoured the gold of the Spanish treasuries, which prompted Requesens to convene the Estates General in Brussels in June 1574 to obtain approval for the collection of new taxes. This planned tax reform was used by the estates as an opportunity to criticize the riots by Spanish soldiers, the appointment and preferential treatment of Spaniards in the Dutch administration, and the violation of traditional privileges. The Brabant estates, in particular, urged to give in to the rebels. After the prince had agreed to a peace, peace negotiations actually began in Breda on March 3, 1575, which, however, were doomed to failure due to the religious differences. Brussels demanded that the Protestants evacuate all rebellious areas and surrender all weapons and fortresses. However, these demands were unacceptable to Holland and Zeeland, which in turn wanted the new bishops to leave the Netherlands. So Requesens had to resume the fight that was fought in the border area between Holland and Utrecht .

While the Spaniards conquered the town of Oudewater on August 8, the town of Woerden could not be captured. The Spanish troops under the leadership of Mondragón proved to be particularly successful . Wading through the Zijpe during the ebb tide , it attacked the town of Zierikzee on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland. After initial resistance from a garrison commander who wanted to prevent the immediate surrender of the city, the Spaniards began to siege and take the city. The Spanish conquests had now divided the insurgent territory into three parts. With the conquest of Haarlem, the Spaniards had already cut off North Holland above the IJ from the rest of Holland. With the conquest of Schouwen-Duiveland and Zierikzee they had now driven a wedge between the Dutch and Zeeland islands. Since the only remaining base of the rebels was now limited to Walcheren , there was a need for foreign intervention.

The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England, despite her good relationship with the Netherlands, distanced herself from such an intervention, fearing hostility with Spain. No support was to be expected from the German Lutheran princes or the French Duke of Anjou . Paradoxically, it was the Spanish troops themselves that gave the Dutch a sigh of relief. The Spaniards had to give up their advantageous starting positions again as they had to contend with numerous crises. For example, on September 1, 1575, the Spanish king had to declare national bankruptcy for the second time in his reign and withhold the wages of the Spanish soldiers, which led to dissatisfaction and looting on the part of the soldiers who gave up the laboriously conquered Zierikzee and went to Aalst , their " Robber's Nest ", withdrew. After Requesen's unexpected death, the Council of State, made up of mostly Dutch people, automatically succeeded him and declared the plundering Spanish soldiers to be enemies of the country. The State Council hoped for support in cracking down on the soldiers from the Brabant estates, but they fell victim to the radical mood. On September 4, 1576, the Council of State was arrested, whereupon the Brabant Estates re-convened the Estates General. They decided to negotiate with the rebellious provinces and reached a provisional settlement on November 8, 1576, the Ghent pacification . This was concluded between William I of Orange and the rebellious provinces of Holland and Zeeland as well as the States General of the non-rebellious countries. Financial resources as well as military and sea power were combined to repel the Spanish soldiers who had previously invaded Aalst. Religious persecution was discontinued on both sides, but no final settlement of the question of faith was made. With the Ghent pacification, the position of William I of Orange as governor of Holland and Zeeland was retained. The will to find a solution was also evident on both sides.

Escalation until Wilhelm's death

Don Juan de Austria
Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma

In July 1578, Wilhelm I tried to enforce a religious peace in the Estates General, with which he met resistance from both the Protestant Estates of Holland and Zeeland and the Catholics in the other provinces. Therefore this was only accepted in Antwerp, where both religions were represented. In the autumn of that year, Wilhelm I arrived in Brussels, where he was given a triumphant reception. He was celebrated as a great liberator who stood against the king. In contrast to him, Juan de Austria found it difficult to enforce his authority, as the legality of his position was doubted due to his illegitimate birth. In a letter to Philip II, he complained that Wilhelm determined politics and that not even the Catholic nobility cooperated with him. Wilhelm, however, became the acting head appointed (a governor) of Brabant and stood at the height of its power.

Most provinces were primarily concerned not with religious freedom, but with liberation from Spanish rule. The majority of the population was Catholic - but the Calvinist minority was radicalized, so that in 1581 Catholic services were banned in Brussels and Antwerp. In Ghent , Catholic dignitaries were arrested in 1577 and a Calvinist city militia and a college of radical eighteen men were founded, including the Duke there, Philippe III. de Croÿ , arrested for a short time. In 1578, Alexander Farnese , the Duke of Parma, rushed to the aid of don Juan to give him power. His troops won a victory over the army of the Estates General at Gembloers on January 28, 1578 , which formed the basis for the subsequent offensive of the royalists. Juan de Austria and the Duke of Parma led a campaign in which they conquered lions . At the same time, radical Calvinists revolted in Flanders . People's committees of eighteen men were set up in the cities where there was an overthrow; Priests and monks were mistreated and pictures in churches and monasteries were destroyed. Similar actions took place in Flemish and Brabant.

In the provinces of Artois and Hainaut , which had hardly any cities and in which the nobility had great influence, a Catholic Union loyal to the king was founded in Arras on January 6, 1579 , supplementing the First Union of Brussels. Alexander Farnese in particular was able to convince some provinces of the south to join this union with the help of his diplomatic skills and was therefore one step closer to restoring Spanish control over the Netherlands. Alexander Farnese accommodated the financial, political and, above all, religious disorder of the southern provinces. These unrest were also noticeable in the northern provinces, but William of Orange was able to create and maintain a political unity in these regions. In the same month the Union of Utrecht was founded, in which Gelderland, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland allied. The Union of Utrecht, which already outlined the political framework of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, stipulated that each territory should determine its own religious rules, as long as there was no persecution. The provinces of the Union of Utrecht had to struggle with strong financial and parliamentary separatism within this institution, which made the financing of the common troops against the Spanish army difficult. In addition to these two areas, there were some cities in Brabant that did not belong to any Union. However, after the formation of the Union of Utrecht and the Union of Arras, it became clear to William of Orange that the Ghent pacification was broken.

Don Juan died unexpectedly of the plague on October 1, 1578 ; before that he had declared Parma to be his successor. Parma, who was an excellent general, conquered Maastricht in June 1579. There were no further military successes for the time being, as King Philip II wanted to force the conquest in 1580/81 and there was no financial support. Instead of supporting Parma, he declared Wilhelm outlawed in a ban dict and put a bonus of 25,000 kroner on Wilhelm's head. This ban only made the Prince of Orange better known and more popular, which led to his bodyguards being reinforced. Wilhelm himself replied with an “ apology ”, a justification that is to be understood as an anti-Spanish martial script.

On July 22, 1581, the Estates-General, which had been troubled by the Union, resigned their obedience to King Philip after they had concluded a treaty with the Duke of Anjou, brother of the French king, on September 29, 1580. This should provide support with 10,000 men. On February 10, 1582, the Duke finally arrived in Vlissingen and was recognized by Wilhelm as the first new sovereign, and nine days later in Antwerp he was also appointed Duke of Brabant. With the signing of the Plakkaat van Verlatinghe , which is considered to be the birth of the republic, the "Landrat", an executive council that acted for the United Provinces, was founded. However, these pro-France policies and the Duke's indifferent attitude towards religious issues have traditionally been condemned by some parliamentary groups in the Netherlands, such as the Dutch and the Zealanders. On March 18, 1582 Wilhelm was wounded in an assassination attempt, but was able to recover from it.

In the middle of 1582, Parma received the Spanish elite troops back and went back on the offensive. After a long wait, the French contingent finally arrived in the Netherlands and the fortunes of war seemed to be turning. The duke soon changed his role from supporter to aggressor and began to conquer parts of the country himself. Due to fierce opposition from all sides, the French decided to withdraw, which resulted in Wilhelm’s policy failing and his reputation being badly affected. Parma moved through the country with its armies and achieved great military successes.

Since most of Philip's enemies in the Netherlands nevertheless knew that aid from France was indispensable, the Estates General wanted to appoint Wilhelm Count in 1583. The venture failed because the Duke of Anjou died and the French king refused to become the new sovereign. On July 10, 1584, Wilhelm was assassinated by the Burgundian Balthasar Gérard .

Independence of the Netherlands

During the war years, the estates repeatedly had negative experiences with the French Anjou and the English Leicester , so that the estates decided to govern the country themselves in the future, without support from abroad. The sovereignty they took for themselves now to complete. These rights were given to a count long ago, but when Count Philip II was deprived of his rights in 1581, sovereignty reverted to the estates.

During the uprising in what is now the Netherlands, the war between the English and the Spanish broke out more and more. In 1588 Spain dispatched an armada that was nearly destroyed in the English Channel by the experienced English leaders Drake and Howard . General Parma also had to break off a siege, which was his first military failure on the mainland.

The tensions between the magistrate and the church council should not be underestimated. The magistrate sponsored preachers whom the church council considered to be non-orthodox. The conflict over orthodoxy led, for example, to the excommunication of the Leiden preacher Coolhaes in 1582. A general regulation was impossible, as the church ordinances proposed by the states were not accepted by the Orthodox, while the proposals of the Orthodox were not accepted by the politicians. This tension was intensified in 1604 by the dispute between two professors from Leiden, which in turn was fueled by the political events.

Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , state advocate of Holland, concluded a twelve-year armistice with Spain in 1609.

Due to the long duration of the war and the enemy advancing further and further, who were already advancing into the areas north of the Rhine, hope of victory waned. When the peace negotiations began, the tension between the magistrate and the church council was again involved, since the Orthodox were in favor of continuing the war against the Catholic hereditary enemy, while the others demanded peace. Due to this strengthening of the republic and despite the religious tensions, a twelve-year armistice was concluded with Spain in 1609.

From the armistice in 1609 to the Treaty of Munster

Both the northern Dutch and the Spanish part of the Netherlands were increasingly distressed by the great financial burden that the ongoing war brought with it. Since after 1606 there were no significant war results on either side, both parties were ready to negotiate peace, which in 1609 resulted in the declaration of an armistice. This so-called "Armistice of Antwerp" included de facto recognition of the northern Netherlands as a republic and was to last for twelve years.

In 1621 the armistice expired and neither the republic nor the Spaniards showed any interest in extending it. Since their independence had not yet been recognized de jure , the Seven Provinces wanted to achieve their recognition as an independent state by fighting. Philip IV , who was King of Spain at the time, did not want to give up these provinces without further ado. Thus the war continued as it did before the armistice. The focus was on the siege and conquest of strategically important cities or fortresses, and war at sea also played an important role. The northern Dutch were able to achieve their first successes not least because Spain was busy in other theaters during the Thirty Years' War . In 1635 they allied with France, which feared the might of Spanish and Imperial troops in Europe would become too great. The attack and the conquest of the southern Netherlands were decided together, but this was relatively unsuccessful. Even so, the Spanish king found himself more and more distressed as he suffered losses on several fronts. The French and Swedes attacked him, and in Catalonia and Portugal he was involved in riots. But the Dutch Republic was also in a difficult financial situation, as the debt burden grew steadily.

Adriaan Pauw moving into Munster. He was considered the most important envoy of the Republic of the United Netherlands in the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia .

Ultimately, both parties were ready for peace negotiations, which took place in Münster as part of the negotiations on the Peace of Westphalia . On January 30th, 1648 the Peace of Münster was signed. In particular, the first article of the treaty was of paramount importance to the Northern Dutch. The following was recognized therein by Philip IV:

“That the gentlemen States General of the United Netherlands, and the respective provinces of the same (...) are free and sovereign provincial states and lands to which he, the Lord King, neither now nor in the future claims, nor to their associated territories, cities and aforementioned country. "

Thus the independence of the Republic of the United Netherlands was legally sealed.

consequences

The consequences of the uprising were felt in many areas of everyday life. The various religious beliefs that existed before the uprising continued after the revolution. Because of these existing differences in religious views, a division of the country was ultimately brought about by the attitude of the respective rulers. On the one hand, King Philip II did not want a single Protestant in his hereditary lands, on the other hand, the Calvinists also wanted to retain their religious freedom. For example, worship in the Roman Catholic Church was banned. Despite all adversities, the majority of the population was able to get used to various religious convictions and accept them. Furthermore, an attempt was made to distance oneself from the trade in the southern Netherlands, as this was viewed as a buffer zone for fear of Louis XIV .

Louis XIV during the invasion of Holland on June 11, 1672 (Rhine crossing). The year 1672 went down in Dutch history as a year of disaster ( Rampjaar ) and heralded the end of the "Golden Age".

In the 17th century, the Union of Utrecht developed from a new, small-scale state relatively quickly into a major European colonial power that played a central role in world politics, which was shaped by the Habsburg-French antagonism. This era, with its institutional, political and social advances, is often referred to as the “ golden age ” of the Netherlands. The beginning of this period is set with the 80 Years War and continued in the Dutch Republic until the end of the century. The effects of this century are mainly reflected in the northern Dutch arts and culture, science, trade and economy. The province of Holland in particular is seen as a decisive power due to its internal and external economic strength.

Louis Bonaparte as King of Holland. With him the Republican era finally ended.

The 18th century is described in the Netherlands as a century that was initially marked by political corruption, a suppression of folk art and superficial literature. From an economic point of view, however, the Netherlands experienced an upswing thanks to the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, which also had a positive effect on the East India Company . In the middle of the 18th century, the Netherlands fought alongside England against France before making peace with France during the French Revolution towards the end of the century . Between 1798 and 1813, the Netherlands was under French rule and thus no longer independent. In 1806, Louis Napoléon , a brother of the French Emperor Napoléon , was declared King of Holland.

This also had an impact on the intellectual and cultural life of the Netherlands, especially in the south. Many areas of life, such as schools and various institutions, were now run in French. In the north, however, the French did not have this direct and strong influence. Dutch and international trade in the north was therefore more independent and characterized by more self-determination than in the south of the country. After the withdrawal of the French troops, a new government was founded in the Netherlands. In the period between 1815 and 1830, a royal rule was again established in the Netherlands. During the Congress of Vienna , the Kingdom of the United Netherlands was proclaimed, consisting of the former Netherlands in the south and the early Republic of the Seven United Provinces in the north. In addition, the kingdom received a constitution in which the one-chamber system was changed to a two-chamber system , with the first chamber consisting of 40 to 60 members. Those, however, did not represent any real representation of the people, since the monarch alone held personal leadership power.

rating

In the centuries after the Eighty Years War, the events and consequences of the Dutch uprising were assessed differently. In the 18th and 19th centuries, personalities such as Goethe , Beethoven and Schiller referred to Count Egmont in their works and addressed the long struggle for freedom in the Netherlands. The assumption that there was a single trigger for the Eighty Years War has been considered obsolete since the end of the 20th century. However, the uprising in the Netherlands was based on the fact that the population was not satisfied with Philip II's international policy and his insistence on the Roman Catholic Church. In the 20th century, research also dealt with those groups that had remained neutral or had not participated in the battles in a polarizing manner and yet were unable to prevent the war. It is believed that the Dutch Revolution was an essential pioneer for the later democratic and liberal attitudes of the Dutch people.

literature

  • Simon Groenveld: The Peace of Munster. The Dutch side of the Peace of Westphalia . Press and culture department of the Kgl. Dutch Embassy, ​​Bonn 1998 (Neighbors No. 41).
  • Horst Lademacher : History of the Netherlands. Politics, constitution, economy . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1983, ISBN 3-534-07082-8 , pp. 34-143.
  • Geoffrey Parker: The uprising of the Netherlands. From the rule of the Spaniards to the founding of the Dutch Republic 1549–1609 . Georg DW Callwey, Munich 1979.
  • Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 .
  • Cicely Veronica Wedgwood : Ways of the Mighty: William of Orange, Richelieu, Cromwell . List, Munich 1970, ISBN 3-471-79117-5 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Johannes Arndt: The Holy Roman Empire and the Netherlands 1566 to 1648. Political-denominational entanglement and journalism in the Eighty Years' War . Verlag Böhlau, Cologne 1998, ISBN 3-412-00898-2 , p. 32.
  2. ↑ Christoph Driessen: History of the Netherlands. From sea power to trend land . Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg 2009, ISBN 978-3-7917-2173-6 , p. 11 f.
  3. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 19-62.
  4. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 37-40.
  5. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 41-45.
  6. ^ A b Horst Lademacher: History of the Netherlands. Politics - Constitution - Economy . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1983, ISBN 3-534-07082-8 , pp. 50-52.
  7. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 49.
  8. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 51.
  9. ↑ Luc J. Van der Vynckt: History of the United Netherlands. From its origin in 1560 to the Peace of Westphalia . Vol. 1. Drell, Geßner, Füßli & Co, Zurich 1793, p. 197 f.
  10. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 52.
  11. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 54.
  12. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 61.
  13. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 67-69.
  14. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 69-71.
  15. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 71-75.
  16. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 75-78.
  17. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 78-79.
  18. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 80-84.
  19. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 85-93.
  20. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 94-97.
  21. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 97-99.
  22. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 100-102.
  23. ^ Cicely Veronica Wedgwood: Ways of the Mighty: William of Orange, Richelieu, Cromwell . List, Munich 1970, pp. 208-210.
  24. ^ A b c Mark T. Hooker: The History of Holland . Greenwood Press, Westport Conn. 1999, ISBN 0-313-30658-3 , pp. 87-88.
  25. ^ A b Violet Soen: Reconquista and Reconciliation in the Dutch Revolt. The Campaign of Governor - General Alexander Farnese (1578–1592) . In: Journal of Early Modern History , 16/1 (2012), pp. 1–22.
  26. ↑ Jonathan Israel: The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806 . Clarendon Press, Oxford 1995, ISBN 0-19-873072-1 , pp. 196 f.
  27. ^ Werner Schendell: Wilhelm von Oranien. Liberator of the Netherlands. A biography . Kiepenheuer, Berlin 1935, p. 337.
  28. ^ Werner Schendell: Wilhelm von Oranien. Liberator of the Netherlands. A biography . Kiepenheuer, Berlin 1935, p. 334.
  29. ^ Werner Schendell: Wilhelm von Oranien. Liberator of the Netherlands. A biography . Kiepenheuer, Berlin 1935, p. 347.
  30. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia. Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 109–126.
  31. ^ Werner Schendell: Wilhelm von Oranien. Liberator of the Netherlands. A biography . Kiepenheuer, Berlin 1935, p. 354.
  32. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 126-132.
  33. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 139.
  34. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 140.
  35. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , p. 141.
  36. ^ Theodor Schieder: Handbook of European History. Vol. 3: The emergence of modern Europe . Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-12-907550-X , p. 682 f.
  37. ^ Geoffrey Parker: The uprising of the Netherlands. From the rule of the Spaniards to the founding of the Dutch Republic 1549–1609 . Verlag Georg DW Callwey, Munich 1979, pp. 281-286.
  38. ↑ Simon Groenveld: The Peace of Münster. The Dutch side of the Peace of Westphalia . Press and culture department of the Kgl. Dutch Embassy, ​​Bonn 1998 (Neighbors No. 41), p. 21.
  39. ^ Geoffrey Parker: The uprising of the Netherlands. From the rule of the Spaniards to the founding of the Dutch Republic 1549–1609 . Georg DW Callwey, Munich 1979, p. 287.
  40. ↑ Simon Groenveld: The Peace of Münster. The Dutch side of the Peace of Westphalia . Press and culture department of the Kgl. Dutch Embassy, ​​Bonn 1998 (Neighbors No. 41), p. 36.
  41. ↑ Simon Groenveld: The Peace of Münster. The Dutch side of the Peace of Westphalia . Press and culture department of the Kgl. Dutch Embassy, ​​Bonn 1998 (Neighbors No. 41), pp. 41–42.
  42. ↑ Simon Groenveld: The Peace of Münster. The Dutch side of the Peace of Westphalia . Press and culture department of the Kgl. Dutch Embassy, ​​Bonn 1998 (Neighbors No. 41), p. 44.
  43. ↑ Simon Groenveld: The Peace of Münster. The Dutch side of the Peace of Westphalia . Press and culture department of the Kgl. Dutch Embassy, ​​Bonn 1998 (Neighbors No. 41), p. 57.
  44. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 151-152.
  45. ↑ Ivo Schöffer: Small history of the Netherlands . Heinrich Scheffler Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1956, pp. 68-69.
  46. ↑ Horst Lademacher: History of the Netherlands. Politics, constitution, economy . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1983, ISBN 3-534-07082-8 . Pp. 75-76.
  47. ↑ Horst Lademacher: History of the Netherlands. Politics, constitution, economy . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1983, ISBN 3-534-07082-8 . P. 77.
  48. ↑ Ivo Schöffer: Small history of the Netherlands . Verlag Heinrich Scheffler, Frankfurt am Main 1956, pp. 75-78.
  49. ↑ Ivo Schöffer: Small history of the Netherlands . Heinrich Scheffler Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1956, pp. 79-83.
  50. ^ Franz Petri, Ivo Schöffer, Jan Juliaan Woltjer: History of the Netherlands. Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg . Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, Munich 1991, ISBN 3-423-04571-X , pp. 93-95.
  51. ↑ Ivo Schöffer: Small history of the Netherlands . Heinrich Scheffler Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1956, p. 86.
  52. ↑ Horst Lademacher: History of the Netherlands. Politics - Constitution - Economy . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt, Darmstadt 1983, ISBN 3-534-07082-8 , pp. 223-224.
  53. ^ Anton van der Lem: Opstand! The uprising in the Netherlands. Egmont and Orange's opposition, the founding of the republic and the road to the Peace of Westphalia . Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-8031-2259-7 , pp. 15-18.
  54. ↑ Richard Saage: Rule, Tolerance, Resistance. Studies on the political theory of the Dutch and English revolutions . Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1981, ISBN 3-518-07585-3 , p. 261.