Papyrus Westcar

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The Westcar Papyrus ( Neues Museum , Berlin)

An Egyptian papyrus roll acquired by Henry Westcar in 1823/1824 is referred to as Papyrus Westcar or Westcar-Papyrus . It is the oldest surviving document to date in which magicians are reported. The papyrus roll has been in the papyrus collection of the Egyptian Museum Berlin under the name Papyrus Berlin P 3033 since 1886 and is mostly used in the late Middle Kingdom (approx. 1837–1760 BC) or the 13th Dynasty (approx. 1759– Dated 1630 BC).

The text of the document comprises a total of five stories, the first of which is only preserved in its conclusion and the fifth may have remained unfinished. The texts refer to the Egyptian ruler Cheops ( 4th Dynasty , Old Kingdom ), who lets his sons tell him about miracles that are said to have happened under his predecessors until he himself witnesses a miracle.

The Westcar papyrus is still the subject of intensive Egyptological research and different interpretations, as the fables dealt with in the text contain allusions to the personality of the Egyptian kings Cheops, Snofru and Nebka . They also present an interesting chronology with regard to the rulers of the Old Kingdom and provide insights into socio- cultural structures, for example into the ancient Egyptian judiciary .

Discovery story

Karl Richard Lepsius (1810-1884)

Henry Westcar acquired the papyrus on his trip to Egypt in 1823/1824. The exact circumstances of the find cannot be found in Westcar's diary because he did not record every detail of the purchase process. But since all of his purchases come from graves, it is sometimes assumed that this papyrus also comes from a grave. In the latest version of the papyrus, Verena Lepper comes to the conclusion that the Westcar papyrus may have been bought in el-Qurna or even came from a grave there. However, it emphasizes that the provisions of origin should be viewed with caution in this particular case.

In 1838/39, Karl Richard Lepsius said he received the papyrus as a gift from Mary Westcar, a niece of Henry Westcar. Since Lepsius was able to read the first characters hieratically and at least identify the cartouche names ( throne names and proper names ) of Egyptian kings in the text, he dated the document to the Old Kingdom . However, there are inconsistencies in the surviving data about the further whereabouts of the papyrus: Lepsius states that the papyrus was exhibited in the Oxford Bodleian Library . However, exhibitions there are only documented from 1860 and Lepsius does not appear there in any other way. Lepsius kept the papyrus in his attic, where it was only found after his death. Lepsius also inexplicably never made the text of the papyrus available to the public. The numerous inconsistencies and contradictions in Lepsius' statements led in the course of research to speculations that Lepsius might even have stolen the papyrus. In 1886 the Egyptologist Adolf Erman acquired the papyrus from Lepsius' son and handed the valuable document over to the Berlin Museum . Since the hieratic writing had still hardly been researched up to this point, the papyrus was exhibited as a curiosity .

Since it was first published by Erman in 1890, the text has been translated repeatedly with varying results. The dating also fluctuated several times between the 5th Dynasty and the Second Intermediate Period . It is often regarded as a literary piece from the late Middle Kingdom , the most recent adaptation by Verena Lepper dates it to the early 13th dynasty after extensive research . In doing so, it is based on certain expressions and stylistic notes that come to light in the text of the Westcar papyrus and that were typical of this era.

description

The Westcar papyrus today consists of three parts. At the time of Lepsius and Erman it consisted of two halves. The first part contains columns one to three on its recto (front) , the second part on its recto contains columns four and five, and the third part contains columns six to nine on the reverse. On the front of the third part there are columns ten to twelve. When and why the papyrus was divided into three parts is unknown. The papyrus has thin fibers, is gray-light brown in color and is very fragile in nature. The first part was stretched on linen and clamped between two panes of glass , the papyrus was glued in five places with methyl cellulose. The second part is now on a cardboard box and a wooden plate and was covered with a pane of glass. The third part was also clamped between two glass plates, but here the entire papyrus was glued to the rear pane. The binding agent used for this has largely lost its transparency, so that a white haze emerged. The corners of all parts have been left open to ensure ventilation. The papyrus is distorted, torn and squashed as a result of the paper lamination , which was already carried out in the 19th century . Some of the fibers stick in the middle of the writing. The artifact has numerous holes and breaks, the edge of the papyrus is heavily frayed. Parts of the writing have been lost as a result of the lamination work. All three parts have also been coated with paint .

The scroll originally consisted of five single sheets of different sizes and widths glued together, of which only three are preserved today. You have the following remaining dimensions:

  • Sheet 3: 16–19 cm long
  • Sheet 4: 17-18 cm long and 15-20 cm wide
  • Sheet 5: 21 cm long and 18 cm wide

The two lost starting leaves had the following estimated dimensions:

  • Sheet 1: 13-16 cm long
  • Sheet 2: 17-18 cm long

Papyrus Westcar may be a palimpsest , as almost all of the columns have additional red traces of writing, which are not due to the alternating ink showing through or possible accidental ink blots. Interestingly, the remains lead to the conclusion that the ancient scribe tried to wipe away these very red notes, which he ultimately did not succeed in completely.

For the newly applied Scripture were carbon black ink , a mixed ink and iron gall ink used. The text of the Westcar papyrus is divided into ten "chapters" by rubra and comprises five surviving narratives, which are distributed over the columns as follows:

  • Story 1: Column 1, Line 12 - Column 1, Line 17, Verse 1 (remainder lost)
  • Story 2: Column 1, Line 17, Verse 2 - Column 4, Line 17, Verse 2 (partially damaged)
  • Story 3: Column 4, line 17, verse 2 - Column 6, line 22, verse 1
  • Story 4: Column 6, line 22, verse 2 - Column 9, line 21, verse 1
  • Story 5: Column 9, Line 21, Verse 2 - Column 12, Line 26

The latest reconstructions allow the conclusion that the Westcar papyrus actually only included the five stories. The palaeography of the text as well as the remaining dimensions of the preserved material suggest that the manuscript of the Westcar Papyrus dates to the Second Intermediate Period, as it resembles comparable written works such as the Ebers Papyrus or the mathematical Rhind Papyrus . The even calligraphy of the text suggests a highly trained scribe as the author.

content

Portrait of Cheops on an ivory figurine from the 4th Dynasty (from Abydos )

The framework story takes place at the court of King ( Pharaoh ) Cheops , who lets his sons tell various miracle stories. The main actors are mostly reading priests , who are honored by the king with a donation at the end of each story. Finally, during the lecture of the fourth story, Cheops himself witnessed a miracle.

First story

Only the last lines of the first story have survived due to severe damage to the papyrus. These indicate that the event took place under King Djoser , as Cheops arranged for a sacrifice to be made for the chief reading priest of Djoser. The name of the reading priest has not been passed down.

Second story

In the second story, Prince Chephren appears before his father and says: “I let His Majesty hear a miracle that happened in the time of your ancestor, King Nebka the Justified, when that one at the temple of Ptah , Lord of Ankh-taui , went. ”Then Chephren tells of a reading priest named Ubaoner and his unfaithful wife. She cheats on Ubaoners with a Memphis citizen and regularly sends him expensive clothes and gifts. When the Ubaoner travels to meet King Nebka, the woman invites her lover to her home and the lover says: “Isn't there a pavilion in your lake?” The woman replies: “Let's spend time in it.” Then carries she to the caretaker: “Have the pavilion that is in the garden lake equipped. See, I have come to sit in him ”. Then the woman and the citizen spend the whole day drinking in the pavilion. The caretaker and a servant of the lover wait on the shore of the lake for the return of their masters. The caretaker, however, who is loyal to his master, says to himself: “I want to tell Ubaoner about that.” Ubaoner has hardly returned home than the caretaker informs his master about the affairs . The caretaker says: “See, it was your wife who spent a day in your pavilion. She was with this simple person you know. It was adultery what he committed, twice, in your garden lake. "Ubaoner then says to his servant:" Bring me a pair of [...]! ". Then he makes a wax crocodile with a length of seven fingers (corresponds to 12.95 cm), puts a spell on the figurine and instructs his caretaker to throw the crocodile at the citizen the next time they go down to bathe in the lake . The next morning Ubaoner goes away again and the wife says to the caretaker again: “Have the pavilion that is in the garden lake equipped. See, I have come to sit in him ”. Again she spends the whole day with the citizen in the pavilion. Towards evening the citizen goes into the lake to bathe. When the caretaker throws the wax crocodile at the stranger as agreed and it falls into the water, it turns into a real crocodile with a length of seven cubits (equivalent to 3.64 meters). It devours the citizen and disappears with him into the depths of the lake for seven days. But Ubaoner goes to his majesty, Pharaoh Nebka. When the seven-day period has passed, Ubaoner and Pharaoh Nebka come to the lake to hold judgment. Ubaoner calls the crocodile to him, whereupon Nebka exclaims: “That is dangerous!” Ubaoner orders the crocodile to spit out the citizen again and touches the animal, whereupon it becomes a wax figurine again. Then Ubaoner reports what the citizen and his wife did. With the words “Bring what is yours!”, Nebka now orders the crocodile to finally devour the citizen and disappear into the lake. Ubaoner's unfaithful wife is taken to an execution site north of the royal residence, burned, and her remains are thrown into the Nile.

Third story

Limestone statue of Sneferu in the Cairo Egyptian Museum

The next story is told by Prince Bauefre . He steps before his father and says: “I would like to let the Majesty hear of a miracle that happened in the time of your father, Sneferu the Just. Yesterday is bright, memories are fresh. Praised be the day of these things that were never done or never happened before. ”Then Bauefre tells how King Sneferu, bored and sad, wanders through his palace in search of diversion. However, he cannot find anything that would distract him. Then Sneferu finally orders: “Bring the chief reading priest and scribe of the book, Djadjaemanch , to me!” The king complains to the priest of his suffering: “I have passed through every chamber of my palace to seek refreshment for myself. But I cannot find it. ”Djadjaemanch makes the following proposal to the ruler:“ May Your Majesty go to the shores of the sacred lake of Dahshur , after a boat has been furnished with the most beautiful from inside your palace. Your Majesty's heart will be delighted to see them rowing back and forth on the lake. You can then see the beautiful bird swamps of your lake and see its perfect shores and shores. This too will surely please your heart. ”Sneferu then speaks:“ I will truly do the rowing trip intended for me. Arrange for them to bring this to me: 20 oars made of ebony , covered with gold , the handles on them made of light wood, decorated with dja'am . Have 20 women brought to me, totally in terms of their bodies, with curly haired breasts that have not yet been opened by birth. Have 20 nets brought to me. Give these nets to women after they have taken off their clothes. " After everything has been arranged as Sneferu ordered, he enjoys the rowing game on the lake. Then it happens that the batting lady falls into the water with a fish trailer made of malachite and she refuses to continue to set the pace in shock. Immediately all women on their side of the boat stop rowing. Sneferu then asks: “Shouldn't you row?” The girls answer: “Our batting attendant is silent without rowing.” Sneferu asks her: “Is that why you no longer row?” The batting attendant replies: “My fish amulet made from freshly pounded fish Malachite fell into the water. " Sneferu suggests replacing her fish trailer. The woman, however, says: “I would rather have my property than a duplicate .” Thereupon Sneferu called his reading priest Djadjaemanch and said: “See, my brother, I did as you advised me, and His Majesty's heart was glad, when he saw her row. Then a fish trailer of the hit lady fell into the water, and she was silent without rowing. So it happened that she disrupted their whole series. I asked 'why don't you row?' Then she replied: 'This fish trailer made of fresh malachite fell into the water.' I told her, 'Row! I am one who will replace it for you! ' But the woman said she would rather have her property than a duplicate. ”With a spell, Djadjaemanch then layered the water in one half of the lake on the other so that the water on one side of the lake is twice as high (24 instead of 12 Ellen) and the other half of the lake is dry. The Pharaoh's barque slides onto the dry lake bed and Djadjaemanch fetches the amulet lying on a pottery shard, which he gives back to the delighted rower. Djajdjaemanch brings the water back to the starting position and the rowers continue their game, which Snofru is very happy. Sneferu pays Djadjaemanch generously and organizes a festival with the entire court.

Fourth story

Prince Djedefhor now steps in front of his father and says: “So far we have only got wise news from the things that those who passed by knew and we cannot distinguish correctness from falsehood. But there is someone under Your Majesty whom nobody knows. Because it is only someone who knows who is able to make someone who is ignorant know. "Cheops becomes curious and asks:" What does that mean, Djedefhor, my son? "Djedefhor replies:" There is a simple person called Dedi , he lives in Djed Sneferu . A simple citizen of 110 years of age, he eats 500 loaves of bread a day, half of a beef in meat and he drinks 100 Djes mugs full of beer . He should be able to cut off an animal's head and then put it back on again without it dying. He can also make wild lions so obedient that they follow him while the rope is dragging the ground. He also knows the number of Iput in the sanctuary of Thoth . "Cheops is excited because he had spent a lot of time to learn more about the Wenet sanctuary of Thoth, as it something similar for his future grave plant was erected. He said to his son: "You yourself, Djedefhor, my son, should bring him to me!"

And so Djedefhor undertakes his journey during the first month of Schemu -Jahreszeit and goes to Djed-Sneferu. He finds Dedi in front of his house and invites the old man to the king's palace with the words: “Your condition is like a person who lives on aging and someone who sleeps until dawn, free from disease and wheezing. Because 'aging' is the time to die, the time to prepare for burial and the time to be buried. This is the questioning of the condition of a noble man. I have come to bring you to my father, that you may eat of the delicacies my father gives, the food of his followers. And then may he lead you to the divine ancestors who are now in the necropolis . "Dedi replies:" Welcome, welcome, Djedefhor, son of the king, loved by his father! May you be praised by your father, Cheops the Justified. He let your place be at the forefront of all venerable. May your ka successfully triumph over every enemy. May your ba know the paths that lead to the gates of the mummified deceased. This is asking how the prince's health is. ”Djedefhor brings Dedi to the harbor and prepares a boat for the voyage. The old man promises to follow Djedefhor, but on condition that he can take his books and students with him. Djedefhor agrees and both men travel to the royal palace of Cheops.

Arriving at the palace, Djedefhor immediately rushes to Cheops and says: “Oh ruler, may He live, be safe and sound, my lord! I brought Dedi here. ”Cheops replies:“ Go and get him for me! ”The ruler goes into the reception hall and receives Dedi with the words:“ How is it, Dedi, that I have never been able to see you? ”Dedi answers : “Only one who is called is someone who will come. People called out to me and, lo and behold, I have come. ”Cheops finally asks:“ Is it true what was said to me? That you can put a severed head back on? "And Dedi replies:" Yes, oh king, I can, sir. "The ruler then says:" Have a prisoner brought to me so that his execution may be carried out. " Dedi refuses indignantly: “But not to harm a person! It has never been allowed to do anything like this on noble cattle! ”Instead, he beheads a goose and lays his head on the east side and his body on the west side of the audience hall . Now Dedi casts a spell, whereupon the two body parts move towards each other and merge, then the animal leaves the room cackling. Dedi then beheads a Chet-Aa bird and finally even a bull and brings both back to life in the same way.

Next, Cheops asks Dedi: “Well this! What is it that you know the number of Iputs ? ”Dedi replies:“ May you be praised, oh ruler! I don't know how many. But I know where to find it. ”Cheops asks:“ Where is this? ”Dedi says:“ It is a flint box full of scrolls, which is kept in a room called the 'Archive' in Heliopolis . ”The King orders: “Take this box and bring it to me!” Dedi replies: “May Your Highness be wealthy and blessed, I am not the one who can bring it to you.” Cheops asks: “Who will be the one who can bring it to me ? ”Dedi replies:“ The eldest of the three children in Rededjet's womb , he will bring it to you. ”The king says:“ I wish all these things that you say. Who is it, this Rededjet? ”Dedi replies:“ It is the wife of a Wab priest of the god Ra , Lord of Sachebu . The god has announced that the eldest of the three will rule over the whole kingdom as high priest of Heliopolis. ”The king is very saddened after these words. Dedi asks: “What is the heart of you, oh ruler, my lord, so sad! Is it because of the kids I announced? First your son, then his son and then one of them. ”Cheops insists:“ When will this Rededjet give birth? ”Dedi says:“ It will happen during the first months of the Peret season, on the fifteenth day. ”Cheops is indignant: “But it is when the channel of the two Mugilids is cut off? I would even work with my own hands to enter them! And then I will visit the temple of Ra, the Lord of Sachebu. "And Dedi says:" Then I will raise the water in the shallow places of the Channel-of-the-Two-Mugilids four cubits in height for you. " Cheops stands up and orders: “Bring Dedi to a place within the palace of my son Djedefhor, where he can live and dwell from now on. His daily allowance is said to be 1,000 loaves of bread, 100 mugs of beer, and 100 bundles of leeks. ”And all things were done as Cheops had ordered.

Fifth story

Rededjet is in heavy labor and giving birth is difficult because she is expecting triplets. The god Ra, lord of Sachebu says to the gods Isis , Nephthys , Meschenet , Heqet and Khnum : "May you all go to Rededjet and exempt from its trinity of children who are still in their lap so they splendid her Can exercise office throughout the empire. Then they can build temples for you, take care of the altars , let your drink tables flourish and multiply your offerings. ”And so the goddesses go to Rededjet's house after they have turned into musicians and dancers . The god Khnum himself turns into a porter. In front of Rededjet's house they meet their husband Ra-User on the threshold, he is wearing his skirt the wrong way and whining. The goddesses show him their menites and sisters . Then Ra-user says, “Look, there is a woman whose suffering is great, because her birth is problematic.” The goddesses reply: “Make us see her. See, we know how to give birth. ”Ra-User replies:“ Come in! ”The gods follow him and immediately go to Rededjet, who is upstairs. They lock the room and then Isis stands in front of Rededjet to pick up the babies, Nephthys stands behind Rededjet while Heqet speeds up the birth. Isis says: “May you, who are you User-Re-ef , not be too strong in her lap.” And the baby comes out quickly, a healthy child, about an cubit tall. His bones are solid, his limbs are like gold. His headgear is made of real lapis lazuli . After cutting the umbilical cord , cleaning the baby, and placing him in a brick-made bed covered with soft towels, Khnum makes the infant's body strong. Meschenet approaches the child and says: “This is a king who will rule over the whole country.” Then Isis stands in front of Rededjet again and says: “May you, whose name is Sahure , stop stepping in her lap . ”And this baby is also born quickly. It has the same extraordinary appearance as the baby before it. And again Meschenet blesses the child with the words: “This is a king who will rule over the whole country.” A third and last time, Isis stands in front of Rededjet and says: “May you, whose name is Keku , stop, to be blind in her lap. ”And the third baby is also blessed by Meschenet. Now the gods leave the room, meet Ra users and announce: “Oh joy! You were born with three children! "Ra-User replies:" Ladies! What could i do for you I know, give this barley to your bearer, please accept it as a tip for making beer. ”Khnum shouldered the mugs full of barley and the gods set off for home. On her way, Isis admonishes her companions with the words: “Didn't we come here for a very specific reason? What reason would that be if we didn't work miracles for these children! There is nothing we can tell her father who made us come here. ”The gods create three stately crowns for the children and hide them in the jars of barley. Then they conjure up a downpour as an excuse to turn around, back to Ra-User's house. You say to Ra-User: "Please keep the barley for us in a locked storage room until we come back from the music in the north." And the jugs with barley are stowed in a storage room.

A few weeks later, Rededjet asks her maid: “Is our house equipped with all good things?” The maid replies: “It is equipped with all good things, except for a few mugs of beer. They hadn’t been brought here yet. ”Rededjet asks:“ Why is it not so that the mugs of beer were brought? ”And the maid says:“ There is nothing with which it could have been made, except the barley of those musicians; the barley that has been stored and sealed. ”Rededjet tells her:“ Go get me away, Ra-User will replace it when he gets home. ”And the maid opens the storage room and suddenly she hears music, partying and Cheering as if from afar - festive atmosphere as for a royal coronation ceremony . The maid is at a loss and tells Rededjet everything. Rededjet enters the room and also hears the festive noises. Curious, she lays her ears on every chest and jug until she finds out that the noises come from the musicians' jugs. When she realizes the importance of the miracle, Rededjet rushes to Ra-User to tell him about it and they both spend the rest of the day partying.

One day Rededjet argues with the maid and the latter is punished with beatings. The maid says angrily: “Is that why? Is it really because she gave birth to three kings? I will go to tell the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Cheops the Justified! ”The maid leaves the house and goes to her older brother. He sits next to his mother and helps her tie flax fibers into thread . When he sees his sister, he asks: "Where do you want to go, little sister?" And the maid tells him what she is up to. The brother says, “Is it really going to be done to come to me just to fraternize me with treason?” He gets angry and hits her too. The maid goes to get water and a crocodile catches her. The brother goes to Rededjet to tell her what happened. Rededjet sits on the threshold of her house and cries. The brother asks: “Why are you crying, mistress?” Rededjet replies: “It's about this little girl who grew up in this house. Look, she went off to report [...] to the king. "And the brother replies:" See, she came to me to say [...] I would go with her, but I hit her and sent her away. When she went to get some water, she was caught by a crocodile. "

This is where the text ends.

Interpretations

The stories of the Papyrus Westcar are discussed differently within Egyptology, as they primarily refer to the person of Cheops and put the ruler in a contradicting light. The background to the different interpretations are particularly the Greek receptions of the ancient historians Herodotus and Diodor , who describe Cheops as cruel, anti-popular and heretical , but ignore the centuries-long cult of the dead about the ruler, which contradicts the ancient character descriptions .

Adolf Erman (photograph from 1929)

The magicians (actually reading priests) Dedi, Ubaoner and Djadjaemanch play a central role in the evaluations of Cheops' character description in the Westcar papyrus. Historians such as Udo Bartsch, who deal with sorcery and magic in history, and Egyptologists such as Adolf Erman, Hans Goedicke and Kurt Sethe consider the reports about heroes with alleged magical powers to be pure folklore . They ask whether magic tricks, in which the heads of animals are apparently cut off and reattached, were actually already known in Cheops' time. Today such tricks are rarely shown for aesthetic reasons. Verena Lepper and Miriam Lichtheim strongly disagree with an assessment as "folklore". They are reminiscent of well-known papyri such as the prophecy of Neferti , The Doctrine of Ptahhotep and Papyrus Athens (all three date to the Ramesside period ), in which reports of wise men with magical powers and whose miracles are striking similarities to those of Dedi - but also of the other figures - show from the Westcar papyrus: They all know how to put severed heads back on, to prophesy future things and / or to conjure up floods with magic . Since the Neferti story, the doctrine of Ptahhotep, and the Athens papyrus are younger than the Westcar papyrus, but all three are aimed at the heroes of the latter, older document, Dedi, Ubaoner and Djadjaem must have been known to the authors of the later stories. Such a long admiration for mere literary figures speaks against a pure entertainment value, as it is said to Papyrus Westcar.

At the time, Adolf Erman found it difficult to classify Cheops' character. On the one hand, he criticized the ruler's proposal to perform magic on a condemned man, on the other hand, he admitted to Cheops insight, since the latter agreed to the rejection of the said proposal and was content with alternatives. Egyptologists like Dietrich Wildung even see the decapitation of the prisoner as an act of grace, since the prisoner was sentenced to death and would have got his life back through the magic trick. Wildung considers the presumed betrayal of Rudj-Djedet by her servant to be unprovable, since Cheops already knows their place of residence and the intention of the servant cannot be clearly determined.

The stories about the heroic figure of the Ubaoner are also of some importance for Egyptology , since a classic case of adultery on the part of the wife and a punishment for it that was common in ancient Egypt - namely execution - are described. A strikingly positive character image of King Nebka is drawn: he, Nebka, punishes in his role as a just judge consistently committed injustice or unethical behavior.

The literary figure of Djadjaemanch is also of some interest to Egyptology, as the magic trick he described in the papyrus is related to the later reception of King Sneferu's personality: Through the narrative of Djadjaemanch's miracle, Sneferu is portrayed as unusually benevolent and affable . For example, he addresses his subordinate Djadjaemanch as “my brother”. Comparable things can be found in the prophecy of Neferti . So Snofru's character is the absolute opposite of Cheops' personality. Verena Lepper points out, however, that Snefru is also - in a certain way - portrayed as lewd when he describes to his reading priest how he imagines the rowers. So the author of the Westcar papyrus criticizes the Pharaoh.

The figure of Rudj-Djedet, who is described in the fourth and fifth stories as the mother of the first three kings of a new dynasty, was probably inspired by Queen Chentkaus I , who was the mother of the first kings of the 5th dynasty - Userkaf , Sahure and Neferirkare - applies.

Most Egyptologists assume that the text of the Westcar papyrus remained unfinished, as there would have been enough space on the papyrus for further anecdotes . The most recent arrangement by Verena Lepper, on the other hand, sees an end to the story, which justifies its content and style. She identified various motifs and patterns in the text, which are repeated in the final sentence "like a kind of refrain ".

However, the Westcar papyrus is also of great importance for Egyptology because it allows the chronological succession of Egyptian rulers to run differently than, for example, the list of kings in Abydos of Seti I , the Aegyptiaca of Manetho and the Turin royal papyrus. The main focus is on King Nebka , who is placed chronologically between Djoser and Snofru in the Westcar papyrus , but is always described in the king lists mentioned as the founder of the 3rd dynasty and as the predecessor of Djoser. The Westcar papyrus is therefore the basis for Egyptologists like Toby Wilkinson for their conviction that Nebka actually ruled between Djoser and Sneferu. However, these statements are not uncontested.

literature

  • Aylard M. Blackman: The Story of King Kheops and the Magicians. Transcribed from Papyrus Westcar (Berlin Papyrus 3033) . Edited by WV Davies. Whitstable 1988.
  • Günter Burkard, Heinz J. Thissen: Introduction to the ancient Egyptian literary history I. Old and Middle Kingdom. Lit, Münster / Hamburg / London 2003, pp. 177–187.
  • Adolf Erman : The literature of the Egyptians. Poems, stories and textbooks from the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC Chr . Hinrichs, Leipzig 1923, pp. 64-77.
  • Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar I. Introduction and Commentar . In: Messages from the Oriental Collections . Book V, National Museums in Berlin, Berlin 1890.
  • Adolf Erman: The language of the Papyrus Westcar . A preliminary work on the grammar of the Egyptian language. In: Treatises of the royal society of science in Göttingen. Volume 36, Göttingen 1889. Reprinted in: Adolf Erman: Akademieschriften (1880–1928). Part I: 1880-1910. Opuscula 13 . Leipzig 1986.
  • Harold M. Hays: The Historicity of Papyrus Westcar . In: Journal for Egyptian Language and Antiquity . Volume 129, 2002, pp. 20-30.
  • Hanna Jenni: The Westcar Papyrus. In: Studies on ancient Egyptian culture . Volume 25, 1998, pp. 113-141.
  • Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar. A philological and literary (re-) analysis . (= Egyptological treatises. Volume 70). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-447-05651-9 .
  • Miriam Lichtheim: Ancient Egyptian literature: a book of readings. The Old and Middle Kingdoms . Volume 1. 2nd edition. University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-02899-6 .
  • Jenny Berggren: The Ipwt in Papyrus Westcar . Master's Thesis, Uppsala 2006 ( PDF; 2.57 MB ( Memento from June 9, 2007 in the Internet Archive )).
  • IES Edwards , Carl-Johan Gadd, Nicholas GL Hammond: The Cambridge Ancient History 1,1: Prolegomena and Prehistory. 3. Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1970, ISBN 0-521-07051-1 .

Web links

Commons : Papyrus Westcar  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (eds.): Ancient Egyptian Chronology (= Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East. Volume 83). Brill, Leiden / Boston 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5 , pp. 491-492 ( online ).
  2. ↑ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (eds.): Ancient Egyptian Chronology (= Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East. Volume 83). Brill, Leiden / Boston 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5 , p. 492 ( online ).
  3. ↑ a b Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 15-17.
  4. ↑ Adolf Erman: My works and my work. Memories of an old Berlin scholar . P. 262.
  5. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar. Pp. 317-320.
  6. ↑ on the estimates see Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 19.
  7. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 17-21.
  8. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 29-30.
  9. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . P. 7.
  10. ↑ Verena M. Lepper points out that, due to the damage to the papyrus, it is no longer possible to determine whether only a saying was uttered or a magical tool was used (cf. Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 81.)
  11. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar. Pp. 30-35.
  12. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar. Pp. 8-9.
  13. ↑ Such fish trailers are typical of the late Middle Kingdom, which the dating of the work to this time confirms; see: Henry G. Fischer: Some Iconographic and Literary Comparisons. In: Jan Assmann; Erika Feucht, Reinhard Grieshammer (ed.): Questions to ancient Egyptian literature; Studies in memory of Eberhard Otto. Wiesbaden 1977, pp. 155-170; Picture of a fish trailer ( Memento of the original dated November 12, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / valerieaheck.blogspot.com
  14. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . P. 36.
  15. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 37.
  16. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . Pp. 9-10.
  17. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 36-41.
  18. ↑ Ancient name of Dahshur in the Old Kingdom (cf. Jean Claude Goyon, Christine Cardin: Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists , Volume 1, p. 1128).
  19. ↑ Most likely to be translated as "shrine" or "sealed chamber", since the sanctuary of Thoth was also said to have "magical chambers" in later coffin texts (see Jenny Berggren: The Ipwt in Papyrus Westcar . Pp. 46-48).
  20. ↑ The time of the annual flooding, begins in February (cf. Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 115).
  21. ↑ It is uncertain whether Dedi actually means people by “noble cattle”, although it seems logical (see Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 112).
  22. ↑ According to Verena M. Lepper, a bittern is meant that is mentioned in lists of victims of the Old Kingdom (cf. Verena M. Lepper: investigations on pWestcar . P. 115).
  23. ↑ time of harvest , begins in October ; see Rolf Krauss: Sothis- und Monddaten: Studies on the astronomical and technical chronology of ancient Egypt . Gerstenberg, Hildesheim 1985, ISBN 3-8067-8086-X .
  24. ↑ This is what the Nile was called in Cheops' time (cf. Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 119).
  25. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 41-47.
  26. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . Pp. 10-11.
  27. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 48-54.
  28. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . Pp. 11-14.
  29. ↑ Friedrich Lange: The stories of Herodotus. Volume 1, pp. 188-190.
  30. ↑ Diodor: Bibliotheca Historica . I, 64 ( online version )
  31. ↑ Michael Haase: A place for eternity: The pyramid complex of Cheops from a structural, architectural and cultural-historical point of view . Mainz, Zabern 2004, ISBN 3-8053-3105-3 , pp. 124-126.
  32. ↑ Udo Bartsch: entertainment arts of A-Z . P. 85.
  33. ^ Alan B. Lloyd: Herodotus, book II. Pp. 104-106.
  34. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 308-310.
  35. ↑ Miriam Lichtheim: Ancient Egyptian literature . P. 211.
  36. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . Pp. 52, 56.
  37. ↑ Dietrich Wildung: The role of Egyptian kings in the consciousness of their posterity . Munich Egyptological Studies 17. Berlin 1969, p. 160.
  38. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . Pp. 146, 299.
  39. ^ Wolfgang Helck , Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf: Lexikon der Ägyptologie , 4th volume. P. 151.
  40. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 95.
  41. ↑ Adolf Erman: The fairy tales of the Papyrus Westcar . S. ##
  42. ↑ Verena M. Lepper: Investigations on pWestcar . P. 142.
  43. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt . Routledge, London 1999, p. 103.
  44. ^ Iorwerth ES Edwards, Carl-Johan Gadd, Nicholas GL Hammond: The Cambridge Ancient History 1,1 . P. 177.
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on March 15, 2011 in this version .