Tajik music

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Tajik music encompasses musical styles belonging to Persian music and the musical tradition of Central Asia that are played in Tajikistan and neighboring areas. Since the subjugation of the Persian Samanids around 1000 by Central Asian Turkic peoples and especially after the invasion of the Uzbeks around 1500 in the cultural centers of the Tajiks, Samarkand and Bukhara , the Persian and Central Asian-Turkish cultures merged in the Transoxania region . In court music, the system of the twelve maqame formed the music-theoretical basis. In the 18th century in the Emirate of Bukhara the derived musical genre Shashmaqam ( DMG šaš maqām , "six maqams") flourished, which is cultivated today by Tajiks in the north of their country and by Uzbeks alike. It represents the main style of art music. The second, smaller classical tradition in the north is the Tschaharmaqam ( čahār maqām, "four maqams") which is widespread in the Ferghana Valley . In addition to the old collection of maqām composition cycles belonging to the national cultural heritage, there is a younger genre of art music, the composers of which are mostly known by name and which is called Tajik musiqi-e chalqi and Uzbek chalq muzikasi ("music of the people").

In the traditional styles, plucked long-necked lutes such as dutār , dombra , setār and the stringed lute ghichak are used. Western instruments have been used in art music and popular light music since the 20th century.

Among the different types of folk music in the rest of the country, the music of the eastern Badakhshan region belonging to the Pamir Mountains ( Berg-Badachshan in Tajikistan and Badachshan in Afghanistan), where the lute Pamiri rubāb is primarily used to accompany songs, and the music in western Tajikistan in the provinces of Nohijahoi tobei dschumhurij and Khatlon . The melancholy vocal style falak is popular there. In addition to these two large, stylistically uniform folk music regions, there are small cultural islands of ethnic minorities.

The Shashmaqam was added to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2003 and the Katta Aschula ( katta ašula ) singing style from the Fergana Valley in 2009 .

Art music of the north

Development of court art music

Dotār

In the 1st millennium BC A type of lute with a short neck is archaeologically verifiable, which is a pre-form of the barbat neck lute widespread in the Iranian highlands and Central Asia . Since then, a multitude of lute instruments have shaped the music of Transoxania, a region in which Hellenistic , Byzantine , Persian, Indian and Chinese cultural traditions and Central Asian shamanism came together in the pre-Arab period . The historian Hafiz-i Abrii († 1430) reports of the musical diversity still preserved in the Islamic Middle Ages, according to which musicians and singers in Samarkand used "in the manner ( ṭarīqa ) of the Persians, the order ( tartīb ) of the Iranians ( ' aǧam ) the rule ( qāʿida ) of the Arabs, the method ( jūsūn ) of the Turks, the tone of voice ( ajālġū ) of the Mongols, the custom ( rasm ) of the Chinese and the style ( sijāq ) of the Altaians to play the instruments of composing songs and to present ”.

In Bactria - judging by the numerous musical instruments depicted on paintings, stone sculptures and clay figures - emerged between the 2nd century BC. And the 5th century AD an art music. The first written sources on music theory come from the Islamic period. Accordingly, the end of the 6th developed until the early 7th century the Sassanid court living singer and Barbat- player Barbad the oldest known modal sound system which consists of seven modes ( chosravāni () and 360 tunes Dastan ) was that (with 30 tones Lahn , Plural alḥān ). This system became the basis for the Persian modal system dastgāh and the Arabic maqām . Significant for the development of Arabic-Islamic music theory were scholars from Central Asia such as al-Farabi (around 872–950), Avicenna (around 980–1037) and al-Chwarizmi (around 780–850).

Under the Timurids in the 15th century Samarkand and Herat were important musical centers, where scholars wrote their writings in Persian. The musician and music theorist ʾAbd al-Qādir Ibn Ġaibī al-Marāġi († 1435), whom Timur had brought from Baghdad to Herat around 1392 , divided the modal system into twelve maqāmāt (pl. Of maqām ), six awāz-hā and 24 šu 'ba, pl. šu'ab (derived modes, subclasses). In the writings created in the school of Herat, the origin of the maqāmāt is thematized as well as their relationship with nature and the human psyche. As is customary with the comparable ragas in Indian music , the maqāmāt were performed, at least in principle, only during the seasons and times of day that belonged to them. The 360 naghmat (melodies) should correspond to the number of days in a year like the 24 šu'ab to the hours of the day. The system of the twelve maqāmāt (as well as the twelve dastgāh ) represents the basis of music theory to this day. The founder of the Mughal empire Babur (1483-1530) provides information on the Timurid music-making practice of that time in his autobiography Baburnama .

In 1507 the Uzbeks occupied Herat and ended the rule of the Timurids. Under Uzbek rule, Bukhara rose to become the leading music center in Central Asia, which it remained until the end of the Emirate of Bukhara in 1920. The Sufi poet and music scholar Naǧm ad-Din Kaukabī Buḫārī († 1531) had a significant influence on the music-theoretical system of the twelve maqāmāt . He was the student of the Sufi Sheikh Ḫwāǧa Yūsuf Burhān ad-Dīn (Khoja Yusuf Burhan, † around 1492) from Herat, whose spiritual lineage ( silsila ) traced back to ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī (1077 / 78–1166) from Baghdad becomes. Kaukabī developed the theory of the twelve maqāmāt on the tradition of Herat, it was spread by his students in Iran and northern India until the 18th century. Darwīš ʿAlī Čangī († 1620), who wrote a treatise on the theory and history of the music of Central Asia, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, was also in his tradition. Other anonymous treatises from the 17th to the 19th centuries describe the theory of the twelve maqāmāt presented by Darwīš Alī in Tajik language .

The former Soviet republics of Central Asia, including the Uyghur autonomous region of Xinjiang in northwest China and Afghanistan, have their own musical traditions that are based in different ways on the principle of maqam, as found in classical Arabic , Turkish and Persian music. The šaš maqām is the most influential court music tradition that flourished in the Emirate of Bukhara in the 18th century . It is first discussed in some texts from Bukhara in the 18th century. In connection with mythical stories, the authors give references to the musical structures of the maqāmāt and mention the names of the rhythms ( uṣūl ). Around 1874 Pahlawān Niyāzbaši Ḫwārizmī (1825-1897) introduced a musical notation for the longhouse lute tanbūr , with which the maqāmāt played in his region of Choresmia were recorded in writing. The city of Khiva was one of the centers of art music after Bukhara.

Tajikistan in Soviet times

As a result of the October Revolution in 1917 and after short-term state structures in the 1920s, the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic was founded in 1929 and existed until the country became independent in 1991. Sovietization forced a reorientation, uniformization and distance from the previous traditions in all cultural areas; only in music was the plural Tajik folk tradition, which originated from Persian and Central Asian roots, allowed to continue to develop alongside the classical music imported from the West . Religious artistic expressions such as Islamic calligraphy and architecture, however, were suppressed. The cultural centers, which were set up in small towns and villages and in which all kinds of meetings and concerts were held, served to convey Soviet cultural policy.

The first music college was set up in Bukhara between 1925 and 1929, followed by a musical training facility in Samarkand in 1928 and in Khujand in 1929 . Also in 1929 Dushanbe received a state theater with drama and music ensembles. In the 1930s, courses in Tajik music were established in Tashkent and at the Moscow Conservatory .

Well-known musicians at the beginning of the 20th century who appeared as keepers of tradition were Ota Jalol, who was the first singer at the court of the Emir of Bukhara until 1920; Khoja Abdulaziz Rasulov (1852–1930) from Samarkand, singer, long-necked lute player and student of the famous Jewish musician Boruchi Kalhoti Samarkandi; Sodirkhon Khujandi (1847-1931); Domullo Khalim Ibod (1878–1942) and Usto Shodi Aziz (1888–1942).

Opened in 1940 and restored in 2009, the Aini Opera House in Dushanbe is named after the national poet Sadriddin Aini (1878–1954).

In the 1930s and 1940s, Dushanbe (then Stalinabad) became an important center of Tajik light music, where traditional art music styles were presented in new interpretations. The first musical dramas and operas were about revolutionary topics, such as the emancipation of women, in connection with a newly assessed traditional music. Sergei Artemjewitsch Balasanjan (1902–1982), a Soviet composer of Armenian descent, helped found the Tajik Opera and Ballet Theater in Dushanbe, which opened in 1937 as a major event. With Shurishi Wose ("The Wose Uprising") Balasanjan processed a revolutionary story with new musical forms based on Armenian and Tajik folk music for the first national opera in Tajik language, which was premiered in 1939.

The direct railway connection between Dushanbe and Moscow, opened in 1929, was a valuable bridge for cultural exchange. In 1941, a festival on Tajik literature and art took place in Moscow, which helped to make the music of Bukhara and Badakhshan known in the Soviet capital. In addition to their traditional instruments, the musicians played the violin, cello, double bass and western wind instruments. During the Second World War, they accompanied anti-fascist patriotic songs to traditional melodies.

One of the most popular musicians of the time was Aka Sharif Juraev. Among other things, he composed a musical form called charzarb in the style of old wedding songs from Bukhara , which comes from the tradition of Berg-Badachschan and consists of four parts by name ( char zarb , "four rhythms", a popular dance), as well as in the mavrigi style which contains a series of songs that are accompanied on the frame drum. Juraev and others played a sad, solemn style typical of northern Tajik music, such as the munojot ("prayer to God") dance style , which is also a poetic form. It was different from the faster dance rhythm ( zarb ) of the south. Orchestras with several Pamiri rubāb players combined both styles.

Other musicians such as Ziyodullo Shahidi (Ziyadullo Shakhidi, Зиёдулло Шаҳидӣ, 1914–1985) composed for large orchestras and expanded traditional art music to include instruments from Western classical music. Ziyodullo Shahidi was born in Samarkand and studied at the Moscow Conservatory . He used the courtly šaš maqām and the popular falaki singing style and is considered one of the founders of Tajik symphonic music . His daughter Munira Shahidi runs a house museum ( Ziyodullo Shahidi Republican Museum of Musical Culture ) in Dushanbe to promote Tajik culture, which also hosts concerts. In 2004, a festival dedicated to the composer of modern Tajik music was held. In addition to several symphonies, the opera Komde va Madan , premiered in 1961, is one of Shahidi's most famous works. The libretto is based on the poem Irfān from 1712 by the Persian-Indian poet ʿAbd al-Qādir Bīdil .

In the 20th century, apart from Aka Sharif Juraev and a few others who were of Iranian descent, the most famous singers and musicians in Bukhara belonged to the Jewish community : Rena Galibova (Раъно Ғолибова, 1915–1995) was an opera singer, šaš maqām singer and Actress who appeared throughout the Soviet Union during World War II. Suleiman Yudakov (1916–1999) composed the music of the national anthem of Tajikistan ( Surudi Milli ) in 1944 . Avner Mullikandov (* 1911) worked at the Aini State Theater for Opera and Ballet in Dushanbe between 1940 and 1960 . Jaichel Sabsanow (Yahiel Sabzanov, * 1929) wrote over 300 compositions, including the famous opera Bosgascht ("The Homecoming"). Barno Ischakova (1927–2001) is considered one of the most important classical singers in Central Asia, who sang in the šaš maqām style. She was born in Tashkent into a Jewish family who came from Samarkand. In 1950 she moved to Dushanbe, from where she emigrated to Israel during the political unrest in 1992. The Tajik Jewish singer Shoista Mullodzhanova moved to the USA and died there in 2010.

No professional light music ensemble existed in Tajikistan until the Gulschan dance music group was founded in 1962 . In the 1960s to 1980s the lovely pop music style estrada ( Estrada-i Tojik, "Tajik-Pop") came into fashion, represented by the singer Muqadas Nabieva (with the group Gulschan ) and the singer Karamatullo Kurbanov (Karomatullo Qurbonov). Daler Nasarov (* 1959) has been one of the most popular singers in this light entertainment since the 1970s . The singer Nargis Bandishoeva (Наргис Бандишоева, 1966–1991) and the singer Oleg Fesov (Олег Фезов) are still popular today.

Against the background of the demands of socialist realism in music, a new classical music style developed starting in the 1970s, which had taken on a permanent form by the end of the 1980s. The names of the composers Tolib Schachidi (* 1946), Zarrina Mirshakar (* 1947) and Talabchoja Sattorov (1953-2007) are associated with him. The youngest generation of classical composers include Alisher Latif-Zade (* 1962) and Benjamin Yusupov (* 1962).

Shashmaqam

Music theory basics

The sources of the 16th and 17th centuries give no references to the "six maqams". Nevertheless, it is certain that the six maqams in a different structure were at least partially known since the 11th century. The composition cycle šaš maqām emerged in Bukhara in the 18th century. It is mainly cultivated in the area between Bukhara and the neighboring region around Punjakent in northwest Tajikistan. In the United States and Europe, the music was best known through Jewish musicians from Bukhara.

The first written reference to this term comes from the time of the Emir of Bukhara, Nasrullah Khan (1826–1860). In a collection of poems ( bayaz ) the principle of the twelve maqāmāt is mentioned as the basis of the šaš maqām , as it was developed by Kaukabī in Bukhara in the 16./17. Century was common. Many other treatises on music and poetry collections dealt with the šaš maqām, which replaced the old modal forms of the twelve maqāmāt until 1920 .

The six maqams left over from the twelve maqams are - in their usual order - buzruk (Persian bozorg , "large"), rāst ("direct, straight"), nawā ("melody"), dūgāh ("second stage"), segāh ("third stage") and ʿirāq . With “steps” (Persian parda ) the used “finger position [on the string]” is meant for the general basic scale rāst and ʿirāq refers to the “Persian Iraq” ( ʿirāq-i ʿaǧam ), the old landscape of Jibal . The maqame represent both suites with a sequence of sung and instrumental compositions, as well as six modes ( types of melodies ) with certain melodic and rhythmic structures. The last five are also known as modes ( āvāz ) of Persian music. The pieces combined in a maqam each have two names: the name of the underlying mode ( parda ) and that of a rhythmic cycle ( uṣūl, also osul , "fundamentals"). About a dozen of these are used. Talqin-e nawā, for example, means a song ( talqin ) that belongs to maqām nawā . Tasnif is a slow ballad-like form of singing that follows the same rhythmic pattern as talqin . Tarāna is another form of singing that stands between the main parts and has no specific or a "limping" (irregular, Turkish aksak ) rhythm.

At the turn of the millennium, the body of the šaš maqām consisted of about 252 cycles. Each cycle is roughly based on the forms tasnif, mochammas, sarachbār, talqin, nasr and ufār . Some maqāmāt also have other forms; the tarāna are added independently. Hence the general structure of maqām . It starts with an instrumental part, moškelāt ( muschkilot , "difficulty"), which consists of four to eight compositions. The moškelāt corresponds to the instrumental radif of Persian music and the marghul of the Uighurs . With five compositions the order is tasnif, tarje, gardun, mochammas and saqil. With the exception of gardun , the compositions are in the form of a rondo , in which the refrain-like phrase bazgui alternates with several melodic phrases, khana .

Now follows the second section nasr (“text”), which consists of singing with instrumental accompaniment. The nasr contains 12 to 17 šu'ab as the main subdivision (Sg. Šu'ba, Schuba, "twigs", melody models). The first group contains the following šu'ab in this order: sarachbār (corresponds to the rhythm of the heart, also called zarb ol-qadim ), talqin, nasr and ufār . The latter is associated with a dance rhythm, while the former parts belong to the demanding art music. In between, one or more short, light compositions ( tarāna, tarona ) are interspersed, the texts and simpler rhythms of which can be taken from folk music. Not all pieces appear in all maqāmāt .

Underside of the frame drum doira with bells. Ziyadullo Shahidi House Museum, Dushanbe

The second group of the Schuba includes five to six songs called sawt, moġolče, talqinče ( talqincha ), čapanduz, qašcarče ( qashqarcha ), sāqināme ( saqinama ) and ufār . The interlude tarāne is missing here. The complex structural principle includes further subdivisions. The rhythmic structure of the sawt includes 15 (4 + 4 + 4 + 3), the talqinče 14 (7 + 7), the qašcarče 20 (5 + 5 + 5 + 5), the sāqināme 10 (5 + 5) and the ufār 13 (5 + 5 + 3) beats. Singing has the highest value in art music and is shown in the prestige enjoyed by singers who are able to perform the entire repertoire or a large part of it. Often skilled listeners from the audience sang the easier tarāne to give the singer a break.

For the quality of Maqām four factors are decisive: the rhythmic structure of the music ( Usul, OSUL ) and the meter and rather secondarily on melodic development and the mode of Maqām . About 20 rhythmic structures are known, five to six of which are very old and also appear in Turkish and Arabic music . The melodies are relatively similar; The characteristic of the maqām is the rhythmic development in the composition. The listener pays special attention to the rhythmic structure. Their diversity arises from the superposition of the melody rhythm with the independent rhythm of the drum, which results in a polyrhythmic sound result.

The melody depends on the verse meters. The best-known traditional meters are ramal (- x - - / - x - -), hazaǧ (x - - - / x - - -), raǧaz (- - x - / - - x -) and mozāreʾ (x - - / x - -). The melodic development takes place asymmetrically, the sequence of notes rises like a staircase to the highest level awǧ ( awj, auj ), whereby the individual levels are marked by instrumental interludes, and then fall steeply to the lowest register. According to this scheme, the sequence of the sung melodies can be presented in five parts: The introduction ( darāmand ) is followed by the middle section ( mijān chat ), one or two climaxes ( awǧ ), the repetition of the main motif in the octave ( do nasr ) and finally the descent ( foruward ). Melodic ornaments added to the awǧ are called namud . The namud bears the name of the šuʾba to which it refers. In awǧ the short melodic figure namud is interspersed as a quote from another maqām . For example, the namud-e nawā occurs in the section ( šuʾba ) called sarachbār of the maqām-e nawā . The musical integration of namud is not only complicated in terms of music theory, but also in terms of playing technology.

Lore

Hafez . File of a miniature from the 18th century in a manuscript of the divan

Sung verses derived from classical Persian and Turkish poet and Sufi -Mystikern as Rudagi (about 859-941), Saadi (1208 - to 1292), Amir Chosrau (1253-1325), Hafez (around 1325-1389), Dschami ( 1414–1492), Mir ʿAli Schir Nawāʾi (1441–1501), Fuzūlī (around 1480 - around 1556), Saqqākī (15th century) and Bābā Raḥīm Mašrab (1657–1711), also by poets who are only regionally known.

The only indigenous musical notation is the choresmic notation for the long-necked lute tanbūr, introduced by Pahlawān Niyāzbaši Ḫwārizmī around 1874 . It consists of 18 horizontal lines that represent the frets of the tanbūr and vertical lines to indicate the movements of the melody. Individual points on and below the lines mark the up and down movements of the hand. There is also an identification of the drum hits. It is not known whether there was a forerunner of this musical notation.

Viktor Aleksandrovič Uspenskij (1879–1949) was the first to publish a compilation of the melodies of šaš maqām in 1924 . Its edition does not contain any verses because Russian was supposed to be spoken in the then Soviet Republic of Turkestan and poems in Persian were undesirable. From then on, the art music was performed with texts in the Uzbek language. An Uzbek version of the text was published for the Uzbeks and a version in Persian for the Tajiks. The 1959 edition of Iljas Akbarov „ zbek chalq muzikasi ("Uzbek classical music") contains the corpus of the šaš maqām, the čahār maqām of the Ferghana Valley and other pieces of classical and folk music. It is based on the work of Junus Raǧabi (1897–1976), who brought all the material together from various sources and put it into a binding order. A large number of composers of the classical ( chalqi ) repertoire are known from the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century .

Style of play

From top to bottom: two dombra , left: small frame drum dājere , lute tar , underneath three rawap , lower left cut: larger frame drum daf with a ring of bells.

In šaš maqām , one or two stringed instruments and a drum accompany the singer. In addition to the plucked long-necked lute tanbūr , which is widespread in the Orient and Central Asia, the four- stringed long-necked lute sato ( setā, setār ), which occurs in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan , was used for accompaniment in the 19th century . The sato is one of the rare long-necked lutes that is played with the bow. The two-string plucked dotār with a slim pear-shaped body was not used in art music. Today the dotār plays together with the plucked long-necked lute rawap and the stringed lute ghichak ( ġeǧak ). The name ghichak can be understood to mean a short-necked lute with a wide body of the sarinda type, a simple spit violin with a resonator from a tin can or a four-stringed spiked fiddle with a circular wooden body. The latter is played in the art music of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The rawap covered with an animal skin was adopted by the Uyghurs from the Xinjiang area around 1920 .

The short double clarinet qoshnay (Uzbek; Tajik: qushnay, qūṣnaj ) with two connected playing tubes ( qush , "two" and nay , "tube") has become rarer in art music ensembles , while the Uzbek tube flute nay ( naj , in contrast to the oriental nay a transverse flute) like the sibizgha , a shorter transverse flute, is still common. The frame drum doira (Uzbek; Tajik dājere ) provides the rhythm . In today's šaš maqām ensemble, usually two tanbūr, a dotār , a ghichak and a doira , accompanied by two or three singers, play together.

Art music of the Fergana Valley

The Ferghana Valley , divided by politically drawn borders between Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, has its own style of art music called čahār maqām , which is performed in Khujand in Persian / Tajik and in Qo'qon in Uzbek. Many singers of the “Maqam of Ferghana” live in Tashkent .

A cycle of čahār maqām (“four maqame”) consists of the independent large forms bejāt ( bay at ), čārgāh ( chargah ), dogāh-hosejni ( dug ah-huseyin ) and goljār-šahnāz ( gulyar-shahnaz ). Each maqām is composed of smaller musical forms, which are listed in the fixed order: moġolče ( mugulcha ), talqinče ( talqincha ), qašqarče ( qaschqarche ), sāqināme and ufār . The names of the pieces ( šuʾba , melody models) are known from the šaš maqām . The singing style of čahār maqām is considered a simplified and more pleasing variant of the šaš maqām of Bukhara. A specialty is the čapanilik style , which is accompanied by melodic decorations. There is a relationship with the music of the Uighurs , whose art music form on ikki muqam ("twelve maqam") enjoys the highest status of all musical styles. Another style of maqām is the “ choresmic maqām” in northern Uzbekistan, which is called alti-yarim makom (“six and a half maqāme”) because a cycle consists only of instrumental pieces and is therefore counted as half.

The musicologist Faisulla Karamatov explains why a reduced form of the more extensive tradition of Bukhara is cultivated in the Ferghana Valley with the conquest of Khujand by the Imperial Russian Army in the 1860s, around 60 years before the conquest of Bukhara. The court musicians of Khujand lost their supporters as a result, which is why their music has degenerated.

In addition, the unaccompanied singing style katta ašula (Katta Aschula, "big song") occurs in the Ferghana Valley , the most mature variant of the ašula . It is a celebratory chant that is sung freely rhythmically with Uzbek or Tajik verses. Three or four singers each perform a pair of verses one after the other in the form of a distich . Shortly before the end of the piece, all singers begin as a climax and end it with singing in unison . The singing with a full voice, in which all notes are drawn out, is given a vibrato in between , which is to be influenced by a plate that is held at the side in front of the mouth. Occasionally a rhythm can be struck with the plate. The melody, with its limited range and little variation, swings high at the beginning and falls off at the end of the line of verse. The katta ašula is a classic art form that is associated with the Sufi chants in Dhikr ( zikr ). The melodies of the katta ašula can also be played instrumentally.

The Sufis sing the haqqāni at religious celebrations - just like the Jews in earlier times - while they also hold a plate or a palm to their mouth. Among the Jews, the haqqāni ( haqqoni , from Arabic al-ḥaqq , "(divine) truth") was part of funeral ceremonies . Haqqāni, recited today by Muslims at funeral ceremonies and other occasions, uses individual folk verses that are combined in the respective national language in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The non-metric haqqāni is performed by two, three or more men a cappella in antiphonal alternating chant. According to the ideals of the Sufis, the desired goal is inner purification and closeness to God. In Bukhara, the haqqāni was previously performed in the chāneqāh , in the bazaar or at other meeting places . Women always sing separately from men among themselves.

Folk music in southern Tajikistan

There are a number of folk songs that follow the general pattern of cantor and chorus and are named after the text genres of the classical literary tradition they use. This ranges from the epic verses of the bards who Ghaselen present and occur at family gatherings in private homes to a singing style, the Ismailis in the east at Maddah called Sufi ceremonies maintain. Songs are often part of entertainment dances that are popular at celebrations in Tajikistan. Groups of men and women dance together at family celebrations, but without physical contact. The rhythms are usually played quickly, short bars with eight (3 +3 + 2) and five (3 + 2) beats are common. The pitch range of many folk songs is less than an octave. The melody often oscillates around a fourth with a tone attached in between and beyond, and closely melodic chants around a main tone also occur. In Soviet times, the Garmon (small Russian button accordion) and the European transverse flute were introduced instead of the ney in folk music of Tajikistan, including Badakhshan. The bailey harp (Uzbek and Tajik), tschang kobus ( čangko'uz ), which is widely used in Central and North Asia, is mainly used as a musical instrument for children. Idiophonic accompanying instruments in dance music are zang , bells that dancers wear as bracelets, and safail , wooden sticks with metal rings to shake.

Bards

Four-string setār

The professional singers and storytellers are called baxşi ( bachši ) in Uzbekistan and jyrau ( jirov ) in Kazakhstan . They correspond to the Turkish aşık and are called hāfez ( hôfiz ) in Tajikistan . The Tajik bards take their verses mainly from ancient Persian-Tajik literature and to a lesser extent from folk song tradition. The melodies and rhythms are shorter and more simply structured than in the maqam tradition. Their complex structures are only adopted to a certain extent, and the bards relate their rather monotonous melodies closely to the text. The rhythms have four to seven beats and are matched with the accented syllables ( aruz ). A bard often uses the ruba'i (quatrains) of the Persian poet Omar Khayyam (1048-1131) or the ghazals of Hafez , Rumi and Jami .

The hāfez is judged on the tasteful selection of his verses and less on his vocal qualities. Like the baxşi, it usually accompanies itself on the slim two-stringed and fretless long-necked lute dombra . Otherwise he plays the larger long-necked lute setār with three or more metal strings or the stringed lute ghichak . If he receives support from accompanying musicians, they play the long-necked lute dotār with frets and the frame drum dājere or in the area around Kulob in the south, the mostly clay beaker drum tablak (similar to the zerbaghali in neighboring Afghanistan). In Badachschan, the preferred lute rubāb (Tajik рубоб, more precisely Pamiri rubāb ) takes the place of the other stringed instruments. Well-known hāfez are Aka Šarif Ǧurāev († 1961), Sanubar Londokov, Andine Hāšimov (1937-1994) and Dawlatmand Čālov (* 1947) from Kulob.

The content of the texts can be assigned to twelve topics. The most common are (1) love songs ( 'āšeqāna ), wanderlust ( ġaribi ), pain and nostalgia ( ġam o anduh ), hardship and misfortune ( nāčizi, nādāri, bi nawāʾi ), followed by (2) educational moral themes ( achlāqi, qejdawi ), advice and teachings ( pand o nasihat ), lovesickness and impermanence ( bi wafāʾi ), harmony between heaven and earth, as well as (3) the New Year celebrations ( nawruzi ) and the wedding ( tujāne ). Other topics include the praise of the Prophet and his family, the ascension of Muhammad and patriotism ( watani ). In addition, the hāfez performs instrumental compositions on the dombra . He appears at religious gatherings of Sufis, where he recites mystical texts or moral didactic poems. A special group of hāfez used to be the qalandar , traveling dervishes , who have now disappeared.

Some hāfez have specialized in reciting the Tajik epic epic Gurughli . Gurughli ("son of the grave") is the wise ruler of a mythical land called Chambul. The utopian story circulated among ordinary Tajik peasants and Uzbek cattle herders and took on a permanent form in the 18th century. The story was passed down orally for centuries by the bards guruġli-chān ( guruglikhon ). Between 1930 and 1960 the Gurughli was written down. The entire Gurughli comprises over 100,000 verses that tell 33 stories. Each story contains several sections ( band ), for the performance of which one or more melodies are selected. The guruġli-chān begins with an instrumental piece ( sarachbār ), followed by sung verses, mostly religious in the form of a Persian quatrain ( rubāʿī ) or a ghasel . The actual story is introduced with a prelude ( terma ), the end of which is formed by a falling melody ( foruward ).

Falak

Three-stringed ghaychak with a circular body ( ghishshaki milli ). Ziyadullo Shahidi House Museum, Dushanbe

In addition to the urban classical music tradition of the north, there is a folk music tradition in the rural mountain areas in the south ( Chatlon province ) and east ( Berg-Badachschan ), which also occurs in northern Afghanistan and is nicknamed kuhistoni ("from the mountains").

The most widespread folk music genre is the falak ( felak , "heavenly vault", "fate") singing style . Its oldest form falak-e dašti ( falaki dashti , " falak from the plain") or in Badachschan be parvo falak ("undisturbed falak ") farmers sing without instrumental accompaniment during the harvest when they work the fields in the valleys. These songs are also used by shepherds on mountain pastures or Ismailis in Gorno-Badakhshan at funerals ( Davat sung). The unaccompanied singing is free rhythmic with a full voice and a diatonic tone sequence that contains interspersed chromatic decorations. The melody often consists of a high-pitched voice that drops in jumps to a low note at the end. In addition to long melisms , poetic texts are presented. The topics are separation pain, fate and despair. In popular quatrains , the complaints about unrequited love, lost youth and fate abroad or in general are directed to heaven or to God.

Later, chants accompanied by instruments emerged. The plucked long-necked lute dombra , the string lute ghichack , the short beaked flute tutiq ( tutuk, tula , in Badachschan a ney made of turned apricot wood with six finger holes) and the frame drum dājere are often used, as well as the accordion in urban music . The melodies are typical for individual regions and are named according to the region ( falak-e badachšān ). A variant is the falak-e rāġi , which is sung in a medium pitch and follows a rhythm.

There are also purely instrumental falak , in which the vocal melody is transferred to a solo instrument (for example long-necked lute tanbūr , in Badachschan flute tutiq ) or played in a duo with drum accompaniment (in Afghanistan fiddle ghichak and beaker drum zerbaghali ). In Afghanistan, the Pashtun Baba Naim, one of the most famous Afghan musicians and singers of the 1960s and 1970s, performed Tajik felak pieces on the ghichak .

A leading exponent of falak is the singer Davlatmand Cholov, born in Kulob in 1950 , who also plays several lute instruments. The singer Gulchehra Sodiqova, born in the Kulob region in 1942, is considered a keeper of tradition. She sings falak and other singing styles of southern Tajik folk music. Sodiqova either accompanies himself on the dombra or is surrounded by an orchestra with stringed instruments and drums. Her four sons are all professional musicians in Dushanbe and maintain the style of their hometown Kulob, but complement the traditional instruments with keyboard , drum computer and electric violin. Since the 1990s, Sodiqova has also rearranged her older repertoire with electronic instruments. Other singers have introduced modern light music in which only a certain rhythm or a sung cadenza is left of the falak in order to preserve the appearance of the Kulobi tradition.

Other styles of folk music

Dājere bazmi is a genre named after the frame drum dājere , in which a larger group of men sing and play the drum ( bazmi , "company", "celebration"). In the event, which is similar to Sufi ceremonies, the pace of the game increases continuously.

In the Ferghana Valley, a male choir sings the very old genre naqsch ( naqš ) in unison at weddings and other occasions . The pieces based on a dance rhythm also increase in tempo and become naqš-e kalān ( naqshi kalon "big", a sustained hymn), naqš-e mijāne ("middle") and naqš-e chord ( naqshi hurd , "small “, At weddings) pieces. Before the choir begins, a singer begins with a free rhythmic introduction.

Sozanda is popular dance music by women's bands that perform at weddings and circumcision celebrations and used to be mainly cultivated by Jewish musicians in Bukhara and Samarkand. In an ensemble of three to four women, a singer appears who acts both as a dancer and occasionally as an actor. The other women sing the refrain antiphonally and accompany on frame drums. The best of the professional groups were engaged at the court of the emir. A celebration with sozanda bands can last up to eight hours. The pieces presented in individual blocks interrupted by pauses are characterized by a steadily increasing tempo. The rhythms played on the doira result from the combination of 6/8, 3/8, 5/8 and 5/4 bars. Usually the pieces begin with a short, free rhythmic sung, calm introduction ( schod , "enjoyable").

Gharibi are melancholy songs from the beginning of the 20th century that tell of poor Tajik workers who had to leave their homeland.

The gulgardoni ceremony , also known locally as boytschetschak ("snowfall"), is part of the Nouruz spring festival and is intended to bring about spring . Groups of young men go from house to house with bouquets of flowers in their hands as they sing happy songs in choir and accompany each other on the frame drum doira and the lute dutār .

The Jagnoben are an ethnic minority and live in the Jagnob river valley north of the state capital. About 3,000 of them still speak the Jaghnobi , an isolated language that goes back to Sogdian . They have their own musical tradition with a genre of song called bait . Different forms of verse are sung with it. The women intone barakallo ( shouts of approval) and muhammas ( mochammas , oriental verse form with five lines) as they dance. The frame drum doira and the sounds dutār or dombra serve as accompaniment .

Badakhshan

Nine-string rubāb Pamiri from Chorugh , Berg-Badachschan in the Ethnographic Museum, Dushanbe

Despite the state border, religious and secular music in Tajik mountain Badachschan and in the northern Afghan province of Badachschan form a unit. The Sufis in the Pamir Mountains there maintain the prayer practice maddāh (depending on the dialect madā, madāi, maddoh, madoh , "praise"), in which the Islamic blessing baraka contained in poems and hymns of praise ( madhchāni ) is to be transmitted to the patient in a healing ceremony . In this context, the folk music style falak takes on a religious function when sung with verses from classical Persian Sufi poetry. As an interlude in a maddāh ceremony, the falak can be between two and 20-30 minutes long; this occurs on special occasions such as funerals. The entire ceremony, which is attended by men and women, lasts between 20 minutes and several hours. Except for healings, it is regularly held on Thursday and Friday nights as well as on religious holidays and at funerals ( davat ). The conductors of the ceremony ( maddāhḫān ) are men, with rare exceptions. The musical instruments played at the ceremony are the lute Pamiri rubāb , a frame drum, which can either be the smaller dājere or the larger daf in Berg-Badachschan with around 37 centimeters , and the long-necked lute tanbūr . The spiked fiddle ghichak is very rare. The fretless Pamiri rubāb ( robab ) differs from the "Badakhshan" or "Pashtun rubab" in Afghanistan. It has six nylon or gut strings and a round and flat body made from a piece of apricot wood. The Pamiri Rubab is on the massif of the Karakorum away with the Tibetan music played and in Nepal damiyan related. Legend has it that the mountain people consider it a gift from God. With the stretched skin and the strings from the intestines of a sacrificial lamb, it was said to have imitated the shape of the human body and was originally played by angels to praise God. The music group usually consists of at least the maddāhḫān , who sings and plays rubāb , and a frame drum player. If there are three ensemble members, two maddāhḫānān can take turns as singers. The singer and rubāb player rarely appears solo. Another religious chant is the setāješ , a hymn of praise that is of central importance in maddāh and has a fifth of a meter that corresponds to the verse structure - usually a five-line muchammas . This is further rhythmically divided by the accentuation of the rubāb and the drum beats. The monāǧāt is a religious petition.

In folk music with its sung poetry, as in religious cult practice, the musical form is subordinate to the text. Singers differentiate their songs by name according to the verse form: bayt (generally "poem", literally "one line of verse"), dubayti ("two verses"), chahārbayti ("four verses"), ghasel and most often rubāʿī (" quatrains ") with the rhyme scheme [aaxa]. Classified according to styles, secular folk music includes falak, dardgilik , sung by women and young girls in a duet , which sounds just as melancholy as falak and is about the beauty of nature. Lullabies ( lalaʾik ) are about grief or wisdom. In the high mountain region of Wakhan there is still the almost forgotten Wakhi poem bulbulik ("Song of the Nightingale"). The Wakhti are an ethnic group from Afghanistan that is spread as far as Xinjiang . The nightingale (Persian bolbol ) with its sweet nocturnal song is a frequent metaphor in Persian literature, the verses conjure up longing, love, desire and pleasure in connection with melancholy. The love message sung about in northern Afghanistan can be addressed not only to women but also to boys. The bulbulik songs consist of three verses and are sung mainly by shepherds.

Women commonly perform as solo singers and occasionally play the accordion. The eastern region around Murgab has its own musical tradition, influenced by Kyrgyzstan, in which the three-string long-necked lute komuz is played.

Musical developments since independence

Karnai long trumpets played in pairs at a wedding in Qurghonteppa
Musicians with karnai long trumpets , cylinder drums and frame drums at the opening of the “Didor International Film Festival” in Dushanbe in October 2010

The soundscape in Tajikistan today consists of the muezzin's call to prayer ( adhān ), street musicians who accompany their singing with dombra or accordion, folklore groups introduced by Soviet cultural policy, concerts with šaš maqām ensembles and Russian pop music. Indian film music has the same volume as the latter. Classical symphony orchestras are seldom heard, but performances of religious music, including Sufi music by the Ismailis, are more common. Traditional folk music styles are still popular. At the opening of events and at weddings, when the newlyweds march in front of the registry office, the long Central Asian metal trumpet blows karnai . It is a historical symbol of rulers widespread in the Islamic cultural area (Arabic karna ) as far as North Africa ( kakaki ).

Religious forms of expression such as maddāh now come in a modern garb with electronically generated sounds, as they are common in pop music. The leading exponent of modern devotional music, in which traditional musical instruments such as tanbūr, ghichak, rubāb, doira, ney and chang ( dulcimer of the Bukhara tradition, name derived from the Persian harp chang ) are combined with western instruments and partly with electronic sounds, is Samandar Pulodov. It is recognized as an ostad , its ensemble members appear in traditional Badachschan costumes and dance on stage.

New popular styles of entertainment are spreading from cities to rural areas, primarily through musical groups performing at weddings. There amateur bands can be influenced by urban pop music ( estrada ), while, conversely, pop music continues to contain traditional ( anʾanavī or sunnatī ) and national ( millī ) references.

In the first years after the turn of the millennium, the pop music market on the Internet was placed on a broad commercial basis. Music enthusiasts and marketers opened internet portals with rankings of the groups and songs played on the radio as well as for rating new bands. Well-known pop music bands are Parem (Парем), a melodic, guitar-oriented pop band whose first album came out in 1996. Vazir sounds a bit louder . The pop-jazz group Avesto around the singer Takhmina Ramazanova uses keyboards and clarinets together with Tajik instruments. Other pop groups with large audiences are Zapadnyi Kvartal and the singers Dilnoz (Дилноз), Shabnam , Manija Dawlat and Tahmina Nijosowa . Al-Azif is a black metal band founded in Dushanbe , which spreads the health-conscious / moral message of a life without tobacco and alcohol.

Discography

  • Music of the Bukharan Jewish Ensemble Shashmaqam . Smithsonian Folkways, 1991 (SFW 40054); Supplement (PDF)
  • Jurabeg Nabiev / Ensemble Dorrdâne: Maqam d'Asie Centrale. 2: Tadjikistan: Tradition of Bukhara. Ocora (Radio France) 1997 (C 560102)
  • Yo-Yo Ma & The Silk Road Ensemble: Silk Road Journeys - When Strangers Meet. Sony, 2002 (Central Asian, Chinese and Western Classics)
  • Tajikistan. Chants des bardes / Songs of the bards . Produced by Archives Internationales de musique populaire , Ethnographic Museum in Geneva, recorded by Jean During 1990–1992. Released 1998 (VDE CD 973)
  • Falak: The Voice of Destiny - Traditional, Popular & Symphonic Music of Tajikistan. Topic Records, London 2006 (double CD with recordings by Frederico Spinetti for the British Library Sound Archive)
  • Music of Central Asia. Vol. 2: Invisible Face of the Beloved. Classical Music of the Tajiks and the Uzbeks. Smithsonian Folkways, 2005 (SFW 40521); Supplement (PDF)
  • Music of Central Asia, Vol. 5: Badakhshan Ensemble: Song and Dance from the Pamir Mountains. Smithsonian Folkways, 2007 (SWF 40524); Supplement (PDF)
  • Madâhkhânî, Ghazâlkhânî, Dafsâz: Religious Music from Badakhshân. Recordings by Jan van Belle. Pan Records, 1997 (PAN 2036)
  • Davlatmand: Musiques savantes et populaires du Tadjikistan. Inedit, 1992 (W260 038) (Falak)
  • Oleg Fesov: Lalaika Pamir. Miramar (Seattle USA) 1994 (pop music)

literature

  • Music. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan. Scarecrow Press, Lanham (Maryland), 2010, pp. 246-248
  • Jean During, Razia Sultanova u. a .: Central Asia . In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . (MGG) Volume 9, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1998, Sp. 2318-2380
  • Walter Feldman: Central Asia XVI Music . In: Encyclopædia Iranica .
  • Angelika Jung: Sources of the traditional art music of the Uzbeks and Tajiks of Central Asia. Investigations into the origin and development of šašmaqām. (= Contributions to Ethnomusicology , Volume 23, edited by Josef Kuckertz ) Verlag der Musikalienhandlung Karl Dieter Wagner, Hamburg 1989.
  • Munira Shahidi: Tajikistan. In: John Shepherd, David Horn, Dave Laing (Eds.): Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. Volume 5: Asia and Oceania. Continuum, London 2005, pp. 58-61
  • Mark Slobin, Alexander Djumaev: Tajikistan. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Volume 25. Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, pp. 14-19
  • Razia Sultanova, Theodore Levin: The Classical Music of Uzbeks and Tajiks. In: Virginia Danielson, Scott Marius, Dwight Reynolds (Eds.): The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume 6. The Middle East . Routledge, New York / London 2002

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Angelika Jung: Sources of Traditional Art Music, 1989, p. 14
  2. ↑ Dilorom Karomat: The 12-maqam System and its Similarity with Indian Ragas (according to Indian Manuscripts) . (PDF) In: Journal of the Indian Musicological Society, 36–37, 2006, pp. 62–88, here p. 63
  3. ↑ Tariel Mamedov: Najm al-Din Kaukabi Bukhari and the Maqam Theory in the 16th to 18th Centuries. Harmony. International Music Magazine
  4. ↑ Alexander Djumaev: 1. The Tajik-Uzbek art music. a. Music theory roots. In: Central Asia, MGG, Sp. 2335-2337
  5. ^ Farhad Atai: Soviet Cultural Legacy in Tajikistan. In: Iranian Studies, 45: 1, 2012, pp. 81–95, here pp. 85, 87
  6. ↑ Khoja Abdulaziz Rasulov. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, p. 201
  7. ↑ Balasanjan, Sergei Artemjewitsch. In: Friedrich Blume (Ed.): The music in past and present . 1st edition, Volume 15, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1973, pp. 428f
  8. ↑ Ziyodullo Shahidi: Songs and Romances. Shahidi Cultural Foundation (biography)
  9. ^ First International Festival of Modern Music in Dushanbe. UNESCO Almaty
  10. ↑ Komde and Madan. Youtube video (excerpt)
  11. ↑ Rena Galibova Bukharian Tajik Farsi Classic Songs Рена Галибова Таджикская. Youtube video
  12. ↑ Mark Avrum Ehrlich: Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara (CA) 2009, p. 1144
  13. ↑ Shoista Mullodzhanova Tajik Classic Songs Шоиста Муллоджанова Таджикская. Youtube video
  14. ^ Munira Shahidi: Tajikistan. In: John Shepherd et al. a. (Ed.), 2005, pp. 58-61
  15. ↑ Shashmaqom. (accessed on August 5, 2014)  ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) The German-Uzbek Society mentions "more than 560 melodies and songs"@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.inarchive.com
  16. ^ Jean During, Razia Sultanova: 1. The Tajik-Uzbek art music . In: Zentralasien , MGG, 1998, p. 2339
  17. ↑ Mark Slobin, Alexander Djumaev: Tajikistan . In: New Grove, 2001, p. 17
  18. ^ Jean During, Razia Sultanova: 1. The Tajik-Uzbek art music. In: Central Asia, MGG, 1998, Sp. 2340-2343
  19. ^ Jean During, Razia Sultanova: 1. The Tajik-Uzbek art music . In: Central Asia , MGG, 1998, Sp. 2341-2343
  20. ^ Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham (eds.): World Music: The Rough Guide, Volume 2: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia & Pacific. (Rough Guide Music Guides). Rough Guides, London 2000, p. 27
  21. ^ Jean During, Razia Sultanova: 1. The Tajik-Uzbek art music . In: Central Asia , MGG, 1998, Sp. 2345-2347
  22. ^ Razia Sultanova, Theodore Levin: The Classical Music of Uzbeks and Tajiks. In: Garland Encyclopedia , p. 911
  23. ↑ Rachel Harris: Situating the Twelve Muqam: Between the Arab World and the Tang Court . In: Ildikó Bellér-Hann (Ed.): Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. (Anthropology and Cultural History in Asia and the Indo-Pacific) Ashgate, Farnham 2007, p. 76
  24. ↑ Ring-tailed lemur Ashula. UNESCO - Intangible Heritage
  25. ↑ Ring-tailed lemur Ashula . Youtube video
  26. ↑ Rustambek Abdullaev, Sayidafzal Mallakhanov, Iroda Dadadjanova: Katta ashula - a unique song heritage of Uzbekistan. (PDF) 2nd Workshop for Better Practices in Communities' revitalization. Asia-Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU), Japan, 13.-15. November 2009, p. 2
  27. ↑ a b Fred Skolnik, Michael Berenbaum (ed.): Encyclopaedia Judaica . Volume Blu-Cof, 2nd Edition, Macmillan Reference, Detroit 2007, p. 264
  28. ^ Jean During, Razia Sultanova: 1. The Tajik-Uzbek art music . In: Central Asia, MGG, 1998, col. 2345
  29. ↑ Theodore Levin: The Bukharan Jewish Ensemble Shashmaqam. 1993-1994 tour. (PDF) Ethnic Folk Arts Center, New York 1993, p. 11f
  30. ^ Sonja Hinz: Dance, Mysticism, and Sensuality Perspectives from Tajikistan. (PDF) Dissertation. University of Hawaii, 2007, p. 49
  31. ↑ Akihiro Takahashi: Characteristics of Afghan Folk Music: A Comparative Study of the Musical Characters of the Tajik, Uzbek, Pashtun and Hazara Tribes. Senri Ethnological Studies 5, 1980, pp. 29-46, here p. 32f
  32. ↑ Jean During: The Dotar family in Central Asia. Organological and musicological survey. In: Porte Akademik. Organoloji sayasi, Istanbul, 2012, pp. 93-102, here p. 94
  33. ↑ Gurughli. In: Kamoludin Abdullaev, Shahram Akbarzadeh: Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, pp. 153f
  34. ^ Jean During: 4: Tajik Traditions, op. Professional musician. In: Central Asia , MGG, 1998, Sp. 2352f
  35. ^ Jean During: 4: Tajik Traditions, b. Folk music. In: Central Asia , MGG, 1998, Sp. 2353f
  36. ^ Afghanistan Untouched. Traditional Crossroads, 2003. Double CD with recordings by Mark Slobin 1968. Felak : Tracks 2–6
  37. ↑ Gulchehra Sodiqova - 12/12 | Modari san'ati Tojik. Youtube Video (Falak as a stage show)
  38. ↑ Federico Spinetti: Open Borders. Tradition and Tajik Popular Music: Questions of Aesthetics, Identity and Political Economy. In: Ethnomusicology Forum , Volume 14, No. 2 ( Music and Identity in Central Asia ), November 2005, pp. 185-211, here pp. 189f
  39. ^ Ceremonial and Cult Songs. ( Memento from October 22, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Traditional Culture and Folklore of Central Asia (at archive.today)
  40. ↑ Theodore Levin, Otanazar Matykubov: booklet accompanying the CD Bukhara. Musical Crossroads of Asia. (PDF) Smithsonian / Folkways, 1991, title 3
  41. ↑ Mark Slobin, Alexander Djumaev: Tajikistan . In: New Grove , p. 16
  42. ^ Benjamin David Koen: Beyond the Roof of the World: Music, Prayer, and Healing in the Pamir Mountains. Oxford University Press, New York 2011, pp. 114, 117
  43. ^ Instrument Glossary: ​​Badakhshan Ensemble. Aga Khan Trust for Culture
  44. ^ Benjamin David Koen: The Spiritual Aesthetic in Badakhshani Devotional Music . In: The World of Music , Volume 45, No. 3 ( Cross-Cultural Aesthetics ), 2003, pp. 77–90, here p. 80
  45. ^ Benjamin David Koen: Devotional Music and Healing in Badakhshan, Tajikistan: Preventive and Curative Practices . (Dissertation) The Ohio State University, 2003, pp. 105-108
  46. ↑ Jerome W. Clinton Bolbol "nightingale" . In: Encyclopædia Iranica
  47. ^ Benjamin David Koen: Beyond the Roof of the World: Music, Prayer, and Healing in the Pamir Mountains. Oxford University Press, New York 2011, p. 121
  48. ↑ Mehri Maftun. Music from Afghan Badakhshan. (Ethnic Series) PAN Records 2005 (PAN 2105). Recordings by Jan van Belle, CD booklet, pp. 7–9
  49. ^ Robert Middleton: The Tajik Pamirs - the people, their culture and historical connections to China . (PDF) pamirs.org, 2013, p. 11
  50. ^ Benjamin Daniel Koen: Medical Ethnomusicology in the Pamir Mountains: Music and Prayer in Healing. In: Ethnomusicology , Volume 49, No. 2, Spring / Summer 2005, pp. 287-311, here p. 288
  51. ↑ Samandar Pulodov - Khud Medoni. Youtube video
  52. ^ Benjamin David Koen: The Spiritual Aesthetic in Badakhshani Devotional Music. In: The World of Music , Volume 45, No. 3 ( Cross-Cultural Aesthetics ), 2003, p. 79
  53. ^ Frederico Spinetti: Sonic Practices and Concepts in Tajik Popular Music. (PDF) Conference on Music in the world of Islam. Assilah, August 8-13 August 2007, p. 7
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  55. ↑ Jamila Sujud: Tajikistan's New Roots Music. Relatively quickly, jazz has found a home in the traditional tunes of this mountain country. Transitions Online, July 14, 2014
  56. ↑ Shabnam: (Tajikistan Pop Music) Shabnam-i Surayyo | Ty i Ya (You & I). Youtube video
  57. ↑ Maksim Yeniseyev: Tajik musicians combine rock and folk music. Rockers advocate healthy lifestyle. ( Memento of August 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Central Asia Online, May 31, 2012