Shipping and boat building in ancient Egypt
The navigation in ancient Egypt was influenced by the geography of the country. The Nile , the immediately adjacent fertile land of different widths and the desert have the character of a river oasis from which a river society inevitably developed. The river became Egypt's trade route. It represents the bond that united and held the country together. As Herodotus said, Egypt is a gift from the Nile. It was therefore only logical to use the medium of water and to build floating bases very early on and later boats. The possession and use of boats was necessary to move around even during the annual Nile flood , as the land was flooded and criss-crossed by numerous canals and water retention basins. Numerous villages were during the season Akhet on mounds .
Contemporary witnesses for shipping and boat building in ancient Egypt are boat representations as rock drawings, on papyrus , remains of painted flint stones , graffiti- like representations on building walls, grave drawings, sketches on desert rocks and boulders. Written documents are received as shipyard protocols, ship logs , business reports, import and export lists and legal documents. There are also temple drawings and reliefs of boats and their use in battles on the Nile and in ritual ceremonies. Boat models made of terracotta , metal, bone and ivory as well as life-size boats were also found as grave goods.
From the early dynastic period there are models of boats and shipbuilding fragments, the sun barge of Cheops from the Old Kingdom and models of funeral boats from the Middle Kingdom . A lot of construction information and shipbuilding details are known from the New Kingdom , but no archaeological remains of boats. Information and sources with statements about shipping and boat building become more and more sparse with the end of the New Kingdom until they come back to life in the Greco-Roman times. The description of shipping and boat building in ancient Egypt is therefore limited to the time up to the end of the New Kingdom.
Navigation on the Nile
The Nile was the main artery in the pursuit of economic and security interests in Egypt and Nubia . Boats were used for trade, the transport of food of all kinds, they transported officials for land surveying after each flood of the Nile, customs and tax receipts, building materials for building pyramids and temples, and the transport of soldiers. They were essential for the implementation of state festivals and enjoyed great cultic importance. Boat ownership was a desirable goal for everyone in Egypt, as far as they could afford it. There was probably no civilization that was more dependent on transport across the water.
Shipping on the high seas
In order to enforce Egypt's economic interests and make them usable for their own economy, there have been trade contacts as well as armed conflicts with neighboring countries in Syria / Palestine by sea since the early dynastic period. The first trade contacts with Punt and deliveries of frankincense from there can be proven. The political interest in the Middle Kingdom was particularly directed to maintaining trade relations with Syria / Palestine. Trading in punt was resumed after being suspended in the 1st interim period . In the New Kingdom, Egypt became a great power. It ruled Syria-Palestine, challenged the Hittites , and traded with mainland Greece and the Aegean islands and the Horn of Africa . Boats were essential for trade outside the country. Boats formed the basis for the prosperity and exercise of power in Egypt.
Boats and boat building
Ancient Egypt had a long tradition of boat building that spanned the period from the Predynastic Period to the New Kingdom. It is generally accepted, but not without controversy, that the influence of shipbuilding in the eastern Mediterranean was increasing, beginning with the reign of Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten. This is among other things with the temple reliefs Ramses III. Boats depicted in Medinet Habu (allegedly not of Egyptian origin) of the fight on the Nile against the sea peoples . Boats were built from local acacia and sycamore wood as well as imported pine, cypress and cedar. The cordage was made from palm fibers, papyrus or various grass fibers.
Predynastic time
The first floating bases and rafts are known from the Badari culture , probably made of papyrus bundles or reeds tied in the shape of a broom . The Naqada I period ( Naqada culture ) shows similar bases made from papyrus. In the Naqada II period, boat-like constructions modeled from bundles of papyrus can be detected. The construction of the first wooden boats with planks also began during this period. For the first time, the typical Egyptian construction of sickle-shaped boats with raised boat ends appears. With this construction, parts of the hull remained above the water surface. These boats could already reach a length of approx. 17 m.
The construction of the boat was initially carried out by constructing the hull casing from planks , in other words, the outer skin of a boat was first put together before it was stiffened and stabilized by an internal skeleton and ribs . The boats probably did not have a keel . The planks and cladding pieces made of acacia or sycamore wood were lashed with grass ropes. These lashings stretched out in the water and compacted the hull from. The sail appeared for the first time at the end of the predynastic period .
Early Dynastic Period including 1st – 2nd centuries dynasty
Since the 1st dynasty, boats in Egypt have been built without a keel. There is no evidence that keeled boats were ever built in Egypt. The planks of the outer skin were connected or clamped to one another with holes and tenons. This remained the construction of sickle-shaped boats from the Old to the New Kingdom. To stabilize the hull, longitudinal stabilization bars were installed in the bilge . Numerous boat planks come from Tarchan and were rebuilt in tombs. At this time there are also boat burials, which were found as life-size grave goods next to the mastabas of high officials .
Old empire
A number of images in tombs, boat models and, last but not least, the sun barge of Cheops are known from the Old Kingdom . There were boats for different purposes, besides the papyrus boat, which is still used locally. The dimensions of these boats ranged from about 50 m length of seagoing boats, over the 43 m length of the river boat of Cheops up to the about 20-30 m long cargo boats.
River boats for passenger transport
The external appearance of the sickle-shaped boats was characterized by angular shaped bow and stern ends or by an animal head on the bow . The boats had a flat bottom with angular bilges. The stern was higher than the bow. Some of the deck planks were removable. The boats carried canopies for the crew and / or huts made of reed mats for passengers.
The boat builders used a central axis made up of several planks instead of a keel, on which short planks were offset, as when building a wall, connected by holes and tenons. When the desired height of the side wall was reached, it was closed with a gunwale . Crossbeams at gunwale height supported the deck planking, provided lateral stiffening and prevented the hull from breaking apart. Longitudinal stabilization bars were installed in the bilge and on the upper deck . The planks were built in Kraweel , as in all of antiquity in the Mediterranean.
These keelless boats carried a two-legged mast anchored in the foredeck area because the decks did not have enough strength to support the weight of a mast concentrated in one place. Therefore, a mast with two mast feet converging at the top was used. The mast was held by stays and guys ( standing rigging ). It was not possible to trim ( sail trim ) the sail to use a wind other than aft. The mast could be folded down if necessary and was then stored on the upper deck.
Sails were attached to the yard , which could be harnessed and lowered by means of a trap . The yard was held in place by ropes tied to the mast. The sail was held open at the bottom by a tree on the upper deck for the wind. The yard's trap was attached to the stern. The stays and guys probably fulfilled the double function of stabilizing the mast and the stern floating freely over the water. Although Egyptian ships still had no keel, the construction of the double mast after the VI. Dynasty no longer related. The steering was carried out by one or up to six side rudders installed in pairs. From the 6th Dynasty, only one-legged masts were in use.
Sea going boats
The Byblos boat is probably the most famous seagoing boat from this time. It is known from a depiction in the sun temple of Pharaoh Sahure . This name remained the common name for an ocean going boat. It is unclear whether this indicates the special importance of Byblos in Syria as a center of shipbuilding, as a place of origin of cedar wood or as a permanent port of destination and loading port.
The construction of seagoing boats basically corresponded to the design features of river boats. However, there were two innovations for seagoing boats. So that the hull could withstand the stresses of the swell on the open sea, a multi-core, twisted cable was used , which was led over supports well above the upper deck. By turning a in the strands introduced hawser the hand lever, the voltage could be increased to a sagging of projecting out of the water fore body and to prevent the tail. For further stiffening, a net-like belt made of cordage was used to span the upper deck below the gunwale. This was used to fix the upper deck planks to prevent the beams from diverging. The mast could also be folded down here when not in use. From the 5th dynasty, the front installation location of the mast moved slowly to the center of the ship, which it was around 1500 BC. Reached.
Cargo boats on the Nile
Cargo boats had a reduced freeboard and a greater width. In terms of construction basically the same, although they are more pram- shaped, these boats were very often built with a net-like belt around the upper deck. The loading area on the upper deck amidships was kept free for loads. The mast could also be folded down here and then rested on the upper deck loads.
Papyrus-shaped boats
These were wooden copies of the boats originally formed from papyrus, which were used for ceremonial and ritual purposes as well as for transporting the dead.
Middle realm
A significant change in shipbuilding took place during the Middle Kingdom. The construction of flat bottom boats was abandoned. The hull was now shaped like a spoon with a bow protruding vertically out of the water and a raised stern post, partly ending like a lotus. This remained the characteristic of Egyptian shipbuilding until the end of the New Kingdom. The net-like belt that had previously spanned the upper deck below the gunwale was no longer applicable. The built in bilge or side of upper deck longitudinal stabilizing beam was passed through a likewise on the upper deck, however amidships extending longitudinal frame replaced. The lateral strength was achieved by means of cross members attached to the side member.
The two-legged mast was no longer used and was replaced by a mast that reached amidships through the upper deck to the ship's bottom. This could still be turned over. The yard and boom were now carried by lines attached to the mast head, between which a rectangular and enlarged sail of linen was attached.
The tax changed radically. A single control blade was installed axially aft, while when using two control blades, these were installed at the side. Oars were held in place by simple loops attached to the upper deck. Deck houses were installed if necessary. The hull was still carried out in Kraweel planking. Boats made of papyrus for ritual purposes continued to be in use.
The records of a scribe from the year 2000 of a voyage in the Red Sea with a boat 60 m long, 20 m wide and a mast height of 18 m have come down to us. Usually seagoing boats were up to 30 m in length. In the Middle Kingdom, these boats could transport around 120 men. In addition to the pyramid of Sesostris III. Various royal boats were found in Dahshur.
New kingdom
With the beginning of the New Kingdom there are first verifiable findings about shipbuilding in the eastern Mediterranean. At the beginning of this period the boats of Greece, Crete and Syria / Palestine were very similar to the Egyptian boats. The assumption that towards the end of the 18th dynasty the Egyptian nautical knowledge and shipbuilding skills were overtaken by the technical development of other states in the eastern Mediterranean is controversial .
It appears likely that Egypt expanded and reorganized its merchant navy and navy during the second half of the 18th Dynasty and the first half of the 19th Dynasty for trade, troop transport, and the removal of spoils and tributes. The boats became larger and more diverse in their functions. Basically, the construction of the hull was the same. Due to their construction, boats could be dismantled and transported over land, for example from the Nile to the Red Sea . In the Red Sea they had a length of approx. 21–30 m long, approx. 5.5 m wide and a draft of approx. 1.2–1.5 m. In the Mediterranean they were about 30 m long and about 9 m wide. The transportability of the boats ranged from stone blocks in the range of 0.45–1.5 m³ to several hundred tons.
Nile ships had an average crew of about 25 men. Seagoing ships could transport a regiment of soldiers to Byblos.
River boats
The most famous boat of the New Kingdom for navigation on the Nile is the so-called Rechmire boat in the grave of Rechmire (high official during the reigns of Thutmose III and Amenhotep I ). A single mast was led through the deckhouse and could not be folded down. It was held by fore and aft days . The yards consisted of two overlapping spars that were lashed together on both sides of the mast. The upper yard was held by two holding lines, the lower yard by numerous holding lines. The yards were lashed to the mast bracket . Holding lines had no role in sailing maneuvers , but only a carrying function. The sail is wider horizontally than most Old Kingdom boats. The sails were recovered by loosening the sails from the lower yard , lowering the upper yard to man's height for the sailors standing on the lower yard , and throwing the sail onto the upper yard. These boats could of course also be rowed. With the illustrated rigging one was crossing impossible. There were deckhouses on almost all boats of this period. The control device basically corresponded to the method developed in the Middle Kingdom.
Sea going boats
A relief of Pharaoh Hatshepsut's boats from her mortuary temple shows typical seagoing boats of their time. They were similar in their design and construction to the river boats. However, they had a considerably deeper hull than the Byblos boat. The lateral strength was reinforced by transverse beams that were visible outboard and led over the upper deck and pierced the ship's side. The longitudinal strength still had to be achieved by a multi-core, twisted cable running over the upper deck on supports. The sails and the fastening of the yards corresponded to the boats used on the Nile. To improve the possibility of trimming , the tree was partially omitted and replaced by Geitaue . Using this geitaue, the sail could be opened in order to be able to use the spacing wind ( courses to the wind ). This could partly be achieved by attaching bream to the ends of the upper yard . The rudder system consisted of two rudder blades attached on both sides. Under Amenhotep III. the new high sea type " Menesch " was introduced.
Cargo boats
The hull, mast and rigging of cargo boats essentially corresponded to those of river boats. However, they were wider and had no decorations on the bow or stern. The rudder blade was also installed axially symmetrical. The mast could be folded down and was transported on the deckhouse. Mostly accompanied by the "Menesch" ships, the cargo ships of the " Qerer " type sailed
Papyrus boats
These boats remained unchanged, but were more ornately decorated.
Warships
As before, the boats also used for commercial purposes were used for war missions. The ones on the outer walls of the Dead Temple of Ramses III. The boats shown in Medinet Habu , however, represent a completely different type of boat than previously known. The hulls are longer with a smaller freeboard and bulwarks with openings for the oars. The bulwark offered the rowers protection against fire. A hawser running on the upper deck for stabilization as before cannot be seen. The mast was still amidships, but now had a combat platform at the top. There was no lower yard, the sails were raised for battle. It is controversial whether this type of boat was introduced by the Sea Peoples' seamen who were taken over into Egyptian service and captured in earlier conflicts or whether it was an Egyptian construction. At least the Egyptian boats were manned almost exclusively by foreign mercenaries.
State yachts
There have been references to state yachts since the 1st Dynasty. In terms of shipbuilding, they corresponded to the standards of their time, but were much more elaborately designed. This included elaborately decorated sails. Deck houses and / or canopies with visible throne chairs were installed on the upper deck. The length of these boats was always impressive, up to around 50 m.
Transport boats for obelisks
These special boats have been known since the Old Kingdom. In addition to obelisks, they transported all kinds of building materials from the quarries to the temples and tombs throughout Egypt. Pharaoh Merenre's boats are known for transporting false doors , lintels and portals as well as alabaster sacrificial tables with a length of up to 31.5 m and a width of 15.75 m. From the reign of Thutmose I there are reports of a boat 63 m long and 21 m wide for the transport of obelisks with a carrying capacity of 372 tons.
The most famous boat is certainly the transport pram of Hatshepsut for her two obelisks in the Karnak temple . The exact dimensions and water displacement are disputed. Different calculations are based on the known weight of the obelisk. Boat lengths of 63 m to 95 m and boat widths of 25 m to 32 m are assumed. The calculations made so far for the displacement of these boats are assumed to be around 1500 to an unbelievable 7300 tons. Regardless of the size of the boat, the construction corresponded to that of all other boats of the time. However, there was an increased use of known techniques. The lateral strength was reinforced by three layers below the upper deck and through the side of the ship, visible outboard transoms. The longitudinal strength was provided by five instead of the usual multi-core, twisted cables running on supports over the upper deck. The boat was steered by two rudders attached to each side. Thirty rowing boats with several hundred rowers provided propulsion and maneuverability.
Ports
The northern Sinai Peninsula and the North African coast had no natural harbors between the Nile Delta and the Cyrenaica , so shipping and trade were necessarily concentrated in the Nile Delta. However, entering the Nile Delta was made more difficult by offshore sandbanks and in some cases insufficient water depth, which made reloading to smaller ships necessary. The construction of the boats not only allowed the use of harbors at all times, but also ran aground on the beach or shore. Accordingly, ports or loading bays had real quays or only heaped dams and sometimes only sandy beaches. A complete list of ports that existed at the time has not been handed down.
Commercial ports
Larger cities, many provincial cities in the districts and royal cities as well as cities in Syria / Palestine, which was ruled by Egypt, had ports at different times. A few examples are Auaris , Achet-Aton , Sais , Tanis , Bubastis , Marsa Matruh , Pi-Ramesse , Luxor , Aswan , Memphis , Elephantine , on the Red Sea in what is now Qusair and Mersa Gawasis . In Syria / Palestine, Byblos , Tire , Sidon , Sumuru , Beirut , Ulascha and Ugarit were certainly outstanding ports.
War ports
The port of Peru-nefer , naval port of Memphis, is known in the New Kingdom . The port housed under Thutmose III. Shipyards , arms production facilities and was a training and embarkation point for horses and chariots. Another naval port was Auaris in the Pelusian branch of the Nile in the Delta. All fortresses close to the Nile, especially in Nubia, had at least their own pier to ensure supplies.
Ports for ritual purposes
Large temple complexes such as Karnak and pyramid tombs such as the Great Pyramid of Cheops were built with their own ports both for the construction of these systems and later for cultic purposes. Amenhotep III had the T-shaped ceremonial port Birket Habu built on the western bank of the Nile south of Thebes with the anniversary city of Malqata and a size of approx. 240 hectares for its Sedfest . Opposite this port on the east bank of the Nile, a port of the same size and size was created. After the first anniversary, the western port was expanded to a length of 2 km. The ports were connected to the Nile by canals.
Port security
Armed guards were present not only in the Delta ports but in all of the Nile ports. There were further posts along selected passages of the Nile. Own or foreign merchant ships were sometimes accompanied by a military team called meshkebu on their onward journey up the Nile.
Geophysical factors
The journey on the Nile was supported by the river flowing from south to north and the almost steady wind blowing from the north, so that navigation was made easier in both directions. The Nile is navigable for almost 900 km from the Mediterranean to the 1st cataract . During floods , even the 1st cataract could be overcome by boat. Larger boats were pulled over land. This is why the hieroglyph shows a boat with the mast folded down for trips to the north, even when traveling on land. The hieroglyph for journeys to the south shows a boat under sail. A kneeling man with a bow pictured in front of it represents a military expedition. The current speed of the Nile was about 1kn ( knot ) in spring when the water level was low . At the time of the Nile flood in autumn, the speed was 4 kn.
For seafaring in the Mediterranean , the shallow draft of the boats made it generally not advisable to sail across the open sea outside of land visibility. In spring and autumn, the waving of the eastern Sahara supported Chamsin -Winde leakage of the boats out of the Delta. The current in the eastern Mediterranean is counterclockwise, helping boats sailing north from Egypt along the Syrian-Palestinian coast and to the northern Mediterranean coast. The sea voyage to the west along the Anatolian coast was made difficult by the narrow passages between the mainland and the offshore islands and by the katabatic winds , especially in the Gulf of Antalya . This also applied to the reverse journey. By crossing from the Beirut area to Cyprus and back, the dangerous navigational conditions on the Anatolian coast could be avoided.
The boats sailing south along the Syrian-Palestinian coast towards Egypt had the current against them, but they found support from the coastal wind that changed its direction in the day and night.
The Red Sea has only weak tides. From October to January the monsoons blow from the southeast, while during the other seasons it comes from the north. This restricted sailing under sail to certain times of the year if one wanted to avoid rowing.
Travel times
The duration of the trip was dependent on wind strength, wind direction, current speed, night stops and the construction and condition of the boats. The sailing season on the Nile was 10 months. Boat traffic ceased from the end of December to mid-February. At night there was generally no driving due to navigational difficulties (sandbanks, hippos). The journey from Qantir in the western delta (near Avaris ) to Thebes took 21–24 days. The distance was 649 km. The journey from Memphis in the north to Thebes took about 13 days under sail. From Thebes to Elephantine it took 4 days for the distance of about 221 km.
In the Red Sea an Etmal was reached under sail of about 24 nm. The cruising speed in the Mediterranean was 4–6 knots under good conditions. The travel time from the Nile Delta to Byblos took about 12-13 days.
trade
The impetus for maritime trade certainly came from the ports of the Levant , probably from the Byblos region. By 2600 there was already a brisk trade in the eastern Mediterranean between Egypt and the ports of Byblos, Tire and Sidon in Syria. There has been evidence of pine, cypress and cedar wood imports from Syria / Palestine since the first dynasty. Around 2000 Egyptian merchant ships sailed the Red Sea to the Sinai Peninsula to pick up copper ore from the Pharaoh's mines.
The overriding principle of Egyptian foreign policy during the New Kingdom in Syria / Palestine was to draw the greatest possible economic and political advantage with minimal military intervention at the same time. The main exports were raw materials such as copper, tin, food, papyrus, linen, pearls, figures, wine, perfumes, oils and precious stones. In addition, at certain times Egypt supplied its vassal states in Syria-Palestine and the Hittites allied with them with grain. Imported goods included cattle from Asia Minor, wood from Syria, fruit from Cyprus, cloth from Syria, silver from Asia Minor, olive oil, wine, copper, jewelry, metal vessels, glass and military material such as horses and chariots.
At the end of the New Kingdom, trade in the eastern Mediterranean was monopolized more and more by foreigners. At the end of the 20th Dynasty, rule over Canaan had passed to the Sea Peoples. This meant that Herihor was no longer able to regularly import cedar wood from Byblos.
The enormous economic importance of the Nubian mineral resources such as gold, silver, ebony and ivory and the great cultic relevance of many products from Nubia and the interior of Africa such as leopard skins, ostrich feathers and incense gave the trade with Nubia a vital importance. Any threat to these trade lines, regardless of the magnitude, triggered a drastic reaction from Egypt.
Shipping in the war
The boats used for war purposes corresponded to the well-known merchant boats until the end of the New Kingdom. They were commandeered for missions. The requisition also included private boats. For the first time, a special type of boat was used as a warship to ward off the invasion of the Sea Peoples. The origin of this type of boat, originally Egyptian or imported by sea peoples, is controversial.
The amphibious use of boats has been documented since the earliest times. Boats were used to transport troops under Pharaoh Djer in the early dynastic period as well as by Governor Weni of Upper Egypt under Pharaoh Pepi I in the Old Kingdom against the Nubians and also against the sand inhabitants of Syria / Palestine. Transports of troops to Syria at the time of Pharaoh Sahure are also documented. The Gaufürst Chnumhotep II accompanied Pharaoh Amenemhet II in the Middle Kingdom with 20 boats for the transport of troops on the Nile. The use of boats was crucial in the Wars of Liberation against the Hyksos at the time of the Pharaohs Kamose and Ahmose .
In the New Kingdom attacks against Syria / Palestine were carried out by sea and on land. An overland advance into Palestine would have overwhelmed the logistical possibilities of supplying a large army . The ability to transport troops and logistics to Syria / Palestine by sea as well as overland was a prerequisite for the expansion of Egypt at the beginning of the 18th dynasty. A supply by sea and the establishment of supply depots in the ports along the coast ensured a rapid advance. In the New Kingdom, Thutmose III. dismantled boats to cross the Euphrates with them. The transport of chariots and horses by sea was possible without any problems.
The Nile remained the main route of transport in the New Kingdom. The trade with Nubia, the building of fortresses there and the transport of soldiers took place by boat beyond the third cataract and even as far as Kurgus.
Boats in ritual use
Religious practices related to boats go back to prehistoric times. Boats are mentioned in the Book of the Dead and played a role in many festivals and rituals. Statues of gods were shown to the people at festivals in gods barges and transported on god ships on the waterway. The Egyptians saw life and death as an everlasting cycle. The sun god Re , who sailed the "heavenly Nile" during the day, was swallowed "on the western horizon" by the sky goddess Nut in the evening and drove through the underworld standing on his barque from west to east, to after 12 hours "on the eastern horizon" to appear again.
It was the dream of all Egyptians to take a trip on the Nile after death to the holy sites of Busiris and Abydos , which were traditionally associated with the birth and death of Osiris , before heading east to the necropolises west of the Nile West (from the living to the dead) crossed. Wealthy Egyptians were given boats as grave goods to carry the deceased across the watercourses of the underworld.
At anniversary celebrations in connection with festivals z. For example , during the Opet Festival, the statues of gods were transported across the Nile on sacred boats from Karnak to Luxor. The from Amenhotep III. The ports on the east and west banks built on the occasion of his Sedfest and the barges between them during the day and night symbolized the course of the sun god Re. The military has played a role in these religious festivities since the Old Kingdom. It manned the boats and has, if necessary, against the current towed .
See also
literature
(sorted chronologically)
German:
- Björn Landström : The ships of the pharaohs. Ancient Egyptian shipbuilding from 4000 to 600 BC Chr. Bertelsmann, Munich / Gütersloh / Vienna 1974th
- Colin Thubron: The ancient seafarers . Bechtermünz, Eltville am Rhein 1992, ISBN 3-86047-031-0 .
- Ronald Bockius: Shipping and shipbuilding in antiquity . Theiss, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-8062-1971-5 .
English:
- Ian Shaw: Egyptian Warfare and Weapons . Shire Publications, Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire (UK) 1991, ISBN 0-7478-0142-8 .
- Mark Healy: New Kingdom Egypt . Osprey, London 1992, ISBN 978-1-85532-208-0 ( online restricted version ).
- Steve Vinson: Egyptian Boats and Ships . Shire Publications, Princes Risborough (Buckinghamshire, UK) 1994, ISBN 0-7478-0222-X ( online restricted version ).
- Lionel Casson : Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World . Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (Maryland) 1995, ISBN 0-8018-5130-0 ( online restricted version ).
- Dilwyn Jones: Boats . The Trustees of the British Museum, London 1995, ISBN 0-7141-0975-4 ( limited online version ).
- Robert B. Partridge: Fighting Pharaohs . Peartree Publications, Manchester 2002, ISBN 0-9543497-2-5 .
- Anthony John Spalinger: War in ancient Egypt: the New Kingdom. Blackwell Publications, Malden (MA) 2005, ISBN 9781405113717 .
- John Coleman Darnell, Colleen Manassa: Tutankhamun's armies: battle and conquest during ancient Egypt's late eighteenth dynasty. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken / New Jersey 2007, ISBN 978-0-471-74358-3 ( restricted online version ).
- Nic Fields: Soldier of the Pharaoh. Middle Kingdom Egypt 2055-1650 BC. Osprey Publications, Oxford (OX) / New York (NY) 2007, ISBN 978-1-84603-106-9 ( Restricted online version ).
Web links
- Ancient Egyptian Boatbuilding (English)
- reshafim: Ships and Boats (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ External photo ( Memento from January 1, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (Binsenboot)
- ↑ External photo ( memento from January 1, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (hull)
- ↑ External photo ( memento from January 1, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (ship models over time 2)
- ↑ Burial chamber of an unknown person (TT261)
- ↑ External photo (heavy load transport)
- ↑ External photo ( memento from January 1, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (hieroglyphs for north and south)