Sweden (people)

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Mother Svea is considered to be the national personification of Sweden

The Swedes are a Germanic people in Scandinavia . They are the titular nation of the Kingdom of Sweden and a recognized minority in Finland ( Finland-Swedes with autonomy on the Åland Islands). The citizens of Sweden also include five recognized ethnic minorities: Finns ( Swedish Finns ), Tornedal , Roma ( Resandefolket ), Jews and Lapps ( Sami ), who were formerly subject to a strict policy of assimilation but have enjoyed cultural autonomy since 1993.

language

Spread of Swedish dialects in Sweden and Finland

The Swedish language belongs to the eastern branch of the North Germanic languages . It broke away from the other Scandinavian ( North Germanic ) and Old Norse ( East Norse ) languages between the 10th and 14th centuries . Political and social reasons were decisive for this, especially the demarcation from Danish .

Standard Swedish ( Imperial Swedish ), which is based on the Central Swedish and the Östergötland dialect, emerged by the middle of the 16th century . There are also five regional dialects (including the Eastern Swedish spoken in Finland).

Gotlandic

Gotlandic , which was once associated with the dialect in Östergotland, has only survived on the island of Gotland and differs most clearly from the other dialects, so that it is sometimes viewed as a separate language.

Scary

A subgroup of Swedes with a strong identity of their own (sometimes they see themselves as a people of their own) are the Scania at the southern tip of Sweden, in the province of the same name (Swedish: Skåne ). Because of its special historical, cultural and linguistic role, Skåne is sometimes referred to as "Sweden's Basque Country". Its inhabitants speak Scandinavian , a dialect that has long been in mutual influence with Danish . The classification of the Skåne language, which is closely related to the East Danish dialect, as a South Swedish dialect is more politically than scientifically justified. However, one can view Scandinavian as a mixed language or transitional language.

Jämtland

The Jämtland language in Jämtland, which is related to the northern Norwegian (Trondheim) dialect, represents a transitional form or a historical mixed language with the (western Nordic) Norwegian - not to be confused with modern Svorsk .

History of Sweden

Areas of the Svear (yellow) and Gauten (blue) in the 12th century

To what extent the medieval Swedish peoples of the Svear and Gauten are related to the Suionen and Sithons of the 1st century mentioned in Tacitus ' Germania or the Goths of the Great Migration is controversial. Nevertheless, the alleged descent from or relationship with the Goths was popular in the Swedish national consciousness from the 17th to the 20th century (Gothicism).

mythology

Mythical progenitor of Sweden and the royal family of the Yngling to Odin's son Yngvi have been. Yngvis brothers Skjöld and Sæming (Säming) are said to have become the ancestors of the Danes and Norwegians respectively . According to Danish tradition, the Ynglinger king of Uppsala had three sons named Dan , Nor (i) and Østen , who became the progenitors of the Danes, Norwegians and Swedes. According to old Norwegian-Icelandic legends, the progenitor of the Norwegian branch of the Ynglinger kings was a Ynglinger prince who was expelled from / fled from Uppsala, and the Roman-Gothic chronicler Jordanes also considered the people of the Danes to be a sub-tribe of the Swedes.

Ethnogenesis

Around the 6th century AD, several North Germanic tribes in Scandinavia united to form larger tribal units for the first time and pushed the pre-population that had previously immigrated from northeast Europe and consisted of Finnish peoples (Sami / Lapps, Finns) further north. The Svear residing on Lake Mälaren or in Svealand (central Sweden) and the Gauten residing in Götaland ( Västergötland , Östergötland and Småland ) played the most important role in the emergence of the Swedish people . The North Germanic tribes had a common political and cultural center in Old Uppsala .

At the beginning of the 7th century the Svear von Uppsala (supposedly under the leadership of King Ingjald ) succeeded in subjugating the Gauten, the political and economic center shifted from Uppsala to Birka . The amalgamation of the two peoples only began in the 8th and 9th centuries and dragged on at least into the 10th century because of the ongoing fighting between the early Christianized Gauten and the Svear who had long adhered to their old Nordic religion. There was no mixing with Finnish peoples. The unification of Sweden and thus the formation of a state in the current sense only came about between 995 and 1060 under King Erik VIII and his son Olof Skötkonung , and it went hand in hand with the Christianization of Sweden . The new center of Sweden was initially the Christian Sigtuna , then Stockholm from the second half of the 13th century .

In the course of political differentiation, independence and mutual demarcation of the three Nordic peoples from one another, between the 11th and 16th centuries the nation of Swedes, different from Danes and Norwegians, finally emerged. The stronghold of the anti-Danish national movement in Sweden was the rural region of Dalarna . For the consolidation of the nation, the distinction, completed in the 15th and 16th centuries, of the predominantly rural Swedish folk culture led by the rural nobility from the prodan bourgeoisie and civil servants of the coastal cities was decisive.

Varangians and Crusaders

The defeat on the Neva by the Novgorodians under Alexander Nevsky put an end to expansion into the former Varangian territories. Swedes and Russians had long since become different nations.

While the two Swedish peoples, the Svear and Gauten, were still fighting for the barren habitat, for imperial unity and Christianization at home, the first Swedish emigrants, seaworthy traders and warriors eager for prey settled on the opposite shores of the Baltic Sea. The first Scandinavian and Swedish settlements emerged from the 7th century in the Latvian Grobiņa (Seeburg), in Courland, Livonia, Estonia and Finland. The Swedish Vikings , known as Varangians , settled from the 8th century, especially in the area of Old Ladoga and Holmgard (Novgorod), and in the 9th century, under Rurik, they extended their rule over the Novgorod Rus . Although Rurik's followers Askold and Dir played an important role in the development of the Kievan Rus , the Scandinavian warriors and traders were absorbed or assimilated into the Slavic (Russian) majority population in the 10th and 11th centuries. However, a king named Anund Gårdske , who ruled over Sweden and who came (back) from Old Ladoga and was already (Orthodox?) Christianized, is still recorded in the 1070s . Ultimately, the different Christianizations (Sweden Catholic, the Kievan Rus Orthodox) and the church schism of 1054 sealed the mutually different development of Swedes and Varangians who had become Russian.

Eastern journeys and settlements cannot always be assigned exclusively to Swedish Vikings or Varangians; Danes and Norwegians were also involved in some cases. In Western Europe, on the other hand, all Danish, Norwegian and Swedish Vikings were temporarily summarized as Danes or Normans . It was actually Swedish Vikings who ruled the Danish Haithabu (Hedeby) in the 9th and 10th centuries . Most of the first Scandinavian settlers in Holderness (Yorkshire), England, are said to have been Swedes from Uppland, and Rollos Normans, who settled in Normandy in the 10th century , are not exclusively Danes and Norwegians, but also (from the Danes from Skåne displaced) Swedes.

A permanent settlement of Finland came about only with the Swedish Crusades in the middle of the 12th century, during this time the Swedish city of Åbo, today's Turku , emerged in Finland . After the defeat on the Neva (1240), the Swedish expansion towards the founding of the once Warsaw city of Novgorod came to an end, but a Novgorod counterattack on Åbo was repelled. At the end of the 13th century, the conquest of Finland was completed with the establishment of Vyborg , but the fortresses Nöteborg and Landskrona , which were built at the same time on the Neva, were destroyed by the Novgorodians in 1301. Only after the Reformation, the collapse of the Teutonic Order (1561) and the fall of the Russian Rurikids , the Swedes were able to take control of Livonia and Estonia again, in 1617 also Ingria and finally Rigas in 1621. (In 1610 they were even able to occupy Novgorod, but had to surrender it again in 1617.)

Nation state and nationalism

In the Battle of Brunkeberg (1471), anti-Danish Swedes asserted themselves against unionist Danes and Pro-Danish Swedes. The battle later became a national myth.

The Swedish nation-state, which emerged primarily in the struggle against the Danes, developed in the 17th century into a major European power and dominant power in the Baltic Sea region, which encompassed the regions of southern Sweden, which had been Danish-ruled for centuries ( Skåneland : Schonen, Halland, Blekinge) and some Norwegian border areas (Jämtland , Härjedalen, Bohuslän). After the suppression of the Prodan uprisings, Skåne's population was expropriated and driven out; Swedish officer families were settled and the region was sustainably Swedishized. During this Swedish “great power era”, the Gothicism (large Gothic universalism, Swedish Göticism ) propagated primarily by Olaus Magnus , Johannes Bureus and Olof Rudbeck reached a climax under Gustav Adolf . However, the era of great power came to an end at the beginning of the 18th century, and rule of the Baltic Sea was lost in the Great Northern War . Estonia, Riga and Ingermanland fell to Russia; as a result of further wars, Finland and the Åland Islands were finally lost in 1809. The personal union with Sweden imposed on the Norwegians in 1814 was rejected by the Norwegians and finally broke up in 1905. Since then, the Swedish nation has been restricted to “real Sweden” (Egentliga Sverige) .

  • National hero Engelbrekt († 1436) is considered the father of the Swedish national feeling

  • Imperial Regent Charles VIII († 1470) founded the Swedish "hatred of the Danes"

  • King Gustav Adolf († 1632) became a model for religious nationalism

  • Rudolf Kjellén († 1922) represented an “integral” conservative nationalism

In the middle of the 19th century, national liberal (pan) Scandinavianism (mainly originating from Denmark) replaced the traditionally anti- Danish, nostalgic, religious and Gothicist Swedish nationalism. Using the Pan-Scandinavian ideology to maintain supremacy over Norway, however, had failed. Above all, however, Swedish Pan-Scandinavianism was anti-Russian and contributed to a traditional Russophobia that persisted into the 20th century . With the end of the Union, the First World War and the revolutionary post-war crisis, Rudolf Kjellén's conservative Volksheim concept ( Folkhemmet ) spread at the beginning of the 20th century , which was interpreted and further developed in different ways by Swedish national religious , social democrats and national socialists.

The national religious interpretation saw the Swedes as a chosen “people of God” and was anti-Polish (anti-Catholic) and anti-Russian (anti-orthodox, anti-communist). The social democratic interpretation aimed at a multiethnic welfare state , encouraged immigration and was the predominant state doctrine from around the 1930s to the 1990s. In contrast, the right-wing nationalist view is extremely xenophobic. She claims that the southern Swedish Skåneland (or Västergötland , cf. Götaland theory ) was the actual original home of the Teutons (and Celts), and overemphasizes the fact that the Swedes have never been subjugated or culturally "foreign" by foreign peoples never mixed with other peoples - despite the Danish rule, a certain mixture with the Baltic nobility and French, Dutch and German cultural influences. This nationalist xenophobia is rumored above all by the right-wing populist Sweden Democrats (and the National Democrats ); it has its strongholds in densely populated Skåne and some suburbs of Stockholm.

religion

The first attempts at Christianizing Sweden had already taken place in the 9th century. King Björn von Birka had asked the Frankish emperor for missionaries, but the missionary efforts of Saint Ansgar († 865), Rimberts († 888) and Bishop Unni († 936) initially remained unsuccessful; Most Swedes held onto their old Germanic belief in gods longer than Danes or Norwegians. The Kiev Varangians Askold and Dir are said to have returned baptized from a (first) attack on Constantinople sometime between 860 and 867 , in 988 (Orthodox) Christianity was introduced in Kievan Rus. While the Swedish Vikings in Haithabu were converted as early as 950, (Catholic) Christianity in Sweden began its gradual triumphant advance only with the baptism of Olof III. in 1002 or 1008 by Saint Siegfried . Nevertheless, only Västergötland was Christianized around 1014 , fighting between predominantly Christian Gauten (in Västergötland and Östergötland) and predominantly non-Christian Svear (in Svealand ) continued. King Inge I had the pagan temple of Uppsala destroyed around 1087 , but only under Sverker I , who had a church built over the ruins of the former temple in 1133, or under Erik the Holy , who even tried to do so in 1154/55 Spreading Christianity with a crusade from Sweden to Finland, the new belief prevailed. Erik's successor, Charles VII , obtained a Swedish church independent of the Danish Archdiocese of Lund in 1164 with the establishment of the Archdiocese of Uppsala , even though the dynastic battles between Gauten and Svear continued until around 1250. The church-friendly victor in these battles, King Birger Jarl († 1266), undertook further, more sustainable crusades against Finland. Birgitta of Sweden and Katharina of Sweden , who worked in the 14th century , were later canonized as well, and Birgitta was even included in the ranks of European patrons .

Despite about 1000 years of Christianization, Swedish folk culture has pre-Christian traditions such as the midsummer festival at the summer solstice, the Yule festival at the winter solstice and the belief in trolls, demons etc. to this day.

  • The Christianization of the Danes and Swedes began in 829 with Saint Ansgar

  • Olof III. († 1022) was the first Christian king of Sweden and the first unifier

  • As the Swedish patron saint, Erik IX. († 1160) immortalized in the Stockholm coat of arms

  • Gustav I. Wasa separated the Swedes from the Danes and introduced the Reformation in 1527

During the Danish-Swedish War (1501–1512) the Pope banned the Bishop of Linköping, the Swedish imperial administrator and all those imperial councils who had risen against the Danish Union King . Sweden's Catholic clergy around Archbishop Gustav Trolle had supported the Danish Union King until the end. Gustav I. Wasa was banned by the Pope for Trolle's removal . The introduction of the Reformation through the work of Olaus Petri gave the Swedish national kingdom, which was finally independent from 1523, the chance to emphasize the difference between the Swedes and the initially Catholic Danes. The first Swedish translation of the Bible, the Gustav Wasa Bible , codified the Swedish written language. But the Danes also converted to the Lutheran faith in 1536 at the latest, while the Swedish peasants, who were initially also Catholic , resisted the effects of the Reformation in the Dacke uprising until 1543. Under Johann III. , but especially under his son Sigismund III. Sweden was threatened with re-Catholicization , as Sigismund had changed back to the Catholic faith in 1587 in order to be able to become King of Poland. Sigismund was finally in 1599 by Charles IX. deposed and the Wasa dynasty split, leading to long-term wars with Poland. From then on, Sweden's king had to be a Lutheran and assert himself against the Polish Wasa. Karl's son Gustav Adolf defeated the Poles as well as the Orthodox Russians and, in his religious sense of mission, felt called to intervene on behalf of the Protestant imperial princes in the German Empire, where he fell during the Thirty Years' War . His daughter Christina of all people abdicated as queen in 1654 in order to be able to become Catholic again, but with new victories of her successor Karl X. Gustav over Poland and the end of the Polish Wasa (1668), the Lutheran faith in Sweden was finally secured. A religious sense of mission based on Gustav Adolf and national self-overestimation also tempted Charles XII. to fight German Catholics and Orthodox Russians simultaneously in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) without continuing the traditional alliance with Catholic France. The war ended with enormous losses, devastation of large parts of Sweden, the death of the king and finally the abandonment of traditional Scandinavian areas in Estonia.

  • With Sigismunds III. Fall failed in 1599, the re-Catholicization and the personal union with Poland

  • Charles IX († 1611) toppled Sigismund and secured Sweden's Lutheran orientation

  • Christina , Gustav Adolf's daughter, abdicated in 1654 and converted to Catholicism

  • Bernadotte converted to Lutheranism in 1810 in order to become king

Today, between 68 and 90 percent of Sweden's population are said to belong to the Evangelical Lutheran denomination, but barely 5 percent of all Swedes go to church regularly. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden enjoys a privileged position in the Swedish constitution, which is similar to that of a state church . Religious freedom has only been anchored in law since 1951, until then government members had to be in the Lutheran state church. During a crisis in November 1983, the state church threatened to split briefly when numerous pastors and lay people wanted to form their own synod in protest against the growing politicization of the church. The Evangelical Lutheran Church has not officially been a state church since 2000, but the royal head of state, like the heir to the throne, must still be Lutheran.

Sweden outside of Sweden

Of the nine million inhabitants of the Kingdom of Sweden, between 86 and 90 percent are ethnic Swedes, the rest are Sami, Finns and citizens with a migration background . Numerous Swedes and descendants of Swedish-born settlers or emigrants also live in the neighboring northern European states and the Baltic states, but also in Spain and especially in the United States and Canada.

Finland Sweden

In Finland there are the nearly 300,000 Finland Sweden a Swedish-speaking part of the population, which makes up at least 5.6% of the total population. Occasionally, a distinction is made between the Finland-Swedes on the mainland ("Finnländer") and those of the Åland Islands ("Äländer"): the former settled between the Finnish indigenous population only from the 12th century, while the latter already uninhabited in the 7th century Colonized islands.

The vast majority of Finnish Swedes, however, do not consider themselves to be part of the Swedish people or culture. In 2005, Svenska Finlands folkting , the official interest group of the Finland-Swedes, initiated an investigation into the identity of the Finnish-Swedes. 82% of the respondents said that being Finnish-Swedish means “belonging to their own culture, but also being Finnish among all other Finns”. Sweden and the Swedish culture found 59% of the respondents as "interesting but remote", another 9% as "completely uninteresting".

This distancing has historical causes. During the Great Northern War , which was catastrophic for all of Sweden, Finland in particular suffered destruction, population losses, Russian occupation, and devastation of both the coastal regions and the interior from 1700 to 1721, and the same had happened in 1741–1743 and 1788–1790 . The Finnish-Swedish nobility, fearing for their livelihoods, therefore increasingly opposed an anti-Russian orientation in Swedish politics and popular opinion in Sweden. The Finnish-Swedish Anjalabund even tried in 1788, King Gustav III. overthrow and / or detach Finland from Sweden with Russian help. After all of Finland had finally fallen to Russia as a result of another Russian-Swedish war in 1809, the Finnish-Swedish upper class came to terms with the new Russian rule. After Finland gained independence from Russia (1917), the Finnish Swedes were protected as a national minority and were given very extensive autonomy on the Åland Islands. Pro-Swedish nationalists therefore complain that the Åland Swedes show no ambition to give up their regional autonomy and their privileges within Finland in favor of joining a central Swedish nation-state.

Estonia Sweden

A Scandinavian minority had lived on the Estonian west coast and on the Estonian Baltic Sea islands of Dagö and Ösel since the 13th century at the latest, most of which were resettled to Sweden in 1943/44. In a census in 1989 in Estonia, just under 300 Swedes were counted. Despite the small number, the Swedish heritage in Estonia has been nurtured again since the 1990s through museums and bilingual place name signs. The Estonian Swedes speak a peculiar variant of the East Swedish dialect, Estonian Swedish .

As early as 1781/82, a number of Estonian-Swedish families had emigrated from Dagö to the Ukraine to avoid the threat of serfdom in Russia. There they founded the town of Gammalsvenskby ( German  Altschwedendorf ). After the Russian Revolution , most of the Swedes moved from Gammalsvenskby to Sweden. As a result, many moved on to Canada, and individual families returned to Ukraine. Today 150-200 people of Swedish origin still live in Gammalsvenskby.

Sweden in Norway

Monument to Nils Göbel in Torrevieja : As the Swedish consul in Spain, from 1963 he promoted the settlement of Swedes and Norwegians on the Costa Blanca
Swedish shop in Torrevieja's neighboring town of Guardamar del Segura

After Finland, neighboring Norway is the northern European country with the second largest Swedish community outside of Sweden. The Swedes in Norway are both descendants of Swedish settlers and colonists from the times of earlier Swedish-Norwegian personal unions (most recently 1814 to 1905) and Swedish citizens who have recently settled in whole or in part in Norway. The former have Norwegian citizenship and are therefore usually not recorded separately, the latter make up the majority of the four percent of foreigners who immigrated from EU countries. Their number is up to 30,000.

Swedish seniors in Spain

There are also significant communities of Scandinavian and Swedish citizens in Spain. According to the Swedish Embassy in Spain, up to 90,000 Swedes are said to live in the southern European country. They are concentrated in the province of Alicante on the Mediterranean coast ( Costa Blanca ), especially in the coastal town of Torrevieja , where there is even a Swedish church. The Swedish residents living on the Costa Blanca are mostly retirees. While their number in the province of Alicante was only 5,443 in 1999, it rose to 6,483 by 2011. At the beginning of 2012 there were 3107 Sweden in Torrevieja alone, at the beginning of 2014 there were already 3206. The re-taken up by some Scandinavian immigrants in Spain Gothicism but angered many Spaniards.

Swedish people in the USA

Ironically, in Minnesota, where most of the Scandinavian people live, the Kensington runestone was found, which should prove an earlier Swedish presence in North America as early as the 14th century. The stone is considered a fake.

As early as the middle of the 17th century, Sweden had briefly established colonies in North America ( New Sweden ). But since these were quickly lost again, there was no sustainable or significant settlement of colonists. In 1790, only around 20,000 Swedes lived in the United States. Americans of Swedish descent today are primarily descendants of Swedish emigrants of the 19th and 20th centuries. (As in the 17th century, the majority of Swedish emigrants in the 19th century are said to have had Finnish roots.) The high point of emigration was the 1880s with around 347,000 emigrants; in the record years of 1882 and 1887 alone, 50,000 resp. almost 47,000 Swedes make their country. By 1920 there were already over 1 million, by 1930 around 1.2 million, and by 1940 1.325 million Swedes had emigrated to the USA. In contrast to the quickly assimilated German-Americans, the Swedish-Americans have often retained family ties in their old homeland. This made it easier for people to return home, which had predominated since the Great Depression in 1929.

Within a century (between 1820 and 1929) over 20 percent of all Swedes immigrated to the United States. A total of around 1.395 million Swedes immigrated to the USA between 1820 and 1993 (plus 755,000 Norwegians who were recorded together with the Swedes from 1820–1868; and 350,000 emigrants from Finland, among whom the proportion of Finland-Swedes was not recorded).

The second generation of these immigrant descendants initially married mostly within the Swedish or Scandinavian minority, but also members of the descendants of immigrant Germans. The third generation of descendants also began to intermingle with Anglo-Saxon Protestant Americans and other Protestant minorities of European descent. This resulted in a population of around 4.68 million in 1990 and around 4.089 million in 2010 of Swedish descent (compared to 4.3 million Americans of Norwegian descent), most of whom lived in the US state of Minnesota (wherever most of the people of Norwegian descent live) - mainly in Minneapolis - Illinois ( Chicago ), Wisconsin and California . But only 131,000 of all Scandinavian descendants speak one of the Scandinavian languages ​​as their mother tongue. The trend is declining: in 2007 there were still almost 135,000 speakers of Scandinavian languages ​​(out of 4.34 million people of Swedish origin and 4.66 million people of Norwegian origin); in 1990, out of 4.68 million Americans of Swedish origin, 77,511 spoke Swedish and in 1980 even more 100,886 (compared to 80,723 and 113,227 who spoke Norwegian at the time).

In 2006 there were more than 28,000 Swedes and a further 306,000 Swedish people in Canada.

See also

Portal: Sweden  - Overview of Wikipedia content on Sweden

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Radio Sweden: Ethnic Minorities in Sweden
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Willi Stegner (Hrsg.): Pocket atlas peoples and languages. Klett-Perthes, Gotha / Stuttgart 2006, pp. 38–41.
  3. ↑ a b Meyers Encyclopedia , Fourteenth band. 3rd edition, Leipzig 1878, p. 476f. (Swedish language).
  4. ↑ a b c d Detlev Wahl: Lexicon of the peoples of Europe and the Caucasus. Meridian-Verlag, Rostock 1999, p. 173ff.
  5. ↑ James William Barnes Steveni : Unknown Sweden. London / Southampton 1925, pp. 36, 72.
  6. ^ A b c Meyers Konversations-Lexikon , fourteenth volume. 3rd edition, Leipzig 1878, p. 461f. (Sweden, history).
  7. ↑ Diercke country dictionary. Augsburg 1989, ISBN 3-89350-211-4 .
  8. ↑ While the free peasants formed the third estate in the Swedish Estates Assembly (Markov / Anderle / Werner / Wurche, p. 224f.), It was the bourgeoisie in the Danish Estates Assembly from 1468 (Bohn, p. 42).
  9. ^ Walter Markov , Alfred Anderle, Ernst Werner , Herbert Wurche: Kleine Enzyklopädie Weltgeschichte , Volume 2. Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig 1979, p. 224f.
  10. ^ Robert Bohn: Dänische Geschichte CH Beck, Munich 2001, pp. 15, 36, 39f., 42f., 45f., 48.
  11. ↑ a b Willy Andreas (Ed.): The New Propylaea World History , 3rd volume. Propylaen-Verlag, Berlin 1940, pp. 293-301.
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  36. ↑ Identitet och framtid - Folktingets undersökning om finlandsvenskarnas identitet / Suomenruotsalainen identiteetti - Folktingetin kyselytutkimus (PDF, 925 kB, Swedish, Finnish). Pp. 23/53, 33/63. Accessed April 6, 2007.
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  38. ↑ Michael Braga: Peoples for Freedom - From the struggle of European ethnic groups for self-determination. Arndt-Verlag, Kiel 1982, p. 19f.
  39. ^ Estonian Institute: Estonian Swedes ( Memento of July 22, 2012 in the Internet Archive ); Estonian Swedes. In: StMikael.ee (English); Sigrid Rausing: Minority report: the plight of Estonia's ethnic Swedes. In: New Statesman , December 19, 2014.
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  41. ^ Andreas Huber: Age migration from Switzerland to Spain using the example of the Costa Blanca. Seismo-Verlag, Zurich 2002, p. 108.
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  51. ↑ arte tv: Verschollene Filmschätze - 1903, Ellis Island, NY ( Memento of the original from May 20, 2018 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.arte.tv
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  54. ↑ Otto Johnson: Information please! Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook 1995. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston / New York 1995, p. 834.
  55. ^ Sarah Janssen: The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2012. World Almanac Books, New York / Crawfordsville 2012, pp. 615, 620.
  56. ^ Sarah Janssen: The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2009. World Almanac Books, New York / Crawfordsville 2008, pp. 596, 601.
  57. ↑ Otto Johnson: Information please! Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook 1995. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston / New York 1995, pp. 834f.
  58. ^ Statistics Canada: Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada