Titan (ICBM)

The Titan I and Titan II were intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) of the USA and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) . The Titan I (SM-68; HGM-25A) stationed from 1962 to 1965 was the USA's first true two-stage large rocket. The Titan II (SM-68B, LGM-25C) stationed from 1963 to 1987 was the heaviest ICBM ever put into service by the USA and the last to use liquid propellants. Retired Titan II rockets were used as launch vehicles for satellites and space probes between 1988 and 2003 .

The Titan rocket family at a glance: the two ICBMs on the left , the launch vehicles on the right

Start of development

A Titan I takes off on a test flight from Cape Canaveral, Florida

In July 1954, a US Air Force (USAF) advisory committee suggested starting a second ICBM program in parallel with Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation's Atlas program . This new program should be an alternative design to the Atlas rocket and be a true two-stage rocket. Advances in rocket technology made a real two-stage rocket technically feasible at the time, and such a design was expected to offer advantages in terms of payload and range. Furthermore, such a rocket could be transported disassembled into its two stages, which had advantages in terms of stationing with regard to the road network in the USA. In April 1955 the project was approved by the USAF, with the condition that the production site had to be in the interior of the USA in order to prevent further concentration of arms factories near the coast. The USAF's tender called for a missile that could carry a thermonuclear warhead with a weight of around 1.5 tons over 9,000 km and has a scattering circle radius of less than nine kilometers. Furthermore, the rocket should have the shortest possible response time. Three companies took part in the tender: Douglas Aircraft , Martin Company and Lockheed Aircraft . The Martin Company won the contract and on October 27, 1955, the contract to develop, build and test a two-stage rocket known as the XSM-68 was signed. Furthermore, the Martin Company should draft a program for the complete development of the WS 107-A2 Titan weapon system. On March 6, 1956, the foundation stone for the new Martin Company plant in Littleton, Colorado was laid. The engines for the Titan I were developed by Aerojet . The radio-inertial control system first intended for the Atlas missile was developed by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Towards the end of 1962, however, the rocket received an inertial control system again from AC Spark Plug , a division of General Motors . The re-entry head was developed by AVCO . The first Titan missile was adopted by the USAF on June 8, 1958.

Test program of the Titan I

The Titan I was manufactured in eight production lots, the first seven lots being different development variants and the eighth lot being the operational missiles.

• Lot A - only active first stage, second stage without engines and with water filling
• Lot B - specimens for testing the stage separation, only brief ignition of the second stage
• Lot C - both levels active, limited range
• Lot G - both levels active, increased range
• Lot J - prototypes of operational missiles
• Lot M - models for testing the inertial control system of the Titan II
• Lot V - special models for OSTF / SLTF tests
• Lot SM - operational missiles

A total of 163 rockets were produced, of which 62 were for the test program and 101 were operational rockets SM-68A Titan I. The rockets in the first batch had a fully functional first stage and a second stage dummy. The Martin Company and the 6555th Test Wing of the USAF were responsible for the test flight program at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . The tests of Cape Canaveral on the American east coast served to gain the first experience with the new missile system, its precise flight characteristics and handling on the ground. Ramps 15 , 16 , 19 and 20 were used . The first take-off took place on February 6, 1959 from ramp 15 and was successful, as were the next three flights with a passive second stage. On August 14, 1959, the first attempt at a test start with ignition of the second stage failed. On February 2, 1960, the first flight with ignition of the second stage succeeded. On August 10, 1960, a Titan I flew for the first time over a distance of 5000 nm (9260 km).

Vandenberg AFB in California was planned for the operational flight tests . Since 1958 the Operational Suitability Test Facility (OSTF) has been worked on there. This facility should provide the first experience with the handling of titanium missiles in their silos and the launch from them. The OSTF did not yet correspond to the planned silo configuration for the stationing locations, but it was very similar. After refueling the rocket in the silo, a large hydraulic elevator was supposed to lift the rocket out of its silo and then fire it. During a refueling test on December 3, 1960, the rocket was driven out of the silo and was then supposed to be lowered again. The hydraulic lift failed and the rocket sagged uncontrollably in the silo when fully fueled. The system was completely destroyed in the subsequent explosion. A reconstruction was not done. On May 3, 1961, the first launch of a Vandenberg Titan I took place from the Silo Launch Test Facility (SLTF). A rocket specially modified for this launch, unlike the later operational Titan I, was launched in the silo. This test formed the basis for the later stationing concept of the Titan II and remained the only in-silo launch of a Titan I. On September 23, 1961, the first launch of a Titan I from the now completed Titan I Training Facility (TF-1; Start complex 395-A1; -A2; A3 ) in Vandenberg, which corresponded to the operational silos. On January 29, 1962, the test flight program of the Titan I ended on the Cape Canaveral AFS in Florida. After that, only operational tests were carried out by Vandenberg AFB, which ended with the end of the Titan-I program in 1965. There were a total of 47 Titan I development flights, of which 32 were successful, ten were partially successful and five were failures.

Stationing of the Titan I

Titan-I missiles were stationed in missile complexes, three of which each formed a Strategic Missile Squadron (SMS). The USAF initially asked for eleven SMS, in the meantime even a deletion except for one SMS or the complete deletion of the program because of its high costs was under discussion. Eventually 54 missiles were deployed in six SMS. The locations for Titan-I missiles were Lowry AFB (2 SMS), Mountain Home AFB , Beale AFB , Larson AFB, and Ellsworth AFB . The silo systems at Vandenberg AFB could also be put into an alarm state, but with the exception of a short period during the Cuban Missile Crisis, they were only used for training purposes.

The completely underground rocket complexes consisted of three silos, a launch control center and an engine house, which were connected to each other via tunnels. The plants had their own energy and water supply. The minimum distance between two silo complexes was around 32 km. The silos were designed to withstand overpressure from a near nuclear weapon explosion of up to 700 kPa (100 psi).

For a launch, the rocket had to be refueled with liquid oxygen in the silo. Then two gates, each weighing 125 t, opened over the silo and the rocket was lifted to the surface. At the same time, radar and antenna systems, also protected by concrete covers, were deployed, which were used for radio-inertial control of the rocket. The entire take-off procedure, from giving the take-off command to taking off from the surface, took around 15 to 20 minutes.

The first Titan I went into alarm on April 18, 1962 at Beale AFB. In May 1963, the USAF accepted the recommendation to retire all Titan I and Atlas missiles between 1965 and 1968. In November 1964, US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announced the retirement of all Atlas and Titan-I missiles by June 1965. The last Titan I was decommissioned in April 1965. In contrast to the retired Titan II and Atlas rockets, no Titan I were converted into satellite carriers, all rockets were scrapped or museums were given. The Titan I was meanwhile under discussion for the suborbital test program of the Dyna-Soar program of the USAF, but it was not implemented.

Development of the Titan II

A Titan II takes off from a silo at Vandenberg AFB, California

In July 1958, the USAF investigated possible changes in the Titan-I program. Both the high cost and the fast response time posed a problem for the USAF, and recommendations were made to simplify and thereby reduce the cost of the Titan program. The rocket was to be converted for in-silo launches, to have an inertial control system, to use storable fuels and to introduce a 1 × 9 stationing concept (nine individual silos in one SMS). In April 1960, the first development plan was published, which included the Titan II. The new rocket should be far less complex to handle, develop more thrust, have an enlarged second stage and an increased payload and range. With the warhead of the Titan I, the missile should have a range of around 15,000 km and with a larger warhead to be developed in-house, a range of around 10,000 km. The development of new engines for the Titan II began parallel to the engine development for the Titan I at Aerojet. The development of the in-silo launch concept began in 1959. The USAF relied on the experience of the British Royal Air Force , which had developed this concept for its medium-range missile Blue Streak . The Titan I launch from the SLTF in May 1961 demonstrated the suitability of the concept for the Titan II, which is currently in development.

The test flight program during the development of the Titan II was carried out from normal launch ramps from Cape Canaveral AFB in Florida (23 launches) and silos on Vandenberg AFB (nine launches) between 1962 and 1964. The development models were designated as the N series, the later operational missiles as the B series. For the test flights, ramps 15 and 16 in Florida were converted from the Titan I to the Titan II. On March 16, 1962, the first Titan II took off from Florida. In contrast to the test program of the Titan I, both levels of the Titan II were functional from the start. During the test program, strong vibrations occurred in the first stage, which during a test flight on December 6, 1962 - the only flight of a Titan II with the Mk.4 warhead of the Titan I - led, among other things, to the early shutdown of the first stage. Martin-Marietta tested various solutions to reduce vibrations. Be at the test flight on November 1, 1963, the vibrations were finally to a manageable level reduced, also for use as a manned launch vehicle for the Gemini program of NASA was acceptable. Silos 395-B , 395-C and 395-D were erected at Vandenberg AFB . On April 27, 1963, the first Titan II took off from a silo at Vandenberg AFB. The missile successfully exited the silo, but a connecting cable did not come off the missile properly, causing the missile's control system to believe that it was still in the silo. The second stage of the missile fell with the warhead (without nuclear material) in the Pacific Ocean . The warhead was recovered by divers in a complex operation. The first really successful launch from a silo took place on April 27, 1963. A total of 33 rockets were built for the development program. Of these, 32 were used for test flights and one missile was used permanently at Sheppard AFB for training purposes. That missile is now in the Titan Missile Museum in Arizona.

In the first year of deployment, many missiles in their silos showed increased levels of oxidizer leaks. This was caused by microfractures, through which small amounts of oxidizer escaped and reacted with humidity in silos to form nitric acid, which accelerated corrosion. This problem was not noticed during the rocket's development program, as the rockets were not stored in their silos for a long time with fuel on board. The rockets were - if possible - repaired in the silo; if this was not possible, they were transported to the Colorado plant and repaired there.

Stationing of the Titan II

A Titan II with the Mk.6 / W-53 warhead on top in its silo

Unlike the Titan I, the Titan II was stationed in rocket complexes with one rocket each. Each complex consisted of the missile silo with the Titan II and a launch control center. The silo was protected by a 740 t concrete cover, which would be hydraulically moved to the side before take-off and released the rocket. Between the silo and the control center was the access portal to the complex with an elevator and an explosion protection structure that was supposed to protect the launch control center in the event of an explosion (on the surface or in the silo). It consisted of two locks, each with two 3-tonne hydraulically operated doors. The missile complexes were protected to an overpressure of 2100 kPa (300 psi) and were approximately 13 to 18 km apart. Each of them took about two years to build.

Teams of four soldiers were on standby for 24 hours at each complex. The crews consisted of two officers, a rocket complex technician and a rocket technician. Nine of these missile complexes formed an SMS, two of which were combined at each of the three operational bases to form a Strategic Missile Wing (SMW). The SMW were stationed at Little Rock AFB ( Arkansas ), Davis-Monthan AFB ( Arizona ) and McConnell AFB ( Kansas ), which corresponds to 54 missiles. The first Titan II was put on alarm on April 15, 1963. At the end of December 1963, all 54 missiles were in service at the three operational bases. At the time they represented about 27% of the explosive power of the American strategic nuclear arsenal. Between 1967 and 1969 two missiles were still in readiness for action in the launch complexes of Vandenberg AFB, as long as the silos were not needed for training flights.

A stationed rocket was selected at random for training flights and replaced by a stored rocket. The selected missile was transported to Vandenberg AFB. There it was installed in one of the silos there. The original warheads of the deployed missiles were used on the training flights, but without the nuclear components. During test flights with a high-altitude detonation (air burst) of the warhead, this also contained the high-explosive material that was supposed to detonate the nuclear charge. For missions with contact ignition (ground burst) a special hit set was on board to determine the exact trajectory before the impact. The start was carried out either by teams from the 395th SMS of Vandenberg AFB or by a team from the three operational SMWs. Originally, the SAC also planned to test a missile with a real warhead, comparable to the Frigate Bird test with a Polaris- A1 by the US Navy in 1962. The 1963 treaty between the USA and the USSR , which prohibits nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, but prevented this. A test flight from Davis-Monthan AFB was also canceled in 1963 due to protests by the government of the state of Arizona, the surrounding counties and Mexico . The test flights after 1969 were financed by the US Army for the development of the US missile defense except for the last flight . The ability to detect approaching warheads was checked with radar or the Titan served as a target for the Nike-Zeus missile defense system.

The service life of the Titan II program was originally designed for five years. In the end it was 24 years. On April 24, 1981, the Reagan administration announced that the Titan II would be decommissioned. At that time, 52 Titan IIs were still in service out of a total of 1052 land-based ICBMs in the United States at that time. Deactivation began in September 1982 at Davis-Monthan AFB and was completed on May 5, 1987 at Little Rock AFB. After deactivation, the missile complexes were gutted, the silo blown up and the entrances sealed and covered.

Titan II rocket stages at Davis-Monthan AFB in 2006

108 Titan II rockets were built for the operational program between June 1963 and June 1967. Between 1965 and 1976, 49 of these missiles were launched by Vandenberg AFB for training and development purposes. Two missiles were destroyed in accidents. After the Titan II was withdrawn from service, 39 missiles were stored at Davis-Monthan AFB and 14 missiles were selected for the Titan II SLV launcher program. Three more missiles were given to museums.

Titan missile technology

An Aerojet LR87-AJ3 engine of the Titan I first stage

The Titan I and II were two-stage liquid propellant rockets. The Titan I used RP-1 (a kerosene- like substance) as fuel and liquid oxygen as an oxidizer in both stages. Since the liquid oxygen has to be cooled to −183 ° C, it could not be stored permanently in the rockets. Therefore, the missiles had to be refueled before launch. In contrast to the balloon tanks of the Atlas rocket, the structure of the two stages was self-supporting. The first stage of the Titan I used a LR87-AJ3 engine with two combustion chambers developed by Aerojet. The thrust of this engine at sea level was 1,296 kN. The LR-91-AJ3 aerojet engine with a second stage combustion chamber delivered 356 kN of thrust in a vacuum. The engine of the first stage was completely regeneratively cooled, while the nozzle of the second stage engine was cooled by ablation, as the large nozzle of this engine made regenerative cooling difficult. The second stage was still equipped with two small vernier engines for course corrections after the main engine had been switched off. The Titan I was originally intended to be equipped with an inertial control system from Bosch Arma Corporation. This system was transferred to the Atlas program in March 1958 and the Titan I was equipped with the radio-inertial system from Bell Telephone Laboratories. With a radio-inertial control system, the ascent of the rocket is tracked with radar and course corrections are sent to the rocket by radio. In a completely inertial system, the rocket itself measures the acceleration in all three axes in order to calculate its course and make appropriate corrections. In early 1959, a new contract was signed with AC Spark Plug to develop an inertial control system. This system was available at the end of 1962.

Various fuel combinations were being discussed for the Titan II; finally, nitrous oxide (NTO) was used as the oxidizer and Aerozin 50 as the fuel. Aerozin 50 is a 50:50 mixture of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and hydrazine . The production methods of the Titan I were largely adopted for the structure of the first stage, but the structure was reinforced for the planned start in the silo. An LR-87-AJ5 from Aerojet, which was a further development of the Titan-I engine, was used as the engine in the first stage. The LR-87-AJ5 consisted of two combustion chambers, each with its own turbo pump set, which were installed together in a frame. The engine delivered around 50% more thrust than the engine of the Titan I. The LR-91-AJ5 was used for the second stage of the Titan II, also a further development of the Titan-I second-stage engine. The diameter of the second stage was increased to 3.05 m so that the Titan II now had a continuous diameter of the first and second stage. The first stage was lengthened and could now hold significantly more fuel, while the second stage was shorter than that of the Titan I, but could also hold more fuel due to the larger diameter. The total mass of the Titan II increased by about 50% compared to the Titan I. The Titan II got an inertial control system from AC Spark Plug. However, since it became clear in the course of the 1970s that there would soon be no more spare parts for this system, it was decided to convert the Titan II to the Universal Space Guidance System (USGS) from Delco Electronics . This system had already flown successfully several times on the Titan IIIC launcher. It was a modified variant of a control system for launch vehicles that had been used for a long time on the Boeing 707 and Boeing 747 . On June 27, 1976, a Titan II took off with the new control system from Vandenberg AFB, this was the last flight of a Titan II ICBM. Between January 1978 and June 1979 all Titan II were equipped with the new system.

Warhead

W-53 warhead without Mk6

Mushroom cloud from Test Oak during Operation Hardtack I: Testing the prototype for the W-53 warhead

The Titan I had a Mk.4 re-entry head with a thermonuclear W-38 explosive device of 3.75 MT. The re-entry head was built by AVCO, the nuclear weapon was a development of the University of California Radiation Laboratory (UCRL, later Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ). This configuration together with decoys and adapters, which was also used in the Atlas-E and -F rockets, weighed about 2 tons.

The Titan II carried a General Electric Mk.6 re-entry head with a Los Alamos Special Laboratory (LASL) W-53 explosive device. The USAF never disclosed the exact explosive power of the W-53. US Congress publications suggest an explosive power of 9 MT; a prototype of the warhead, which was detonated in the 1958 Hardtack Oak nuclear test in the Pacific, reached 8.9 MT. This made the Mk.6 / W-53 by far the most powerful warhead of all US ICBMs. The total mass including decoys and adapter was 4.19 t. The Titan II could also have carried the Mk.4A of the Titan I, which would have significantly increased its range.

The Mk.4 of the Titan I as well as the Mk.6 of the Titan II were suitable for both altitude and contact ignition. The Titan II was intended for use against large area targets in which several facilities should have been destroyed at the same time. The Titan II could not be used effectively against hardened targets such as missile silos or other bunkered systems because of its comparatively low accuracy. The reentry bodies of both the Titan I and the Titan II deployed decoys during their approach to the target in order to be able to more easily overcome an enemy missile defense system.

As early as 1960 the USAF started studies on improved re-entry heads for their missiles. The subsequently proposed MK.17 MIRV warhead for the Titan II was an enlarged variant of the Mk.12 for the later Minuteman III and would have weighed around 560 kg with an explosive force of 2 MT. The concept that was never implemented provided that each Titan II had to be equipped with six Mk.17s.

Flight profile

The Titan I was refueled with RP-1 and liquid oxygen after a start command and moved out of the silo by means of a lift. This procedure took about 15 minutes. On the surface, the engines fired, the rocket rose vertically for a few seconds and then swiveled in the direction of its target point. After 134 seconds, the first stage switched off and was thrown off. Small solid propellants then provided thrust for a short time, as the second stage engine could not be ignited in weightlessness. The burning time of the second stage was based on the exact target point. When flying over the full range, the engine fired for about 100 seconds. After the burnout, final corrections were made to the flight profile using two small venetian engines. The warhead was detached and from this point on was on a free ballistic trajectory with a peak at about 1000 km altitude. The warhead re-entered the full range after 32 minutes and impacted the ground about 50 seconds later.

The sequence of events in a Titan II flight was largely similar to that in a flight of the Titan I, even if the exact duration of the individual flight segments differed due to the different thrust, mass and fuel charge. The start sequence was different due to the storable fuel. The already fully fueled rocket was ready in the silo to initiate the start sequence. From the execution of the start sequence by the silo team until the missile ignited in the silo, 58 seconds passed. After a further 1.8 seconds, the rocket was released from the mounts in the silo and initially rose vertically for 15 seconds until the control computer made it turn towards the target. The first stage burned out after 148 seconds. In contrast to the Titan I, the second stage of the Titan II ignited while the first stage was still working in order to avoid ignition in weightlessness. The second stage worked for about 180 seconds, depending on the target point, venetian thrusters fired for final flight corrections and shortly afterwards the warhead was cut off. The orbit summit was about 1250 km for a flight over the full range. Re-entry occurred after about 35 minutes and the warhead impacted about 1 minute later.

	Titan I.				Titan II
	Time (s)	Altitude (km)	Flight distance (km)	Speed ​​(km / s)	Time (s)	Altitude (km)	Flight distance (km)	Speed ​​(km / s)
Ignition first stage	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Burnout first stage	134	63	70	2.4	148	74	74	2.5
Burnout second stage	240	270	621	6.7	328	340	691	6.6
Shut down the venetian thrusters	340	358	927	6.7	343	373	781	6.6
Summit height	1,061	973	n / a	n / a	1,165	1,247	4,861	5.5
Re-entry	1,920	90	9,720	7th	2.114	88	9,685	7th
A hit	1,970	0	9,900	0.3	2.191	0	9,903	0.2

Accidents involving Titan ICBMs

• May 24, 1962 - Beale AFB, California

That day it became clear that the fuel combination used ( kerosene and liquid oxygen) is extremely problematic for the silo operation. Workers were just about to refuel with liquid oxygen when suddenly a fire broke out and the whole missile went up in flames. 65 workers died.

• Sept. 26, 1962 - Larson AFB, Washington

During maintenance work, a retro rocket ignited the stage adapter between the first and second stages. The missile and the silo were badly damaged.

• Aug. 9, 1965 - Complex 373-4, Little Rock AFB, Arkansas

As part of the YARD FENCE project, massive improvements were made to the Titan II silos in 1965 and 1966. Civil companies carried out the work in the silos. The missile remained fueled in the silo, but without a warhead. On August 9, more than 50 civilian workers from the contracted company were at Complex 373-4 to do the work. During welding work in the silo in a difficult-to-reach place, a worker damaged a hydraulic line. This led to a severe fire in the silo, which claimed the lives of 53 workers. Only two workers managed to get out of the silo alive. This was the most serious accident in the Titan II program. The subsequent investigation revealed serious organizational and safety deficiencies in the implementation of the YARD FENCE project by SAC and the civil contractor. The rocket in the silo remained undamaged. On September 29, 1966, the silo was put back into alarm.

• Jan. 24, 1968 - Complex 373-5, Little Rock AFB, Arkansas

A soldier fell into the shaft during maintenance work in a Titan II silo and died as a result.

• Oct. 8, 1976 - Complex 374-7, Little Rock AFB, Arkansas

During cleaning work, Freon was used to remove hydraulic fluid residues on a Titan II rocket in the silo. Empty Freon containers were dropped by the workers into the flame deflector at the bottom of the silo. As a result, an oxygen-free layer formed in the flame deflector, as the remaining Freon displaced the oxygen from the containers. When two soldiers wanted to collect the containers later, they went into the oxygen-free Freon atmosphere and died a short time later.

• Aug. 24, 1978 - Complex 533-7, McConnell AFB, Kansas

After an intensive review of the Titan II of silo 533-7 as part of the Reliability and Aging Surveillance Program (RASP - Reliability and Aging Monitoring Program), it was refueled with fuel and the oxidizer nitrous oxide (NTO). After filling the first stage with NTO, the valve on the tank did not close when the refueling hose was removed and the fuel flowed from the full tank into the silo. A cloud of the oxidizer emerged from the silo and moved towards the small town of Rock, which was then evacuated. It was decided to introduce water into the silo and thus bind the oxidizer. Subsequently there were around 400,000 liters of dilute nitric acid in the silo and had to be disposed of at great expense. The two soldiers who refueled the missile died despite wearing protective suits. SAC decided to fix the silo again and awarded appropriate contracts. The silo was supposed to be available again from January 8, 1982, but in the meantime it was decided to decommission the Titan II and the repair work on the silo was stopped.

• Sep 18, 1980 - Complex 374-7, Little Rock AFB, Arkansas

During maintenance work on the Titan II missile in Silo 374-7, a soldier dropped the nut of a wrench. It fell into the silo and leaked the fuel tank of the first stage rocket, which was filled with Aerozin-50 . The silo and later the launch control center of the complex were subsequently evacuated. In the early morning hours of September 19, two teams of two were supposed to enter the complex and take an inventory. At 3 a.m. the fuel ignited and the missile exploded in the silo. 22 people were injured in the explosion, and one of the soldiers later died from his injuries in hospital. The 740 t heavy silo cover landed about 200 m from the silo. The Mk.6 re-entry vehicle was destroyed, but the W-53 warhead inside was found largely intact about 100 m from the silo. Silo 374-7 was completely destroyed, but the launch control center remained completely intact. The documentary Damascus, USA. The GAU (English: Command and Control , German premiere at arte on July 21, 2020) is about these events. SAC decided not to repair the silo because of the high costs. The accident revealed many deficiencies in the management of the Titan II program by SAC and contributed to the decision to retire the missiles.

Titan II Space Launch Vehicle (SLV)

Titan 23 G shortly before its maiden flight on September 5, 1988

As early as 1972, Martin-Marietta had suggested using retired Titan II ICBMs as launch vehicles. The company wanted to retrofit the 395-C starter complex at Vandenberg AFB and estimated that it would cost 2 million US dollars. The US Air Force rejected this at the time. In the 1980s, its use as a launcher was again considered after the Titan II was decommissioned. As part of the new plans, however, no in-silo launch should be carried out, but the rocket should be launched from normal ramps. At that time, 55 rockets were still available, 52 in the active silos and 3 as replacements on each operator base of the Titan II. In January 1986, the US Air Force signed a contract with Martin-Marietta to convert the Titan II into launch vehicles and increased it in the course of 1987 their order for a total of 14 missiles. The missiles were designated as the Titan 23G. As many parts as possible from the original rockets were to be used and components from the Titan III family were to be used only when necessary. The tanks of the selected rockets were dismantled, checked, repaired and reassembled at the Martin-Marietta factory. Changes had to be made at the upper end of the 2nd stage, where a payload adapter should now be attached instead of the warhead. Due to the constant inspection during the service life of the Titan II, the engines of all rockets were in very good condition and could be used without any problems. It was not until 1978 that the entire Titan II fleet received a new inertial control system that was largely identical to that of the Titan III missiles. These systems were tested at the manufacturer Delco Electronics and used with slight adjustments for the Titan II launch vehicles. The payload fairing, payload adapter, flight control system and cabling were taken from the Titan III family. The SLC-4W complex was modified at Vandenberg AFB for the launch of the rocket. The first launch took place on September 5, 1988, the last on October 18, 2003. Thirteen of the fourteen modified rockets were used, all of the launches were successful in relation to the Titan II.

Technical specifications

	Titan I.	Titan II
USAF designation	SM-68A / HGM-25A	SM-68B / LGM-25C
Start of development	1956	1960
first test flight	February 6, 1959	March 16, 1962
last flight	March 5, 1965	June 27, 1976
first missile activated	April 18, 1962	April 15, 1963
last missile deactivated	April 1965	May 5th 1987
production	1958–1962	1962-1967
built development models	62	33
built operational models	101	108
Development flights	47	32
Training and demonstration flights	20th	49
deployed missiles (excluding Vandenberg AFB)	54	54
Stationing type	Start complexes with 3 silos each	Start complexes with one silo each
Start type	Silo lift (ignition on the surface)	In-silo ignition
Total length with warhead	29.7 m	31.3 m
Length of 1st stage including engines and second stage adapter	17.25 m	21.39 m
Length of the 2nd stage	7.74 m	5.87 m
Length of warhead adapter	1.41 m	1.15 m
Warhead length	3.3 m	3.1 m
1st stage diameter	3.05 m
2nd stage diameter	2.26 m	3.05 m
Empty ground first stage with stage adapter	2,034 kg	2,313 kg
Full mass first stage with stage adapter	80,490 kg	115,664 kg
Empty mass second stage	1,725 ​​kg	2,313 kg
Full mass second stage	20,590 kg	28,914 kg
Full mass with warhead	102,902 kg	148,379 kg
First stage engine	1 × Aerojet LR87-AJ3 (-AJ1)	1 × Aerojet LR87-AJ5
Second stage engine	1 × Aerojet LR91AJ3 (-AJ1)	1 × Aerojet LR91-AJ5
Thrust first stage (sea level)	1,295,900 kN	1,893,400 kN
Thrust second stage	355.863 kN	444.819 kN
Fuel 1st stage	Kerosene RP-1	Aerozin 50
Oxidizer 1st stage	liquid oxygen	Nitrous oxide (NTO)
Fuel 2nd stage	Kerosene RP-1	Aerozin 50
2nd stage oxidizer	liquid oxygen	Nitrous oxide (NTO)
Re-entry head	AVCO Mk.4	General Electric Mk.6
Explosive device	UCRL W-38	LASL W-53
Explosive power	3.75 MT	9 m
Warhead mass	1.814 kg	3.800 kg
Range	˜ 10,000 km
CEP	<1.8 km	0.7 to 1.4 km

Launch systems

Titan I.

Air Force Base	Launch complex	Starts	Air Force unit	strategic readiness
Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida	LC15	10	6555 TW	no
Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida	LC16	6th	6555 TW	no
Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida	LC15	10	6555 TW	no
Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida	LC20	16	6555 TW	no
Vandenberg AFB, California	OSTF	0 (1)	395 MTS	no
Vandenberg AFB, California	SLTF	1	395 MTS	no
Vandenberg AFB, California	395-A1	11	395 MTS	1963
Vandenberg AFB, California	395-A2	4th	395 MTS	1963
Vandenberg AFB, California	395-A3	4th	395 MTS	1963
Lowry AFB, Colorado	3 × 3 silos	0	724 SMS	April 1962 - March 1965
Lowry AFB, Colorado	3 × 3 silos	0	725 SMS	May 1962 - April 1965
Mountain Home AFB, Idaho	3 × 3 silos	0	569 SMS	August 1962 - April 1965
Beale AFB, California	3 × 3 silos	0	851 SMS	September 1962 - January 1965
Larson AFB, Washington	3 × 3 silos	0	568 SMS	September 1962 - February 1965
Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota	3 × 3 silos	0	850 SMS	September 1962 - February 1965

Titan II

Air Force Base	Launch complex	Starts	Air Force unit	strategic readiness
Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida	LC15	10	6555 TW	no
Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida	LC16	6th	6555 TW	no
Vandenberg AFB, California	395-B	16	395 SMS	April 1968 - December 1969
Vandenberg AFB, California	395-C	29	395 SMS	June 1967 - March 1968
Vandenberg AFB, California	395-D	10	395 SMS	January 1967 - December 1969
Little Rock AFB, Arkansas	18 individual silos (373-1 bis -9; 374-1 bis -9)	0	308 SMW	June 1963 - July 1987
McConnell AFB, Kansas	18 individual silos (532-1 bis -9; 533-1 bis -9)	0	381 SMW	July 1963 - March 1985
Davis Monthan AFB, Arizona	18 individual silos (570-1 bis -9; 571-1 bis -9)	0	390 SMW	March 1963 - May 1984

Start lists

Titan I.

• R&D - research and development mission
• DASO - Demonstration and Shakedown Operations
• NTMP - test program for Nike Zeus interceptor missile, titanium as a target

date	Launch site	rocket	mission	Remarks
February 6, 1959	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	A-3	R&D	Successfully; only first stage active
February 25, 1959	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	A-5	R&D	Successfully; only first stage active
April 4th 1959	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	A-4	R&D	Success; only first stage active
May 4th 1959	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	A-6	R&D	Success; only first stage active
August 14, 1959	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	B-5	R&D	Failure, first test with real second level
December 11, 1959	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	C-3	R&D	Bust; Malfunction of the self-destruct system
February 2, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	B-7A	R&D	Success; Medium range flight
5th February 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	C-4	R&D	Partial success
February 24, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	G-4	R&D	Success; first flight with detachment of the Mk.4 warhead
March 8, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	C-1	R&D	success
March 22, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	G-5	R&D	success
April 8, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	C-5	R&D	success
April 21, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	G-6	R&D	success
April 28, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	C-6	R&D	success
May 13, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	G-7	R&D	success
May 27, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	G-9	R&D	success
June 24, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	G-10	R&D	success
July 1, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-2	R&D	Failure
July 28, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-4	R&D	Partial success
August 10, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-7	R&D	Success, first flight over 9,000 km
August 30, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-5	R&D	success
September 28, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-8	R&D	success
September 28, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	G-8	R&D	Success, flight over 10,800 km
October 7, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-3	R&D	success
October 24, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-6	R&D	Success, flight over 11,000 km
3rd December 1960	Vandenberg AFB OSTF	V-2	R&D	Non-test, OSTF and missile destroyed during ground exercise
December 20, 1960	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-9	R&D	Partial success
January 20, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-10	R&D	Partial success
February 9, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-11	R&D	success
February 9, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-13	R&D	success
March 2, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-12	R&D	Partial success
March 28, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-14	R&D	success
March 31, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-11	R&D	Partial success
May 3, 1961	Vandenberg AFB SLTF	VS-1	R&D, SILVER SADDLE	Success; first launch of a rocket from a silo, only first stage active
May 23, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-16	R&D	success
June 23, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	M-1	R&D	Partial success
July 21, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-18	R&D	success
July 25, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	M-2	R&D	success
4th August 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	J-19	R&D	success
5th September 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-17	R&D	success
August 7, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	M-3	R&D	success
September 23, 1961	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-2	DASO Big Sam	success
September 29, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-20	R&D	success
October 6, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	M-4	R&D	success
October 24, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-21	R&D	success
November 22, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-22	R&D	success
November 29, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	M-5	R&D	success
December 13, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC20	J-23	R&D	success
December 15, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	M-6	R&D	success
January 21, 1962	Vandenberg AFB 395-A3	SM-4	Double martini	success
January 29, 1961	Cape Canaveral AFS LC19	M-7	R&D	success
February 23, 1962	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-18	R&D Blue Gander	Partial success
May 4th 1962	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-34	R&D Silver Top	success
October 6, 1962	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-35	R&D tight bracelet	success
5th December 1962	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-11	R&D Yellow Jacket	success
January 29, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-8	R&D Ten Men	success
March 30, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A2	SM-3	DASO Young Blood; NTMP K-17	Success; Target for missile defense
April 4th 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	V-1	R&D Half Moon	success
April 13, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A3	SM-1	DASO Ramp Rooster; NTMP K-21	Success; Target for missile defense
May 1, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	V-4	R&D Mares Tail	Failure
July 16, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A2	SM-24	DASO Silver Spur	Partial success
15th August 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-7	DASO High River; NTMP K-26	Success; Target for missile defense
August 30, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A3	SM-56	DASO Polar Route	Partial success
17th September 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A2	SM-83	DASO Daily Mail	success
November 14, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-68	DASO Fast Ride; NTMP K-24	Success; Target for missile defense
December 8, 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-A1	SM-85	ST west wind I	Partial success
January 14, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-A3	SM-33	ST West Wind III	Partial success
March 5, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-A2	SM-80	ST West Wind II	Partial success

Titan II

• R&D - research and development
• DASO - Demonstration and Shakedown Operations Mission
• OT - Operational Test - operational test program
• FOT - Follow-on Operational Test; continued operational test program
• SSTTP - Army Safeguard System Test Target Program; Army Security System Test Target Program ( US Army Missile Defense Program )
• BMDTTP - Ballistic Missile Development Test Target Program; ballistic missile development test target program (another missile defense development program of the US Army)
• SOFT - Signature of Fragmented Tanks; Signal from destroyed tanks (test of radar system to differentiate between tank fragments and warhead)
• ITF - Integrated Test Flight; Integrated test flight (test flight with new navigation system)

date	Launch site	rocket	mission	Remarks
February 16, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-2	R&D	success
June 7, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-1	R&D	Partial success
July 11, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-6	R&D	success
July 25, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-4	R&D	Partial success
September 12, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-5	R&D	success
October 12, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-9	R&D	Partial success
October 26, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-12	R&D	success
October 26, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-11	R&D	Failure
December 19, 1962	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-13	R&D	success
January 10, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-15	R&D	Partial success
February 6, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-16	R&D	success
February 16, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	N-7	R&D	Partial success, first start from silo
March 21, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-18	R&D	success
April 19, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-21	R&D	Partial success
April 27, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	N-8	R&D	success
May 9, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-14	R&D	Partial success
May 13, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	N-19	R&D	success
May 24, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-17	R&D	success
May 29, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC16	N-20	R&D	Failure
June 20, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	N-22	R&D	Partial success
August 21, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-24	R&D	success
September 23, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	N-23	R&D	success
November 1, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-23	R&D	success
November 9, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	N-27	R&D	success
December 12, 1963	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-29	R&D	success
December 16, 1963	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	N-28	R&D	success
January 15, 1964	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-31	R&D	success
January 23, 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	N-26	R&D	success
17th February 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-15	R&D	success
February 26, 1964	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-32	R&D	success
March 13, 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	N-30	R&D	success
March 23, 1964	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-33	R&D	success
April 9, 1964	Cape Canaveral AFS LC15	N-3A	R&D	success
July 30, 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-28	DASO Cobra Skin	success
August 11, 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-9	DASO Double Talley	success
August 13, 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-7	DASO Gentle Annie	success
2nd October 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-32	DASO high rider	success
4th November 1964	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-28	DASO Cobra Skin	success
March 24, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-60	OT-1 Arctic Sun	success
April 16, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-45	OT-2 Bear Hug	success
April 30, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-54	OT-3 Card Deck	Failure
May 21, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-51	OT-4 front sight	success
June 14, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-22	OT-5 Gold Fish	Failure
June 30, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-30 (25)	OT-6 Busy Bee	success
July 21, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-62	OT-7 Long Ball	success
August 16, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-45	OT-8 Magic Lamp	success
August 25, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-19	OT-9 New Role	success
September 21, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-58	OT-10 Bold Guy	Failure
October 20, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-33 (25)	OT-11 Power Box	success
November 27, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-20 (14)	OT-12 Red Wagon	success
November 30, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-4	OT-13 Cross Fire	Failure
December 22, 1965	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-73	OT-14 Sea Rover	Failure
3rd February 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-87	OT-15 Winter Ice	success
17th February 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-61	OT-16 Black Hawk	success
March 25, 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-16 (11)	OT-17 Close Touch	success
April 5th 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-D	B-50	OT-18 gold ring	success
April 20, 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-55	OT-19 Long Light	success
May 24, 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-91	FOT-1 Silver Bullet	Failure
July 22, 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-95	ST Giant Train	success
September 16, 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-40	FOT-2 Black River	success
November 24, 1966	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-68	FOT-3 Bubble Girl	success
March 17, 1967	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-76	FOT-4 Gift Horse	success
April 12, 1967	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-81	FOT-5 Glamor Girl	Failure
June 23, 1967	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-70	FOT-6 Buggy Wheel	success
September 11, 1967	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-21	FOT-7 Glowing Bright 44	success
November 30, 1967	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-69	FOT-8 Glowing Bright 49	Abort, no test
February 28, 1968	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-88	FOT-9 Glory Trip 04T	success
April 2nd, 1968	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-36	FOT-10 Glory Trip 010T	success
June 12, 1968	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-82	FOT-11 Glory Trip 08T	success
August 21, 1968	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-53	FOT-12 Glory Trip 018T	success
19th November 1968	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-3	FOT-13 Glory Trip 026T	success
May 20, 1969	Vandenberg AFB 395-B	B-83	FOT-14 Glory Trip 039T	success
May 26, 1971	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-69	SSTTP MI-17	cancellation
June 20, 1971	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-12	SSTTP MI-17	success
August 27, 1971	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-100	SSTTP M2-1	success
May 24, 1972	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-46	SSTTP M2-10	success
October 11, 1972	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-78	SSTTP M2-14	success
5th October 1973	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-69	SSTTP M2-27	success
March 1, 1974	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-85	SSTTP M2-31	success
June 20, 1974	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-41	SSTTP M2-36	cancellation
January 9, 1975	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-27 (30)	SOFT-1 ST	success
7th August 1975	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-52	BMDTTP DG-2	success
4th December 1975	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-41 (18)	BMDTTP DG-4	success
June 27, 1976	Vandenberg AFB 395-C	B-17	ITF-1 Rivet Hawk	success

Titan 23G SLV

date	Launch site	rocket	payload	orbit	Remarks
3rd September 1988	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-56 (98)	USA31	polar orbit	success
5th September 1989	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-99 (75)	USA45	polar orbit	Failure, satellite failed
April 25, 1992	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-102	USA81	polar orbit	success
5th October 1993	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-65	LandSat-6	polar orbit	Failure, titanium worked, high school failed
January 25, 1994	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-67 (89)	Clementine ; ISA	Lunar orbit	success
April 4, 1997	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-106	DMSP F-14	polar orbit	success
May 13, 1998	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-80.72 (84)	NOAA-15	polar orbit	success
June 19, 1999	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-75 (99)	QuickScat	polar orbit	success
December 12, 1999	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-44 (94)	DMSP F-15	polar orbit	success
September 21, 2000	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-39 (96)	NOAA-16	polar orbit	success
June 24, 2002	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-72.92 (71)	NOAA-17	polar orbit	success
January 6, 2003	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-105	Coriolis	polar orbit	success
October 18, 2003	Vandenberg AFB SLC-4W	B-107	DMSP-16	polar orbit	success

1st generation ICBM in comparison

Country	USSR			United States
rocket	R-7 / R-7A	R-16 / R-16U	R-9A	SM-65 Atlas (-D / -E / -F)	SM-68 Titan I
developer	OKB-1 ( Korolev )	OKB-586 ( Jangel )	OKB-1 (Korolev)	Convair	Glenn L. Martin Company
Start of development	1954/1958	1956/1960	1959	1954	1956
first operational readiness	1959/1960	1961/1963	1964/1964	1959/1961/1962	1962
Retirement until	1968	1976/1976	1976	1964/1965/1965	1965
Range (km)	8,000 / 9,500-12,000	11,000-13,000	12,500	n / A	10,000
control	radio-inertial	inertial	radio-intertial	radio-inertial / inertial	radio-inertial / inertial
CEP (km)	10	4.3	8-10	n / A	<1.8
Takeoff mass (t)	280/276	141/147	80	118/122/122	103
stages	1.5	2	2	1.5	2
Fuel combination	Kerosene / LOx	UDMH / nitric acid	Kerosene / LOX	Kerosene / LOX	Kerosene / LOX
Stationing type	launch pad	Launch ramp / silo	Launch ramp / silo	Launch ramp / bunker / silo	silo
maximum overpressure ( psi ; protection of the starting system in the event of an explosion)	n / a	n / a / 28	n / a / 28	kA / 25/100	100
reaction time	about 24h	Ten minutes – several hours	20 min / 8-10 min	15-20 min	15-20 min
Warranty period (years at high alert)	n / a	30 days (fueled)	1	n / a	5
Explosive strength of the warhead ( MT )	3-5	3-6	5	1.44 / 3.75 / 3.75	3.75
Max. stationed number	6th	186	23	30/27/72	54

See also

• List of nuclear surface-to-surface missiles

References

literature

• David Stumpf: Titan II - A History of a Cold War Missile Program. University of Arkansas Press, 2000, ISBN 1-55728-601-9 .

Individual evidence

1. ↑ https://www.arte.tv/de/videos/093660-000-A/damascus-usa-der-gau/
2. ↑ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5598206/
3. ^ E. Locksmith: Command and Control. Allen Lane, 2013, ISBN 978-1-84614-148-5 .
4. ↑ ^{a b c} P. Podvig (Ed.): Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. MIT Press, 2004, ISBN 0-262-66181-0 .
5. ↑ ^{a b c} S. J. Zaloga : The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword - The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945-2000. Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001, ISBN 1-58834-007-4 .
6. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Nuclear Notebook: US and Soviet / Russian intercontinental ballistic missiles, 1959–2008
7. ^ ^{A b} David Stumpf Titan II - A History of a Cold War Missile Program. University of Arkansas Press, 2000, ISBN 1-55728-601-9 .

Web links

Commons : Titan (ICBM)  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

• Titan I and II with Bernd Leitenberger
• Titan I on globalsecurity.org (English)
• Titan II on globalsecurity.org (English)
• Titan in the Encyclopedia Astronautica (English)
• Titan II ICBM Homepage (English)
• Titan ICBM on strategic-air-command.com (English)
• Vandenberg AFB start list at spacearchive.info (English)
• Start list of the Titan I on http://space.skyrocket.de/