Amazon rainforest

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Amazon rainforest

The Amazon rainforest covers large parts of the Amazon basin in South America , which covers six million square kilometers in nine countries. The vast majority of the forest (around 60 percent) is in Brazil . Another 13 percent are in Peru , 10 percent in Colombia and smaller parts in Venezuela , Ecuador , Bolivia , Guyana , Suriname and French Guyana . States and administrative units of four countries are named Amazonas .

The Amazon rainforest comprises more than half of the world's remaining tropical forest and has the greatest biodiversity of all tropical forests. Amazonia is one of the six major biomes in Brazil and occupies around 49 percent of Brazilian territory. It spans three of the country's five statistical regions ( Norte , Nordeste and Centro-Oeste ). A 52,000 km² area in the central Amazon rainforest, which includes the Jaú National Park , was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000 (with expansion in 2003) . Socio-geographically , the Amazon basin in Brazil is assigned to the Amazônia Legal region . The Superintendência do Desenvolvimento da Amazônia (SUDAM) was created in 1966 for the purpose of economic development in the region .

The long-term survival of the Amazon rainforest in the Anthropocene conflicts with the interests of a powerful agricultural industry : According to government reports, the Brazilian rainforest alone shrank by a total of 7,900 km² of forest between August 2017 and July 2018, which corresponds to the area of ​​more than a million football fields .

history

Part of the Brazilian Amazon near Manaus
View of the Manú National Park in Peru

The forest probably formed during the Eocene . It arose as a result of a global drop in temperature in the tropics after the Atlantic Ocean had grown so large that a warm, humid climate in the Amazon basin became possible. The tropical forest has existed for at least 55 million years; The majority of the region was free of savanna-like biomes in the time before the current Ice Age , when the climate was drier and savannas were more widespread .

At the transition from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene , the dinosaurs died out and the climate became more humid, which possibly encouraged the tropical forest to spread across the entire continent. 66 to 34 million years ago, the forest extended beyond the 45th parallel south. Climatic fluctuations over the past 34 million years made it possible for the savannah to expand into the tropics . During the Oligocene , for example, there was only a relatively narrow forest belt above the 15th parallel north. During the Middle Miocene , the forest expanded, and in the last glacial period it largely retreated inland. Nevertheless, the forest was able to continue to thrive during this time, which enabled the survival and evolution of countless species .

It is believed that the catchment area of the Amazon during the middle Miocene in the middle of the continent by the Purus sheet was divided. The water on the eastern side flowed towards the Atlantic , while the water on the west flowed through the Amazon basin towards the Pacific . The resulting Andes dammed the water masses into a lake, today's Solimões Basin . Five to ten million years ago the water broke through the Purus Arch and merged with the eastern watercourses to form today's Amazon, which drains into the Atlantic.

There is evidence that there have been significant changes in the vegetation of the Amazonian tropical forest over the past 21,000 years due to the last glacial maximum and the subsequent glacial melting. Analyzes of sediment deposits by paleo lakes in the Amazon basin indicate that there was less rain in the Amazon basin during the last glacial maximum than it does today, which very likely resulted in reduced tropical moist vegetation. However, it is controversial how great the decline in wet vegetation actually turned out to be. Some scientists believe that the tropical forest on small and isolated, separated by open forest and grassland Refugialräume was reduced; Others, however, are of the opinion that the rainforest remained largely intact, but did not reach its present size in the north, south and east. Neither of these two standpoints has been able to prevail so far, since scientific studies in the tropical rainforest are only possible to a limited extent and therefore more data are available for the peripheral regions of the Amazon basin. The available data allow both arguments.

Human presence

Geoglyphs in deforested areas, formerly the Amazonian forest in the state of Acre , Brazil

Archaeological research in the Pedra Pintada Cave suggests that people have lived in the Amazon region for at least 11,200 years. Later, late prehistoric settlements emerged in the edge regions of the forest until around 1250 AD, which were connected with human interference in the forest.

For a long time it was assumed that the Amazon rainforest was always very sparsely populated, as the poor soils did not allow for arable farming and therefore did not allow for a large population. One of the best-known representatives of this research opinion was the archaeologist Betty Meggers , who presented her theories in the book Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise . She claimed that the rainforest only allowed hunting-specific societies with a population density of 0.2 or less per square kilometer, but agriculture was necessary for larger population densities . More recent anthropological findings, however, indicate that the Amazon region was more densely populated. Around the year 1500 around five million people could have lived in Amazonia, spread over densely populated coastal areas such as the island of Marajó and the hinterland. In 1900 the population of the region was only around one million, in the early 1980s it was less than 200,000.

The first European to follow the course of the Amazon was the Spaniard Francisco de Orellana in 1542 . Evidence was presented in the BBC documentary series Unnatural Histories , according to which Orellana's report that a complex society existed along the Amazon was by no means exaggerated as previously assumed, but was quite correct for the 1540s. This culture was probably lost by infectious diseases such as smallpox introduced from Europe . Since the 1970s, several geoglyphs dated from AD 1 to 1250 have been discovered in deforested areas, fueling theories about larger pre-Columbian cultures in the region. The Brazilian geographer Alceu Ranzi is credited with the first discovery of geoglyphs during a flight over the Brazilian state of Acre . The BBC presented evidence that the Amazon rainforest is not pristine wilderness, but has been shaped by humans for at least 11,000 years through the creation of forest gardens and artificially enriched soil ( terra preta ). Terra preta can be found in large parts of the rainforest and is now widely regarded as the result of land management by the indigenous population . Such fertile soils made agriculture and forestry possible under otherwise unfavorable natural conditions, which means that a large part of the Amazon rainforest is probably the result of centuries of human intervention and not, as previously assumed, the result of a natural process. In 2003, a group of researchers from the University of Florida headed by Michael Heckenberger discovered the remains of large settlements in the middle of the Amazonian forest in the area of ​​the Xingu Indians . The finds included remains of roads, bridges and large squares.

geography

Satellite image of the Amazon rainforest

Amazonia is the largest of the three great tropical forests on earth . The second largest rainforest area is the tropical rainforests of the Congo Basin .

Viewed from above, the Amazonian forest has the appearance of a continuous layer of treetops about 30 meters above the ground . Most of its approximately 3.5 million square kilometers, or 42% of the Brazilian territory, are covered with forest that is never flooded, in a plain at 130 to 200 meters, by sediments of Lake Belterra, which formed the Amazon basin before 1 , Covered 8 to 25 million years ago . When the Andes formed, the rivers dug their beds.

climate

Amazon Delta with “popcorn clouds” over the more humid rainforest areas, which are formed there due to evaporation, but less over the river itself and over the already deforested, partly brown land areas on the left in the picture (during the dry season in August 2017).

In the Pleistocene , the Amazonian climate alternated between dry and cold, humid and hot and dry. In the last dry and cold phase, about 12–19 thousand years ago , the Amazonian climate was semi-arid ; the maximum moisture content occurred 7000 years ago. In the semi-arid phase, open vegetation forms dominated with the cerrado and the caatinga , with refuge areas where the forest survived. The cerrado is currently surviving in remaining areas in the interior of the forest.

Currently the climate in the Amazonian forest is tropical , hot and humid, due to the proximity to the equator with a temperature that does not fluctuate much within the year (continuously towards the Mata Atlântica towards the south, somewhat more seasonal). The rainfall is considerable, with an average annual rainfall of 1,500 mm to 1,700 mm, which can exceed 3,000 mm at the source of the Amazon and on the coast of Amapá . The rainy season lasts six months.

The Amazonia is seen by the scientific community as an important part of the balance of most of South America. An important part of the humidity (which then turns into rain) in the regions of the mid-west, in the south and south-east of Brazil, comes directly from the Amazon, and is blown into these regions by the wind in several months of the year. Amazonia is important for the balance of the climate from Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay to Argentina.

ground

The Amazon soil is quite poor and contains a thin layer of nutrients . However, flora and fauna keep due to the equilibrium ( climax stage ) that the ecosystem has reached. The use of resources is optimal with a minimum of losses. A clear example is the pronounced distribution of mycorrhizae through the soil, which guarantee the roots a quick absorption of nutrients that run off the forest with the rain . A layer of decay from leaves, branches and dead animals also forms in the soil , which are quickly converted into nutrients. This transformation occurs due to the fact that the fungi found there are saprophytic .

biodiversity

Scarlet Macaw , bird of tropical America

Tropical rainforests are biomes with high biodiversity; the tropical forests of America consistently have a higher biodiversity than the rainforests of Africa and Asia . With the largest area of ​​tropical forest in America, the tropical forests of Amazonia have a unique biodiversity. One in ten known species lives in the Amazon forest. This represents the largest number of living plants and animals in the world.

The area is home to 2.5 million species of insects , tens of thousands of plants, and 2,000 birds and mammals . By 2005, at least 40,000 plants, 3,000 fish , 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles had been scientifically classified in the region.

One in five of all passerine birds lives in the tropical forests of Amazonia. Until 2005, scientists described between 96,660 and 128,843 species of invertebrates in Brazil alone .

The diversity of plant species is the highest on earth , some specialists estimate that one square kilometer of Amazonia could have over a thousand trees and thousands of other species of higher plants. According to a 2001 study, a quarter square kilometer of tropical forest has more than 1,100 tree species.

One square kilometer of Amazonian forest could contain around 90,790 tons of living plants. So far, around 438,000 plants of economic and social interest have been discovered in the region, many of which remain to be discovered and cataloged.

Deforestation threatens many species of tree frogs, which are very sensitive to environmental changes. The yellow banded tree climber is shown.

The area of ​​green leaves of plants and trees in the forest varies by about 25%, a result of seasonal variations. This area expands during the dry season , when the sunlight is at its maximum, then it suffers abscission during the cloudy humid season . These changes balance the carbon between photosynthesis and respiration .

The forest has several species that can pose a threat. The larger predators include the black caiman , jaguar , puma, and anacondas . In Amazon can electric eels produce an electric shock that stun or kill can, while the Piranhas are known to people to bite and hurt. In its waters it is also possible to spot one of the largest freshwater fish, the arapaima . Several types of poison dart frog but lipophilic alkaloids , toxins through their flesh from. There are also innumerable parasites and disease vectors . Vampire bats live in the forest and can rabies - virus transmitted. Malaria , yellow fever and dengue fever can all be contracted in the Amazon region.

The Amazonian fauna and flora were described in the impressive Flora Brasiliensis (15 volumes) by Carl von Martius , a German scientist who devoted a good part of his life to exploring the Amazon in the 19th century . Nonetheless, the diversity of species and the difficulty of accessing the high treetops mean that much of the animal wealth is unknown.

vegetation

Amazonas landscape west of Manaus , in Brazil
Aerial view of an area near Manaus

Amazonia is one of the largest tropical forests in the world. The hileia Amazônica (as Alexander von Humboldt defined) had viewed from above the appearance of a continuous layer of forest canopy, about 50 feet above the ground.

Amazonia has three types of forest . The last two are the Brazilian Amazonia: Andean mountain forests , Terra-firme forests and flooded river forests . The Terra Firme forest, which, apart from its lower density, does not differ much from the Andean forest, is located in low plateaus (30-200 meters) and the soil is extremely poor in nutrients . This forced an adaptation of the roots of the plants, which through symbiosis with some fungi came to decompose organic matter that was in the soil in order to absorb the nutrients before they are leached out. The flooded river forest also shows some adaptations to environmental conditions, such as respiratory roots that have pores that allow oxygen to breathe . The lower-lying and periodic flooding by clear or cloudy water from rivers rich in organic matter, exposed areas are called Várzea forests . The areas flooded by dark water that flows through soils rich in sand and poor in minerals and takes on a dark color due to the presence of organic matter are called Igapó forests . The oscillation of the water level can lead to a height of up to 10 meters.

The difficulty of incidence of light due to the abundance of the crowns means that the undergrowth is very scarce, as are the animals that inhabit the ground and need its vegetation. The majority of the Amazonian fauna consists of animals that inhabit trees 30 to 50 meters high .

However, the biodiversity and the difficulty of accessing high crowns mean that much of the fauna is unknown.

Amazonia is not homogeneous, on the contrary, it is composed of a mosaic of rather distinct habitats. The diversity of habitats includes transitional forests, dry forests, and mixed forests; Bamboo forests (Guadua spp.), Cerrado enclaves, buriti palms, floodable forests (Igapó and Várzea) and terra firme forests.

The Amazon

Satellite image of the Amazon

The Amazon is a large South American river , which has its source in the Andes , in Peru and flows into the Atlantic Ocean near the island of Marajó in Brazil . In its course it bears the names Tunguragua , Apurímac , Marañón , Ucayali , Amazonas (from the confluence of the rivers Marañon and Ucayali, in Peru ), Solimões and again Amazonas (from the confluence of the rivers Solimões and Rio Negro in Brazil). For a long time it was thought that the Amazon was the world's richest and second longest river in terms of volume . However, new research shows it to be the longest river in the world. It is the river with the largest inflow area in the world, which exceeds 7 million square kilometers, a large part of which is tropical forest .

The area covered with water by the Amazon and its tributaries more than triples during the seasons. On average 110,000 km² are flooded during the dry season, while this area reaches 350,000 km² during the rainy season. At its widest point it reaches a width of 11 km during the dry season, which extends up to 45 km in the rainy season.

threat

Deforestation

Video of a series of satellite images on deforestation in Rondônia

The main causes of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlements and the development of the soil , meanwhile also global warming due to desertification . The combination of global warming and deforestation makes the regional climate drier and could turn large parts of the rainforest into a savannah .

Before the early 1960s, access to the interior of the forest was very limited and the forest was essentially intact.

Fazendas built during the 1960s were based on slash and burn . However, the settlers were unable to till their fields and crops due to soil fertility loss and weed intrusion . The soils of Amazonia are only productive for a short time, so farmers are constantly moving to new areas and clearing more forests. These practices lead to deforestation and cause significant environmental damage. Deforestation is considerable, deforested areas are visible to the naked eye from space .

Between 1991 and 2000, the total area of ​​lost forest increased from 415,000 to 587,000 square kilometers, with most of the deforested forest being turned into pasture for livestock farming. 70% of the previously deforested soils and 91% of the soils of the Amazon that have been deforested since 1970 are used as pasture for cattle. In addition, Brazil is the second largest producer of soy after the United States . The needs of soybean farmers are used to justify many controversial transport projects in the Amazon that are currently in the development phase. The first two motorways opened up the tropical forest and led to an increase in deforestation. The mean annual rate of deforestation between 2000 and 2005 (22,392 km² per year) was 18% higher than in the last five years (19,018 km² per year). Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has decreased significantly since 2004, but it is increasing again under the new President Bolsonaro . According to the Brazilian space agency INPE, a total of 563 square kilometers of forest were destroyed in November 2019. Deforestation increased by 104 percent compared to the same period last year.

Current situation

Satellite image of the Amazon basin on August 20, 2019, with several forest fires and the resulting smoke, which mixes under the clouds.

May be according to the report Assessment of the Risk of Amazon dieback of the World Bank be permanently lost from February 2018 about 75% of the Amazon rainforest to the 2025th In 2075, only 5% of the forest in the western Amazon may be left. The process is a consequence of deforestation , the climate change , the fire clearances and due to the by increased erosion onset desertification partially irreversible.

According to the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment, a total of 7,900 square kilometers of forest were cleared between August 2017 and July 2018, especially in the states of Pará and Mato Grosso. Even the President Michel Temer ( MDB ), who has been in office since May 2016, was unable to stem further deforestation.

Following the election victory of President Jair Bolsonaro ( PSL ) in 2018, as announced in his election campaign, Brazil's exit from the 2015 Paris World Climate Agreement after taking office on January 1, 2019 could not be ruled out. A step that Trump took for the United States in 2016. In addition, Bolsonaro also announced tougher action against activists and indigenous groups who are committed to protecting the Amazon rainforest, as well as the restriction of corresponding activities by international organizations. According to media reports, a kind of unlawful space should be created in which state security forces can legally fight local protests with armed violence and thus contribute to an "orderly" Brazil. In addition to mining activities in protected areas readmitted. According to the media, Bolsonaro regards the rainforest as economically untapped potential. He announced that he would not designate any new protected areas in the Amazon and allow further clearing.

At a meeting with Bolsonaro at the end of April 2019, Germany's Foreign Minister Heiko Maas, who was the first representative of an EU government to visit Brazil, also addressed the stance on minorities and climate policy, and Brazil's Foreign Minister Ernesto Araújo described the partnership with Germany as "more important than her ever was ”. For over 20 years, South American states have been negotiating the Mercosur Agreement , of which Brazil is a member, to conclude a free trade agreement with the European Union. In April 2019, 600 European scientists together with 300 indigenous groups issued an open letter calling on the EU to put environmental and human rights standards on the agenda. The origin of the goods must be made transparent and the indigenous population protected.

The Brazilian Institute for Space Research (INPE) said in 2019 based on an evaluation of satellite images that deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has increased significantly. In 2019, 88% more areas were cleared in June than in June of the previous year. According to INPE data, there were more than 71,000 forest fires in the Amazon rainforest from January to August 2019 alone , a record. After Bolsonaro accused the INPE of misleading and foreign influence by environmental protection organizations, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences as well as research and university associations backed the INPE in an open letter and described its data collection as transparent and precise. At the beginning of August, Bolsonaro announced that “INPE employees who deliberately wanted to harm Brazil” would be fired and the director of INPE, Ricardo Galvão , dismissed for failing to warn the government about the publication of the data.

Legends

There are many legends relating to the Amazon: the Eldorado , a city that was thought to be made of solid gold and whose treasures were in unimaginable amounts, and Lake Parima (considered a fountain of youth). Presumably these two legends refer to the actually existing Lago Amaçu , which had a small island covered by mica schist . This rock, which shines or sparkles when the sunlight shines on it, has probably evoked an illusion of wealth among Europeans.

See also

literature

  • Aziz Ab'Saber: Os domínios de natureza no Brasil. potencialidades paisagísticas. Ateliê Editorial, São Paulo 2003, ISBN 85-7480-099-6 .
  • AMAZÔNIA REVELADA: os descaminhos ao longo da BR-163 (film). Thieres Mesquita. Brasília, CNPq, 2005. 90 min.
  • Maurício Torres: Amazônia revelada. os descaminhos ao longo da BR-163. Brasília: CNPq, 2005. Bibliography. 496 pages, photographs. ISBN 85-86821-63-2 .
  • UM DIA NA AMAZÔNIA-2006- Gilson Barreto- Literatura Infantil (Book of the campanha da fraternidade 2007)

Web links

Commons : Amazonian Rainforest  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Joberto Veloso de Freitas: Experiences with FRA 2005. Brazil. Presentation at the Expert Consultation on Global Forest Resource Assessment (organizers: FAO , Metla , UNECE ), Kotka ( Finland ), June 12-16 , 2006.
  2. ↑ Central Amazon protected area on the website of the UNESCO World Heritage Center ( English and French ).
  3. ↑ Greenhouse gases from deforestation: The "Tropical Trump" threatens the rainforest. FAZ.net, December 4, 2018.
  4. ↑ 7,900 square kilometers of rainforest cut down within one year. Spiegel online, November 24, 2018.
  5. ^ Robert J. Morley: Origin and Evolution of Tropical Rain Forests. Wiley, 2000, ISBN 0-471-98326-8 (Cenozoic Ice Age.)
  6. ↑ Robyn J. Burnham, Kirk R. Johnson: South American palaeobotany and the origins of neotropical rainforests . In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . 359, No. 1450, 2004, pp. 1595-1610. doi : 10.1098 / rstb.2004.1531 . PMID 15519975 . PMC 1693437 (free full text).
  7. ↑ Mark Maslin , Yadvinder Malhi , Oliver Phillips , Sharon Cowling : New views on an old forest: assessing the longevity, resilience and future of the Amazon rainforest Archived from the original on October 1, 2008. (PDF) In: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers . 30, No. 4, 2005, pp. 477-499. doi : 10.1111 / j.1475-5661.2005.00181.x . Retrieved September 25, 2008.
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  9. ^ João Batista Sena Costa, Bemerguy, Ruth Léa; Hasui, Yociteru; Borges, Maurício da Silva: Tectonics and paleogeography along the Amazon river . In: Journal of South American Earth Sciences . 14, No. 4, 2001, pp. 335-347. doi : 10.1016 / S0895-9811 (01) 00025-6 .
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  16. ^ Betty J. Meggers: Revisiting Amazonia Circa 1492 . In: Science . 302, No. 5653, December 19, 2003, pp. 2067-2070. doi : 10.1126 / science.302.5653.2067b . PMID 14684803 .
  17. ↑ Chris C. Park: Tropical Rainforests. Routledge, 2003. ( books.google.co.uk )
  18. ^ A. Smith: Explorers of the Amazon. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1994, ISBN 0-226-76337-4 .
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  20. ↑ Simon Romero: Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World. In: The New York Times. January 14, 2012, accessed January 1, 2018 .
  21. ↑ Martti Pärssinen, Denise Schaan and Alceu Ranzi: Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purús: a complex society in western Amazonia . In: Antiquity . 83, No. 322, 2009, pp. 1084-1095.
  22. ^ Charles C. Mann: Ancient Earthmovers Of the Amazon . In: Science . 321, 2008, pp. 1148-1152.
  23. ↑ The anthropologist Darna L. Dufour assumes that the influence of humans in general has been underestimated: Much of what has been considered natural forest in Amazonia is probably the result of hundreds of years of human use and management (“Viel von what was previously considered a natural forest in the Amazon is probably the result of centuries of use and management by humans ”) ( Use of Tropical Rainforests by Native Amazonians , BioScience 40, No. 9, October 1990, p. 658). An example of how indigenous peoples integrated the planting of certain crops into their otherwise nomadic way of life can be found in Rival, Laura, 1993: The Growth of Family Trees: Understanding Huaorani Perceptions of the Forest , Man 28 (4), p. 635– 652.
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  34. ↑ Staff: Piranha 'less deadly than feared'. BBC News Online , July 2, 2007, accessed July 2, 2007 .
  35. ↑ da Rosa, Elizabeth ST et al. : Bat-transmitted Human Rabies Outbreaks, Brazilian Amazon . (PDF) In: Emerging Infectious Diseases . 12, No. 8, August 2006, pp. 1197-1202. PMID 16965697 . Retrieved October 11, 2008.
  36. ^ A b Jean Luis Arce de Lima: Amazonas supera o Nilo como rio mais longo, dizem cientistas. June 1, 2007, accessed October 16, 2007 .
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  38. ↑ Richard Bierregaard, Claude Gascon, Thomas E. Lovejoy, Rita Mesquita (ed.): Lessons from Amazonia. The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest. Yale University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-300-08483-8 .
  39. ↑ a b World Economic Forum , Chelsea Gohd, February 26, 2018, weforum.org: The Amazon is approaching a point of no return - but it's not too late ("The Amazon basin is approaching a point of no return - but it is not too late" ) [3. November 2018]
  40. ↑ Anja Rammig, Lan Wang-Erlandsson, Arie Staal, Gilvan Sampaio, Vincent Montade: Self-amplified Amazon forest loss due to vegetation-atmosphere feedbacks . In: Nature Communications . tape 8 , March 13, 2017, ISSN  2041-1723 , p. 14681 , doi : 10.1038 / ncomms14681 ( nature.com [accessed August 11, 2019]).
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  43. ^ Thomas E. Lovejoy, Carlos Nobre: Amazon tipping point: Last chance for action . In: Science Advances . tape 5 , no. 12 , December 20, 2019, ISSN  2375-2548 , p. eaba2949 , doi : 10.1126 / sciadv.aba2949 ( sciencemag.org [accessed December 28, 2019]).
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  45. ↑ a b Watkins and Griffiths, J. (2000). Forest Destruction and Sustainable Agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon: a Literature Review (PhD, The University of Reading, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 15-17
  46. ^ M. Williams: Deforesting the Earth. From Prehistory to Global Crisis. Abridged, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL 2006, ISBN 0-226-89947-0 .
  47. ↑ Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2004)
  48. ^ Henning Steinfeld, Pierre Gerber, TD Wassenaar, Vincent Castel: Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2006, ISBN 92-5105571-8 . ( fao.org )
  49. ^ Sergio Margulis: Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon. The World Bank, Washington DC 2004, ISBN 0-8213-5691-7 . wds.worldbank.org (PDF).
  50. ↑ http://www.imazon.org.br/publicacoes/publicacao.asp?id=357 Genealogie Dead Link | url = http: //www.imazon.org.br/publicacoes/publicacao.asp? Id = 357 | date = 2018-08 | archivebot = 2018-08-25 04:25:39 InternetArchiveBot}} (link not available)
  51. ↑ INPE: Estimativas Anuais desde 1988 até 2009
  52. ↑ Reuters: Brazil: huge rise in Amazon destruction under Bolsonaro, figures show . In: The Guardian . July 3, 2019, ISSN  0261-3077 ( theguardian.com [accessed July 4, 2019]).
  53. ↑ ZEIT ONLINE: Brazil: Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest greatly expanded . In: The time . August 7, 2019, ISSN  0044-2070 ( zeit.de [accessed August 17, 2019]).
  54. ↑ Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com): Rainforest deforestation in Brazil has doubled | DW | December 15, 2019. Accessed December 19, 2019 (German).
  55. ↑ Brazil's Amazon: 7,900 square kilometers of rainforest cut down within a year. In: Spiegel Online . November 24, 2018. Retrieved November 25, 2018 .
  56. ↑ extra.globo.com , September 3, 2018: Bolsonaro diz que pode retirar Brasil do Acordo de Paris se eleito ("Bolsonaro says that if Brazil is elected he can withdraw from the Paris Agreement", [November 3, 2018] )
  57. ↑ New President of Brazil - “Under Bolsonaro, the military will gain influence” . In: Deutschlandfunk . ( deutschlandfunk.de [accessed on November 3, 2018]).
  58. ^ Badische Zeitung: Great concern for the Amazon rainforest - Comments - Badische Zeitung . ( badische-zeitung.de [accessed on November 3, 2018]).
  59. ↑ Brazil - Germanwatch: Election of Bolsanoro would have consequences for the climate . In: Deutschlandfunk . ( deutschlandfunk.de [accessed October 26, 2018]).
  60. ↑ a b Brazil's space agency chief fired after deforestation dispute. In: www.tagesschau.de. August 2, 2019, accessed August 3, 2019 .
  61. ↑ Ivo Marusczyk: Maas in Brazil: Bringing in small steps. In: www.tagesschau.de. April 30, 2019, accessed August 3, 2019 .
  62. ↑ Alicia Prager: EU free trade agreement with Brazil: 600 scientists push for sustainability. In: EURACTIV.de. April 26, 2019, accessed August 3, 2019 .
  63. ↑ Ivo Marusczyk: Rainforest deforestation Bolsonaros "alternative facts." In: www.tagesschau.de. July 23, 2019, accessed August 3, 2019 .
  64. ↑ mdr.de: Amazonas: Rainforest in Flames | MDR.DE. Retrieved August 23, 2019 .
  65. ↑ 'Record number of fires' in Brazilian rainforest . August 21, 2019 ( bbc.com [accessed August 23, 2019]).
  66. ↑ Dom Phillips: Brazil space institute director sacked in Amazon deforestation row. In: The Guardian. August 2, 2019, accessed on August 2, 2019 .