Brunfelsia
| Brunfelsia | ||||||||||||
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Brunfelsia americana |
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| Plum. ex L. |
Brunfelsia is a plant genus of the family of the nightshade family (Solanaceae). They are perennial plants that usuallygrowas shrubs , occasionally as small trees or only rarely as lianas . The 46 species are divided into the three sections Brunfelsia (22 species), Franciscea (18 species) and Guianenses (6 species), which differ significantly in terms of both distribution and characteristics. However, molecular data show that only two sections are natural (monophyletic), namely the Caribbean section "Brunfelsia" and a common section for all South American species. The Brunfelsia sectionoccurs exclusively on the West Indies and has thelargest corolla tube in relation to the calyx . The flowers of the Franciscea section, which is widespreadin South America, have a clearly pronounced thickening at the transition between the corolla tube and the coronet. The Guianenses sectionoccurs in northern South America and has the smallest flowers within the genus. In many species, the crown fades during the flowering period, making the plant seem like it is blooming in two colors, which is why some species are also used as ornamental plants. Many species are also known to have ethnomedical uses.
description
Vegetative characteristics
Habitus
Most Brunfelsia grow as shrubs , only some species also as small trees . Within the Brunfelsia section , the species typically reach heights of 2 to 3 m, but Brunfelsia jamaicensis , Brunfelsia americana and Brunfelsia lactea can also reach heights of 10 to 12 m. The species in the Franciscea and Guianenses sections are usually 1 to 3 m high, but there are also larger species here. Thus Brunfelsia grandiflora a tree on average 4 to 5 m high, but some collections are also up to 10 m tall trees or just long liana-like stem plants. The species with the lowest growth height is Brunfelsia latifolia , which already flowers with a height of 30 cm and rarely reaches a height of 1 m.
The species either form a main stem or are more or less branched near the base. Occasionally, the species Brunfelsia australis , Brunfelsia grandiflora and Brunfelsia brasiliensis can produce two or three main stems. In the cultivated forms of Brunfelsia nitida , Brunfelsia undulata and Brunfelsia australis , root shoots often form around the main stem , resulting in a large number of clones .
The branching of the plants takes place sympodially . In the Brunfelsia section , only a few long, rod-shaped branches are often formed, with only a few leaves at the end. In the Franciscea and Guianenses sections , the branches are more tangled and splayed, often bending downwards with age.
If a terminal bud does not sprout, lateral buds just below the tip of the shoot take over growth. New shoots can rarely also arise from the axils of the bracts of the inflorescences. On new shoots, a few bracts are first formed, which gradually change into regular leaves.
Foliage leaves
The leaves are alternately in a 5/13 phyllotaxis , either evenly distributed along the branches or in dense groups at the branch tip. They are seldom almost whorled due to a shortening of the internodes . This occurs, for example, with the species Brunfelsia mire , Brunfelsia hydrangeiformis and Brunfelsia rupestris .
The leaf stalks are relatively short compared to the leaf blades with a length of only 1 to 10 mm. The cross-section of the stems is semicircular to runny, often with age or when drying, transverse cracks and furrows appear.
The leaf blades are entire and not divided in all species, but there are great differences in shape and size. The shape is mostly either elliptical to lanceolate or vice versa ovate to reversely lanceolate; seldom also spatulate, egg-shaped, linear or linear-lanceolate leaf shapes occur. Some species such as Brunfelsia uniflora , Brunfelsia americana or Brunfelsia lactea have a great variability of leaf shapes even on a plant, with Brunfelsia portoricensis and Brunfelsia densifolia there are strong differences between the leaves of young and older plants. The tip of the leaves can be blunt, pointed or pointed. The tips of species such as Brunfelsia grandiflora , Brunfelsia macrocarpa , Brunfelsia chocoensis and Brunfelsia amazonica , especially in moist, tropical forests, are pointed and modified to form a trickle tip .
The size of the leaves varies between 1 and 30 cm in length and 0.1 and 1 cm in width. The leaf size within a species can also fluctuate greatly depending on environmental conditions such as light and moisture. The leaves of Brunfelsia grandiflora can be between 6 and 23 cm long. The texture of the leaves is mostly firm-skinned to almost leathery, they feel soft and rubbery. Thicker, leathery and shiny leaves are also found in some species and varieties , for example Brunfelsia splendida , Brunfelsia dwyeri , Brunfelsia obovata var. Coriaceae or Brunfelsia rupestris . Some stocks of Brunfelsia uniflora and Brunfelsia brasiliensis , which grow in unusually dry or unprotected locations, also develop leathery leaves.
The leaves are light to dark green on the upper side, the underside is a little lighter. With Brunfelsia pilosa , Brunfelsia plicata and Brunfelsia undulata , a dark purple pigmentation occurs on young shoots, which is due to anthocyanins . The leaf veins are barely emphasized on the upper side of the leaf, but clearly stand out on the underside. On each half of the leaf, three to twelve secondary veins branch off from the main vein, and adjacent secondary veins merge again near the edge. The intermediate veins are finely reticulated and can be indistinct or slightly protruding. A specialty is Brunfelsia hydrangeiformis , in which on the upper side the central rib, the secondary veins and the larger intermediate veins are embedded in weak furrows and thus form a very irregular surface structure.
root
Seedlings and young plants have diffuse branched roots , but older plants often develop a strong taproot . This taproot is particularly pronounced in some representatives of the Brunfelsia section , which mainly grow on rocky ground. In some species of the Franciscea section , the main root is more or less branched.
Hairiness
Most of the species in the genus are predominantly hairless. Often, young leaves and the flower buds are hairy, slightly downy, but bald with age. In hairy species, the trichomes (plant hairs) are mainly found on the twigs, leaves, flower stalks, calyx and the corolla tube. The species of the Guianenses section are hairless except for the occasional glandular trichomes on leaf and flower stalks. Unbranched, multicellular, glandular or non-glandular trichomes occur in both the Brunfelsia and Franciscea sections , and branched trichomes can also be found on the leaves within the Brunfelsia section . In some species, the thickness of the hairiness depends on environmental conditions such as the amount of water available; in other species, the varying thickness of hairiness is suitable as a diagnostic feature for the classification into subspecies. Only in a few cases is the hairiness also a diagnostic feature at the species level.
Inflorescences
The position of the inflorescences of the Brunfelsia varies, depending on the species, between exclusively terminal, exclusively axillary or mixed terminal and axillary. The shape of the inflorescence is a wrap , but it can also be reduced or modified.
The non-reduced or modified inflorescences have the following structure: A single flower is terminally on the main axis of the inflorescence. Below this flower are one to three (rarely more) small, foliage-like bracts , each with a bud in each armpit. Of one or more of these high-sheets thereby supporting sheets are spring the minor axes of the inflorescence. These are usually greatly reduced and have a single terminal flower and under this two very small prophylls . The minor axes are each at right angles to their bracts. In higher branching orders, a further secondary axis arises from only one of the two preceding leaves, the branching taking place alternately to the left and right. Older inflorescences form zigzag patterns in some species, for example Brunfelsia grandiflora and Brunfelsia latiflora .
The most common form of inflorescence within the genus is a compact, sessile wrap with few flowers and strongly reduced minor axes. In some species the reduction of the minor axes is so strong that they cannot be made out clearly and the flowers are close together. Brunfelsia grandiflora and Brunfelsia brasiliensis form open and loose inflorescences in which the axes can be elongated to different degrees. In some species the inflorescences consist of only a single flower, for example in Brunfelsia americana , Brunfelsia dwyeri , Brunfelsia macrocarpa and Brunfelsia uniflora , in others from one to three flowers, for example in Brunfelsia pilosa , Brunfelsia australis , Brunfelsia cuneifolia and Brunfelsia rupestris .
blossoms
The flowers of the Brunfelsia species are petiolate. They are slightly zygomorphic , which, depending on the species, can be seen on the calyx , the curved corolla tube , the irregular coronet or the two differently shaped pairs of stamens . The largest flowers are found in the Brunfelsia section , they are particularly fragrant in the evening. The Franciscea section has somewhat smaller and non-fragrant flowers . The smallest flowers occur within the Guianenses section , these in turn are fragrant.
Chalice
The calyx consists of five sepals that have grown together. It is either radially symmetrical or slightly zygomorphic, tubular or bell-shaped and often somewhat expanded. The cross-section is mostly round, with the species Brunfelsia obovata , Brunfelsia boliviana , Brunfelsia cuneifolia and Brunfelsia nitida , the cross-section at the base of the calyx teeth is pentagonal and above it is concave. The length varies between 3 and 35 mm. Within the Brunfelsia section , the calyx is very short compared to the corolla tube; in the Franciscea and Guianenses sections it is about half the length of the corolla tube. With Brunfelsia pauciflora and Brunfelsia hydrangeiformis , both can even be just as long. The color is usually a light green to yellowish ( Brunfelsia undulata , Brunfelsia grandiflora ) or purple tones ( Brunfelsia pilosa , Brunfelsia jamaicensis ).
The calyx teeth are triangular, egg-shaped or lanceolate. Within the Brunfelsia section , the tip is partially blunt and ciliate. In the Franciscea and Guianenses sections they are pointed or tapered, the eyelashes have receded or are completely absent.
The calyx is mostly retained on the fruit, but hardly enlarges as the fruit ripens. In the process, however, it becomes a little firmer, in the Franciscea section , lenticular outgrowths often appear near the base. As the fruit grows, the calyx can be split on one or more sides, so that the sepals are sometimes only fused together at the base. Only in Brunfelsia hydrangeiformis , Brunfelsia pauciflora and Brunfelsia brasiliensis does the calyx enlarge significantly, so that it partially or completely envelops the ripe fruit. An even more clearly enlarged calyx occurs in Brunfelsia macrocarpa , this completely surrounds the fruit, is thick and leathery.
Crown
The crown consists of five petals that have grown together to form a corolla tube, which is followed by a five-lobed coronet. Within the three sections of the genus, clearly different forms of the crown have developed. The corolla tube of the Brunfelsia section is particularly long, somewhat wider at the tip, but never curved or contracted at the edge of the corolla tube. The coronet is usually slightly oblique to the corolla tube, the corolla lobes are short or wide, flat or wavy or notched on the edge. The corolla tube is usually white or greenish in color in this section, the coronet when the flower opens is usually white, later yellowish, in Brunfelsia americana and Brunfelsia lactea the coronet can have purple stripes.
The corolla tube of the Franciscea section is significantly shorter and slightly enlarged near the tip to accommodate the anthers and the stigma . Then it is slightly constricted and forms a raised, thicker ring to which the coronet is attached. This can reach a diameter of 1.5 to 8 cm, the corolla lobes are broadly rounded and overlap on the adjacent edges. The corolla tube can be white or purple, the coronet is deep to light purple and becomes lavender or pure white with age. The ring between the corolla tube and the coronet can be colored white or yellow.
In the Guianenses section the short corolla tubes are widened or swollen towards the tip, at the end of the corolla tube there is no ring as in the Franciscea section . The coronet seldom has a diameter of more than 25 mm, the corolla lobes are narrow and convex, the side edges are slightly bent back, with herbarium specimens they are completely bent over.
Stamens and pollen
The four stamens are in two pairs in the upper part of the corolla tube between the upper three corolla lobes. A fifth stamen occurs only irregularly in the flowers of Brunfelsia americana . The hairless stamens are almost completely fused with the corolla tube and are only free for 2 to 5 mm. The pair of stamens above is the longer one, in Brunfelsia obovata and Brunfelsia chocoensis these stamens protrude slightly beyond the corolla tube. The shorter pair of stamens is attached further back in the corolla tube and is significantly shorter than the style. The stamens of both pairs are bent at the tip so that the anthers point upwards, in Brunfelsia americana and Brunfelsia lactea they are also inclined towards the stigma region of the style.
The anthers are attached centrally to the stamens and open via a single longitudinal slit. In the Brunfelsia section , they are long kidney-shaped and appear to be slightly bilobed. During the flowering period, the anthers can appear to have grown together due to the sticky pollen. In Brunfelsia densiflora , the upper pair of anthers is greatly reduced, but is not sterile, but gives off a small amount of pollen. In other species, the anthers can also be slightly different in size. The anthers of the Franciscea and Guianenses sections are more or less semicircular, the outline is round or kidney-shaped.
The pollen grains of all three sections are spherical and medium-sized with a diameter of 30 to 42 µm. In the sections Brunfelsia and Guianenses the pollen grains are triporat (three pores) or tricolpat (three furrows), in the section Franciscea tricolpat or tricolporidat (provided with three composite apertures ). The pollen grain wall ( exine ) has a flat, pitted or network-like structure.
Carpels
The ovary is egg-shaped or conical and is at a short, nectar secreting flower soil . The ovary is bicameral and contains many opposing (anatropic) ovules , the placentation is central angular. The partitions are thin and often not formed to the point. The stylus is thread-shaped and extends roughly to the edge of the corolla tube. Especially in the Franciscea and Guianenses sections , the stylus is somewhat thickened at the end and curved upwards, in some species of the Brunfelsia section it is slightly slanted.
The scar is usually at the same height between the four anthers in the uppermost part of the corolla tube. Only in Brunfelsia densifolia does it point out of the corolla tube, in all other species it is directed to the upper side of the corolla tube. In the Franciscea and Guianenses sections, the stigma is short and clearly bilobed; during flowering it resembles an open pair of tweezers, the tissue ready for conception is between the two lobes, after fertilization the lobes close. In the Brunfelsia section the scar is less lobed and appears almost head-shaped and convex.
Fruits and seeds
The fruits are capsules that can vary greatly in the texture of the pericarp . There are species with thin-walled and brittle, leathery, fleshy or hardened fruits. The three layers of the pericarp can be clearly distinguishable from one another or they are more or less fused together to form one layer. The shape is round to ovoid, the length is between 1 and 5 cm. The surface can be smooth or rough, green, brown or bright yellow to orange. In some species the two seed chambers can be connected to a single chamber by the regression of the partitions.
The fruits of the Brunfelsia section are usually leathery to fleshy and strikingly colored, the calyx is only permanent at the base. The fruits of Brunfelsia americana and Brunfelsia densifolia spring open when ripe so that the seeds are released from the two seed chambers. In many other species, the fruits do not spring open, the seeds are only released when the seed chambers rot.
In the Franciscea section , there are mainly relatively small capsules that are green or brown and have a leathery pericarp that becomes brittle when dried out. The calyx remains on the fruit and at least partially encloses it. In some species the fruit cracks open when ripe, but only slightly, most species have non-cracking fruits.
Two of the six species from the Guianenses section have yellow, fleshy fruits on which the short calyx is only permanent at the base. The fruits of Brunfelsia amazonica and Brunfelsia burchellii are thin-walled and dry when ripe.
The seeds of the genus are oblong to ovate, often angled or indented on one or more sides. Depending on the species, the size is 2 to 13 mm long and 1 to 7 mm in diameter. The surface of the seeds is reddish brown in color and grained like a network. This surface grain is created by a multitude of hairs that are initially on the seed surface, but fall off when ripe. The embryo is relatively long and straight, the cotyledons are flat and oval to elliptical in shape.
Other features
So far there has not been a far-reaching study of cell biology and biochemistry within the genus, so that studies of individual species only allow uncertain conclusions for the entire genus. It is believed that the base is chromosome number . In terms of secondary plant substances , for example, the coumarin scopoletin was found in the roots of Brunfelsia uniflora , from Brunfelsia grandiflora a substance named Brunfelsamidine belonging to the amidines was isolated, the alkaloid cuscohygrin was detected in four species . The ingredients of some Brunfelsia species can cause toxic effects (irritation of mucous membranes , neurotoxic effects) in sufficient doses .
Distribution and locations
The division of the genus into three sections is also reflected in the geographical distribution. The species of the Brunfelsia section occur exclusively on the west Indian islands , with the exception of Brunfelsia americana all species endemic to only one island each. The greatest biodiversity is found in Cuba with ten species, Jamaica six, Puerto Rico three and Hispaniola one species. The locations are very different, some species occur in relatively dry places in rocky forests on limestone or serpentine soils . Other species grow in higher rainforests and cloud forests . Many of the species have a low tolerance to changed environmental conditions, which significantly increases the risk of habitat destruction.
The Franciscea section occurs in large parts of the South American continent at a large number of different locations. The areas range from the Caribbean coast to a geographical latitude of 30 ° S. The section is again divided into three large distribution centers. Eleven species are found in southeastern Brazil , nine of which are endemic. The second major distribution center is in the Andes from Colombia , northern Brazil, Ecuador , Bolivia to a small part of northern Argentina . There are five species here, three of which are endemic. The third center, with two species, one of which is endemic, includes parts of Guyana , Venezuela, and the Brazilian state of Roraima . Most species grow in mountainous regions at altitudes up to about 2000 m. Brunfelsia uniflora even colonizes heights of up to 3300 m, some species have adapted to very low altitudes. The shrubs or small trees are found in the shrub layer of very humid, tropical rainforests. One of the exceptions is Brunfelsia latifolia , which can be found in low-growing shrub formations on the ocean coast of southeastern Brazil. Brunfelsia obovata is, in turn, adapted to semi-flooded locations in swamps , in standing water or on river banks.
The area of the Guianenses section overlaps only slightly with that of the Franciscea section . It mainly occupies the lower Amazon basin and extends in the north to Guyana, in the south to the Brazilian state of Bahia and in the west almost reaches the Colombian border. Brunfelsia chocoensis has an isolated occurrence in the Colombian province of Chocó . The locations are in low-lying rainforests, where the plants are part of the shrub layer or grow on river banks.
Life cycle
Brunfelsia seeds are only able to germinate for a relatively short time and usually germinate two to four weeks after sowing, during which time the seeds are sensitive to drought. Most species are very slow growing, the time between germination and first flowering can be six months to more than two years under greenhouse conditions. No statements are known about the maximum lifespan of the plants, but Brunfelsia grandiflora has been shown to have a lifespan of at least 20 years. To a lesser extent, vegetative reproduction takes place at the site via broken branches that take root in the ground.
The flowering phase can only last a few weeks per year, but there are also species that flower almost continuously at the site. So at the location of the type specimen of Brunfelsia grandiflora subsp. schultesii found flowering plants in January, May and September. The majority of the South American species bloom between October and December. The fruits take several months to a year to ripen, and they often stay on the plant until they are dry and brown.
Since the fruits are usually very inconspicuous and do not have a noticeable smell, the seeds are unlikely to spread through animals. The capsules usually do not pop open, but when they pop open it is only very late. Usually the dried up pericarp becomes brittle or the fruit falls to the ground, where the outer layer of the pericarp rots and finally the thin endocarp breaks and releases the seeds. Thin-walled capsules, as they occur in some species, can possibly be transported through cavities in the fruit in flowing water and thus spread the seeds further. Only some species, such as Brunfelsia chocoensis , Brunfelsia densifolia , Brunfelsia guianensis , Brunfelsia macrocarpa and Brunfelsia nitida, have relatively large, fleshy, yellow to orange fruits that may also be eaten by mammals and birds . However, this has not yet been observed at the locations.
ecology
pollination
The flowers of Brunfelsia are specialized in pollination by insects ( entomophilia ), whereby different pollinators are preferred due to the different structure of the flowers in the individual sections of the genus. The flowers of the Franciscea section specialize in pollination by butterflies ( lepidopterophilia ): the thickened ring between the corolla tube and the coronet can make landing easier, the fading of the crown signals that the flower no longer needs to be pollinated and a visit by a pollinator no longer necessary is. Most species have unscented flowers. In the species Brunfelsia grandiflora , which is included in this section, the noble butterflies of the genus Euptychia , whites of the genus Eurema , blues of the genus Euselasia and thick-headed butterflies from the Calpodes group were observed.
The flowers of the Brunfelsia section are mostly visited by enthusiasts and specialize in these visitors. The flowers open at night, have longer corolla tubes and give off an intense scent from just before sunset. There is no landing aid as in Section Franciscea , which suggests pollinators that are hovering in front of the flower.
Visitors to the Guianenses section have not yet been observed. Some of the flowers were described as fragrant, there is no thickening that serves as a landing aid, and the corolla tube is relatively short. These features suggest that they are also visited by moths .
Food plant
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The caterpillars of the genus Methona feed exclusively on the leaves of the Brunfelsia species. The distribution area of this genus is almost identical to that of the Franciscea and Guianenses sections . Methona themisto caterpillars have also been found in the western Argentine province of Tucuman , where no Brunfelsia species are native, but cultivated plants of the genus can be found.
Systematics
External system
The position of Brunfelsia within the systematics of the nightshade family has not been clarified for a long time. The classic classification in the tribe Salpiglossideae, such as in the systematics according to William D'Arcy , was based on morphological features such as the reduction of the stamens from five to four, the zygomorphic flower and the capsule fruits. In 1992 it was established through molecular biological investigations that the Salpiglossideae are not monophyletic to the extent previously recognized . Brunfelsia could be placed so close to the petunias ( Petunia ) and Fabiana , which were previously attributed to the tribe Nicotianeae. In the systematics according to Armando Hunziker , the genus is classified in a monogeneric tribe Francisceae, the current, molecular-biological based systematics according to Richard Olmstead places Brunfelsia together with Petunia , Fabiana , Nierembergia , Calibrachoa and some smaller genera in the Petunieae.
Internal system
According to the last comprehensive monograph on the genus (Plowman, 1998), the genus Brunfelsia comprises 46 species. These are divided into three sections, which differ, among other things, in their geographical distribution and morphological features. Brunfelsia bahinensis and Brunfelsia nyctaginoides are named as questionable and excluded species . The former is only known from the type specimen , but a more precise classification can only be made after further investigations, the latter has been moved to a separate, monotypical genus ( Plowmania ).
A population previously identified as Brunfelsia uniflora in the cloud forests of the Bolivian Andes has turned out to be a previously undescribed, independent species that differs from the populations in the north and east of South America; this was described in 2012 as Brunfelsia plowmaniana .
Botanical history
The first mention of the genus Brunfelsia comes from Charles Plumier in 1703. He honors the German herbalist, theologian and doctor Otto Brunfels (1488-1534) with the generic name , but erroneously referred to the genus initially as Brunsfelsia , which subsequently became one caused a large number of confusions. Carl von Linné mentions the genus, referring to the description of Plumiers, for the first time in 1742 in the second edition of Genera Plantarum . The first description that is valid today comes from the first edition of Species Plantarum from 1753. He adopted the incorrect spelling of Plumiers, later noticed his mistake, but uses both names in later works. He used the name Brunfelsia in the 1754 edition of Genera Plantarum , but the wrong spelling in later editions of Species Plantarum .
Due to the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the name Brunfelsia could be used as a valid name in more recent times , but a change in the rules made in 1981 made a decision about the preservation of the name necessary. This was proposed in 1989 by William D'Arcy and confirmed in 1993 by the Committee for Spermatophyta of the ICBN.
The genus was assigned to the nightshade family (Solanaceae) by Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu as early as 1791 , although many other scientists at that time assigned them to the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae). Even Johann Baptist Emanuel Pohl saw the Brunfelsia in this family, and described in 1826 by I. Franz of Austria named genus Franciscea as closely related species with an initial eight kinds. As early as 1829 David Don published his observations on both genera and proposed on the one hand their amalgamation under the name Brunfelsia , as well as the classification in the nightshade family.
At first this work was ignored by other scientists, but in the monograph of the figwort family published by George Bentham in 1846 only the genus Brunfelsia was listed and classified in the "subordination" (today subfamily) Salpiglossideae. Shortly after Bentham, John Miers began taxonomic studies of the nightshade family. One result of these investigations was the classification of the Salpiglossideae in a newly described family Atropaceae, although he again led Brunfelsia and Franciscea as separate genera. Another extensive treatise on the genus was written by JA Schmidt in 1864 in Flora Brasiliensis , which for a long time was the standard reference for the Brazilian species of the genus.
In 1968 Timothy Charles Plowman began extensive studies and published a number of scientific papers on the genus. In addition to the well-known sections Brunfelsia and Franciscea, he established a third section Guianenses , made assumptions about the biogeographical development of the genus and described a large number of new species. Before he was able to complete the work on a complete revision of the genus, he died in 1989 as a result of an HIV infection. In 1994, colleagues sent his documents to Sandra Knapp , who worked with JR Press on a compilation of the studies prepared by Plowman, so that in 1998 Plowman's results could be published.
use
A large part of the Brunfelsia species is known to have ethnomedical uses . The fruits of the species Brunfelsia americana , widespread in the entire area of the West Indies , are known there as an effective remedy for diarrhea . Brunfelsia uniflora , which occurs in eastern Brazil and is called Manaca like other species there , is said to help against syphilis and rheumatism and is also considered to be diuretic, abortive and laxative. Brunfelsia mire is used as a worming agent. The indigenous population of the western Amazon region use both Brunfelsia chiricaspi and Brunfelsia grandiflora for a variety of applications. The best-known areas of application are the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis and fever . However, both types are also used as an admixture in the preparation of Ayahuasca .
Brunfelsia undulata , Brunfelsia australis and Brunfelsia pauciflora are mainly grown as ornamental plants . Occasionally plants are also offered under the name Brunfelsia latifolia , but these are mostly representatives of the species Brunfelsia australis or Brunfelsia grandiflora . Brunfelsia pauciflora was introduced to Europe early and was very popular from the middle of the 18th century. Some new species have also been described from cultivated plants of this species, including Franciscea eximia , Franciscea macrantha and Franciscea lindeniana , which are now only counted as forms of the species. Nevertheless, the names and combinations of these can still be found frequently in ornamental plant literature.
Danger
Above all, the species that are native to the West Indies and are endemic to a small area are endangered by increasing populations and the associated destruction of the sites. Some species are known only through a few collections, some known locations have already been destroyed. In the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources are Brunfelsia jamaicensis , Brunfelsia membranous and Brunfelsia splendida as " vulnerable (VU) (endangered)" and Brunfelsia portoricensis as " endangered (EN) (high risk)" classified .
swell
Individual evidence
Most of the information in this article has been taken from the sources given under literature; the following sources are also cited:
- ↑ CliniPharm / CliniTox, Institute for Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology (Zurich): Brunfelsia sp. (accessed on August 3, 2017)
- ↑ Richard G. Olmstead and Jeffrey D. Palmer: A Chloroplast DNA Phylogeny of the Solanaceae: Subfamilial Relationships and Character Evolution . In: Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden , Volume 79, Number 2, 1992. pp. 346-360. doi : 10.2307 / 2399773
- ↑ Compare Hunziker, p. 80
- ↑ Richard Olmstead and Lynn Bohs: A Summary of Molecular Systematic Research in Solanaceae: 1982-2006. In: DM Spooner et al. (Ed.): Solanaceae VI: Genomics Meets Biodiversity , ISHS Acta Horticulturae 745, June 2007, ISBN 978-9066054271 . Pp. 255-268.
- ↑ Michael Nee: Geography of Solanaceae in Bolivia . In: DM Spooner et al. (Ed.): Solanaceae VI: Genomics Meets Biodiversity , ISHS Acta Horticulturae 745, June 2007, ISBN 978-9066054271 . Pp. 43-58.
- ^ A b Natalia Filipowicz, Michael H. Nee, Susanne S. Renner: Description and molecular diagnosis of a new species of Brunfelsia (Solanaceae) from the Bolivian and Argentinean Andes . In: PhytoKeys , Volume 10, Issue 83, 2012. doi : 10.3897 / phytokeys.10.2558
- ↑ Lotte Burkhardt: Directory of eponymous plant names . Extended Edition. Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin, Free University Berlin Berlin 2018. [1]
- ↑ Caroli Linnaei: Species Plantarum , Volume 1, 1753. P. 191.
- ^ William G. D'Arcy: (951) Proposal to Conserve Spelling of 7450 Brunfelsia (Solanaceae) . In: Taxon , Volume 38, Number August 3, 1989. pp. 510-511. doi : 10.2307 / 1222311
- ↑ Report of the Committee for Spermatophyta: 38. In: Taxon , Volume 42, 1993. pp. 687-697. doi : 10.2307 / 1222553
- ^ Timothy C. Plowman: A new section of Brunfelsia: Section Guianenses . In: JG Hawkes (ed.): Systematic notes in the Solanaceae , Journal of the Linnean Society (Botany), Volume 76, 1978. pp. 294-295.
- ↑ Timothy C. Plowman: The Genus Brunfelsia: a conspectus of the taxonomy and biogeography In: JG Hawkes et al. (Ed.): The Biology and Taxonomy of the Solanaceae . Academic Press, 1979. pp. 475-491.
- ^ Richard Evans Schultes: Solanaceous hallucinogens and their role in the development of New World cultures. In: The Biology and Taxonomy of the Solanaceae . Academic Press, London, 1979. pp. 137-160.
- ↑ Dagmar Eigner and Dieter Scholz: Ayahuasca - Liana of the spirits . In: Pharmacy in our time , Volume 14, Number 3, 1985. pp. 65–76. doi : 10.1002 / pauz.19850140302
- ↑ See Plowman, p. 21
- ^ World Conservation Monitoring Center 1998. Brunfelsia jamaicensis . In: 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN 2007, accessed March 6, 2008.
- ^ World Conservation Monitoring Center 1998. Brunfelsia membranaceae . In: 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN 2007, accessed March 6, 2008.
- ^ World Conservation Monitoring Center 1998. Brunfelsia splendida . In: 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN 2007, accessed March 6, 2008.
- ^ World Conservation Monitoring Center 1998. Brunfelsia portoricensis . In: 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN 2007, accessed March 6, 2008.
literature
- Timothy C. Plowman (Author), Sandra Knapp, JR Press (Ed.): A Revision of the South American Species of Brunfelsia (Solanaceae). (= Fieldiana Botany, New Series. No. 39). Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago , August 1998, OCLC 440277589 .
- Armando T. Hunziker: The Genera of Solanaceae . ARG Gantner Verlag, Ruggell, Liechtenstein 2001, ISBN 3-904144-77-4 .
- N. Filipowicz, SS Renner: Brunfelsia (Solanaceae): A genus evenly divided between South America and radiations on Cuba and other Antillean Islands. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 2012. doi: 10.1016 / j.ympev.2012.02.026 .
Web links
- Brunfelsia entry in the W3Tropicos database (English)
