First World War in South West Africa
Corporal of the cavalry Lorenz Horn (1880–1956) of the German protection force , shortly before the battle near Sandfontein on September 26, 1914 (still in police uniform on the picture).
| date | August 9, 1914 to July 9, 1915 |
|---|---|
| place | German South West Africa , Portuguese West Africa , South African Union |
| output | Surrender of the German protection force |
| Territorial changes | End of German colonial rule |
| consequences | Mandate of the League of Nations (administered by the South African Union) |
| Peace treaty | Versailles Peace Treaty |
| Parties to the conflict | |
|---|---|
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| Commander | |
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| Troop strength | |
| 43,000 | about 5,000 and about 600 Boers |
| losses | |
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approx. 250 (South Africa) |
approx. 1,300 |
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The war in South West Africa was a colonial secondary theater of the First World War in the period from August 1914 to July 1915. There was fighting over the German colony of German South West Africa (now Namibia ). The fighting also extended to the southern border of Portuguese West Africa (now Angola ) and parts of the South African Union (now South Africa ). After brief border battles and the occupation of coastal places, the conquest by Union troops took place from south to north. In mid-1915 the German protection force surrendered . The "reserve" German Southwest was after the end of the war in Europe a mandate of the League of Nations under South African administration.
Starting position
German South West Africa bordered the colony of Portuguese West Africa in the north and the British protectorate Bechuanaland in the east . The eastern border in particular ran through wide, sparsely populated terrain that was difficult to control. The neighborhood with the South African Union proved to be of particular importance. As a powerful part of the British Empire , South Africa had resources essential to the war effort and excellent links to the communications network and world trade. The German colonial leadership, on the other hand, could not hope for help from the sea, as the British naval blockade in the North Sea and the occupation of the African Atlantic ports soon paralyzed German high-sea traffic as a supply route. Radio communication with home also became sparse after the German intermediate station Kamina in Togoland was destroyed on August 27, 1914 . Radio contact now had to take place directly with Germany, which only partially succeeded.
The protection force of German South West Africa was primarily designed to enforce colonial rule in the interior. It was not prepared for a military confrontation with major European powers, even if it was supplemented by the reservists in the colony at the beginning of the war. The only German warship that was in South African waters in the summer of 1914 was the eleven-year-old gunboat SMS Eber . The “Air Force” consisted of two mail planes that had arrived in the colony by ship before the war.
There is different information about the strength of the protection force at the outbreak of war. The regular number of soldiers is likely to have been between 1500 and 2000; there were also almost 500 police officers. Including around 3,000 people drafted into the war, an armed force of around 5,000 men came together on the German side. During the war, a few hundred South African Boers defected to the Germans. The troops had 20 modern artillery pieces, 50 outdated artillery pieces of various calibres and five automobiles.
In contrast to the German colonies of German East Africa and Cameroon , hardly any locals, called askaris , served in German Southwest .
The South African Union, as the main opponent of the Germans, however, had an extensive colonial force, which could be supplemented with local helpers if necessary. It can be assumed that 50,000 to 100,000 soldiers could be mobilized. Motorized units were also available.
While the mother country Great Britain was primarily concerned with securing the sea routes, in South Africa there was already an interest in territorial appropriation of the neighboring German colony before the war. Due to the power potential of the South African Union, independent annexation efforts had developed in Africa. Defense Minister Jan Smuts represented the vision of a Greater South Africa , to which South West Africa should be incorporated.
Between 1914 and 1918, the German Reich also formulated a colonial war goal with the term German Central Africa , which was to be achieved through a victory in Europe.
strategy
The German side was aware that the south of the colony was particularly endangered because there was a threat of direct invasion by South African troops. In addition to the internal control of the colony, the main strategic task was to secure the southern border against the intrusion of enemy forces. A German offensive on South African territory was hopeless given the low number of troops.
An invasion of South Africa should be prevented with the following steps:
- Withdrawal from the Atlantic coast; Surrender of the ports of Lüderitzbucht and Swakopmund
- Blasting of the railway lines inland; Resistance only in the hinterland at the level of Aus and Usakos
- Protection of the north and center, especially the cities of Windhoek and Karibib , by police and reserves
- Concentration of the main defense forces in the south
It was clear from the start that German South West Africa could not be held in the event of a long war. The decision could only be made in the European theater of war. Nevertheless, Governor Seitz decided to defend himself , as initially the end of the war in Europe was predicted. In addition, it was intended to bind opposing forces to the colonies and keep them away from Europe.
War announcement and mobilization
In the summer of 1914 contradicting news reached the German protected area. When the First World War loomed with the July crisis , Wilhelm Solf , State Secretary in the Reich Colonial Office , sent a soothing telegram to the German colonies :
"Protected areas where there is no danger of war, reassures Farmer."
Solf was convinced of the validity of the Congo Act of 1885, which forbidden under international law to bring a military conflict between major European powers into the colonial areas.
The news of the outbreak of the First World War reached German South West Africa on August 2nd via the Nauen - Kamina radio link and the large radio station still under construction in Windhoek .
On the night of August 4th to 5th, 1914, the coastal radio station in Lüderitzbucht recorded an international radio telegram from Lomé :
"England has declared war to Germany on fourth of August."
"England declared war on Germany on August 4th."
Shortly afterwards, this message was confirmed by the major radio station in Nauen near Berlin. As a result, German South West Africa feared an attack by the South African Union, allied with Great Britain. On August 6th, Governor Seitz declared the state of siege and on August 7th called for mobilization. This was already completed the following day, since the protection force was already in a maneuver . A strip of land 50 kilometers wide along the border with the South African Union has been evacuated. The German residents as well as livestock and supplies were brought north to temporary security.
The German colonial leadership also used the turmoil of the outbreak of war to carry out a long-considered deportation of the Bondelswart to the north of German South West Africa.
Situation in South Africa
In South Africa, public opinion about joining the war was divided. The Boer politicians in particular were opposed to the decision. In order not to provide an excuse for the anti-German forces in South Africa, German South West Africa initially refrained from making any advances into South African territory. However, South Africa's Prime Minister Louis Botha said the Germans had crossed the border. Thereupon the South African parliament decided on September 9, 1914 to participate in the war with a large majority, in the Senate (upper house) with 24 to 5 votes, in the assembly (lower house) with 91 to 12 votes.
The commander of the South African armed forces , General Christiaan Frederik Beyers , resigned in protest against the entry into the war. He knew himself to be in agreement with a number of Boer officers such as General Koos de la Rey and General Christiaan de Wet . General de la Rey's death in unexplained circumstances further fueled the mood.
The Maritz Rebellion
 
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Place of the Boer-German treaty in 1914 |
Eventually there was open rebellion. A small part of the Boers did not want to resign themselves to entering the war on the side of Great Britain and took up arms. The Boer leader Christiaan de Wet tried to trigger a pro-German uprising in South Africa, but it failed. De Wet was later taken prisoner. However, this revolt delayed the South African advance by a few months. A group of Boer irregulars under the command of Salomon Maritz was still ready to support the protection force from South Africa. In addition, a Boer-German volunteer corps was formed in South West Africa , led by Andries de Wet (related to Christiaan de Wet).
Lieutenant Colonel Maritz left the garrison town of Upington with his troops and signed a contract with the Germans at Ukamas on October 7, 1914 , which provided for support for the Schutztruppe in the event of a South African attack. On October 22, 1914, the unit under Maritz attacked a British division at Keimoes with German artillery support , and withdrew after slight losses. Maritz was shot in the knee. Because of the operation against the Maritz Rebellion in autumn 1914, the South African Commander-in-Chief Louis Botha briefly stopped all other fighting. On January 24, 1915, there was a skirmish near Upington, in which the insurgents were attacked and beaten by South African troops.
Even if Maritz was not among the 250 dead and wounded, the uprising had collapsed. On January 30, 1915, Maritz surrendered outside Upington. A German advance to Kakamas in early February 1915 came too late to support the Boers.
Course of war
On September 10, 1914, the German side succeeded in occupying the exclave of Walvis Bay , which was part of the South African Union and was abandoned on December 25, 1914 due to South African attacks.
Early fighting broke out on September 13, 1914 at the Nakop and Ramansdrift police stations . On September 19, South African troops with a strength of around 1,800 occupied Lüderitz Bay. The bay had previously been militarily cleared by the protection force. The German civilian population of Lüderitz was brought to South Africa and interned in camps there. A day later, a division of the Union troops crossed the Orange River , but they were repulsed by the German troops in the Battle of Sandfontein . Around 200 South Africans were taken prisoner in Germany, while the protection force lost around a dozen men. After this defeat, the South Africans relocated their attacks to Lüderitz Bay and were able to advance 70 km inland along the railway line by November 9th. A replacement radio station was built at the new Aus base to replace the Lüderitzbucht coastal radio station . The second coastal town, Swakopmund, was also evacuated at the end of September 1914. Schuckmannsburg , located in the far northeast, was occupied without a fight by members of the British South African Police and Northern Rhodesian Police on September 21, 1914 .
On October 26, 1914, the “Cameroon Company” made up of Africans was launched. It consisted of a few Liberian dockworkers, but mostly of almost 50 former mercenaries from the Cameroon Defense Forces. The latter had been banished to South West Africa due to a mutiny , where they had to do forced labor . Governor Seitz promised them that they would be allowed to return to their homeland after their military service. The “camera company” in turn had to guard African forced laborers in the north of the colony and repair railways. Since the Germans had doubts about its reliability, the company was disbanded on March 24, 1915.
The commander of the German Schutztruppe, Lieutenant Colonel Heydebreck, died on November 12, 1914 as a result of a grenade explosion in Kalkfontein-Süd caused by attempts with rifle grenades . The command was given to Major Franke , who on January 24, 1915 - by one of the last received radio messages from Germany - was also promoted to lieutenant colonel and commander of the protection force.
The location at sea
Shortly before the outbreak of war, the German gunboat SMS Eber from the West African station was in the port of Cape Town ( South Africa ) and was supposed to be docked. As a result of the impending war with Great Britain, the ship ran out prematurely. On August 1st, the boar entered Lüderitz Bay . After taking over coal, the ship left the port on the morning of August 3, heading for South America . The last regular shipping traffic was carried out by the steamers Arnold Amsinck and Eturia , which docked in Swakopmund on August 7th. They rushed to delete mail and headed for South America as well. The merchant steamers Alarich , Adelaide , Steiermark and Gertrud Woermann had fled to the open sea with the Eber . A defense of the colonial coastal waters with an outdated gunboat and requisitioned merchant ships alone seemed hopeless. Only small patrols provided coastal protection. At the end of September 1914, a submarine cable leading into Walvis Bay was cut, which could not be used for military purposes due to British wiretapping and disinformation. In September and October 1914, the South African auxiliary cruisers Armadale Castle and Kinfauns Castle shot at Swakopmund and Walvis Bay. In autumn 1914, on behalf of the German governor, a tugboat trip from Swakopmund to the port of Moçâmedes in what is now Angola was successful . However, the hoped-for supply of supplies, consisting of food and feed , failed due to the distant attitude of the Portuguese authorities.
The Imperial Colonial Office , the Naval Staff and the Foreign Office considered from November 1914 a troop transport from South America to West Africa. Around 1,000 to 2,000 German-born recruits from Latin American countries were to be brought to the protection force by ship. However, British supremacy after the German defeat at the Falkland Islands thwarted the plan.
In the airspace
When the war broke out, two biplanes made by Aviatik and LFG were in German South West Africa. The two aircraft were used for reconnaissance in the following months, during which aerial photographs were also taken . As a result of the provisional conversion of ammunition and the installation of drop devices, there were isolated bombs being dropped on South African troop camps. The missions, which were partly cleared up about South African territory, initially took place in the south of the colony. In 1915 there were flights from Karibib . In April and May 1915, both machines crashed when attempts to start were unsuccessful.
The aerial observation provided the protection force with valuable information about the positions and strength of the enemy, although there were false reports due to difficult technical and topographical conditions. The flights showed propagandistic and psychological effects that were reflected in European newspaper reports. They also caused South Africa to build anti-aircraft guns , but they did not shoot down an aircraft.
Towards the end of the war in South West Africa, the Union deployed BE2 and F.27 aircraft . The German aircraft were no longer operational at this point.
Aviation biplane on a railroad car
German biplane in South West Africa, 1914/15
German biplane in South West Africa, 1914/15
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Border war with Portuguese West Africa
Von Heydebreck took advantage of the break in fighting due to the Boer uprising to lead a punitive expedition against Portuguese West Africa. On October 19, 1914, Portuguese troops shot the German district administrator of Outjo , Hans Schultze-Jena and his companions at Fort Naulila . Schultze-Jena had tried to get in touch with the Portuguese authorities to get supplies and news. As a result, the Portuguese forts Cuangar (December 18, 1914), Impalila and Naulila and other military stations in the province of Cuando Cubango were attacked and destroyed by German units. The Portuguese later spoke of the Cuangar massacre . Portugal was officially neutral until March 1916, but confiscated German supply transports under British pressure. In addition, the unclear borderline between the German and Portuguese colony contributed to the escalation. Mutual accusations were the result.
Loss of further coastal places and the south
After the Boer uprising was put down in South Africa, the situation for the Germans became increasingly hopeless. Union troops landed in Walvis Bay on Christmas Day 1914. On February 11, 1915, Louis Botha took over personal command of the South African armed forces in South West Africa as a general. They occupied Swakopmund in the west and at the same time advanced from the south. In the battle of Pforte-Jakkalswater-Riet, east of Swakopmund, the Germans suffered heavy losses. On March 20, 1915, the heliography station on the Langen Heinrich was cleared. From here the British had been observed on the coast 85 kilometers away. In the south, the German protection force had to give way to the superior strength of South Africa, which now also marched in from Bechuanaland. Keetmanshoop fell into the hands of the Union on April 19, 1915. The German administration withdrew to the north of the colony after the post offices were closed and bridges, embankments and water points were destroyed. A final attempt to stop the advance in the south ended with an encirclement near Berseba , from which the German rearguard under von Kleist only narrowly escaped to the north.
The elevation of the Rehobother Baster
The ethnicity of the baster in the area of Rehoboth ( Basterland ) had an inner self-administration from the surrounding German colony. After the start of the war, the German military leadership formed an aid company consisting of Baster members, whose combat deployment against soldiers of European origin was, however, expressly prohibited. After negotiations with the Baster Council of Rehoboth, the Baster soldiers were equipped with German uniforms and weapons in August 1914. A German officer was in command. The Baster Company was to be entrusted primarily with guarding the South African prisoners. When the company was relocated to Nauchas , southwest of Rehoboth, at the end of 1914 , there were first protests among the Basters, as they had assumed they would be deployed within the Rehoboth autonomous region. On April 1, 1915, there was a secret meeting between Louis Botha and the Baster captain Cornelius van Wyk . Given the choice between the Germans either to obey or to surrender all weapons, the Basters finally rose up on April 15, 1915, against German tutelage. A friendship treaty between Baster and Germans from 1885 was canceled on April 22, 1915 in the name of the governor. On May 8, 1915, there was the battle of Sam-Khubis , a hilly landscape into which the Baster community had withdrawn. By the evening the Basters suffered heavy losses. They owed their sparing the next day mainly to the approach of the South African army.
Withdrawal from Windhoek and surrender in the Otavi Triangle
At the end of February 1915, the Germans took up a position roughly between the Swakop River and the Otavibahn , which was abandoned due to the multiple superiority of the attackers and the attempted encirclement. The South African Union troops had thus overcome the Namib Belt and the way to the center of the country was clear. The Windhoek region was therefore evacuated at the beginning of April . Governor Seitz moved his official residence from Windhoek to Grootfontein . Material and supplies were moved to Tsumeb . Karibib was occupied on May 4th. The state capital Windhoek was surrendered without a fight by the city administration on May 12, 1915, after the last German soldiers had left the city on May 1. The German inferiority in troop strength and equipment was now evident. On June 19, around 35,000 soldiers from the Union of South Africa embarked on the final offensive towards the north, using the superior vehicles . They were opposed to a total of 3,500 Germans and German-friendly Boers. The German protection force moved further and further north and sought refuge in the mine area of Otavi - pursued by the enemy . The area controlled by the Germans had thus essentially shrunk to the approximately 2500 km² area of the “Otavi Triangle” (roughly the area of Luxembourg ). On July 1, the Schutztruppe lost the Battle of Otavifontein, west of Grootfontein. The 800 German protection troops faced 8,000 Union soldiers. The last battle took place on July 4th near Ghaub in the Otavibergen . On July 9, the commander of the Schutztruppe, Victor Franke, surrendered at Khorab near Otavi in order to save the Schutztruppe from complete annihilation (which some quarters accused him of being a dishonorable act in later years). In fact, the protection force was on the verge of famine. The rear depots were threatened by the encirclement near Namutoni . With the surrender, the last makeshift radio station at Tsumeb was handed over to the South Africans.
The suggestion of young officers to flee further north - to what is now Angola - or to make their way to German East Africa was rejected by the troop leadership as too dangerous and full of privation.
From August 16, 1915, the entire colony of German South West Africa was occupied by the South African Union troops. The Caprivi Strip in the northeast was annexed by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1914 .
Results and consequences of the war
After the Union troops had pushed the German troops far back in the north as well, Governor Seitz offered General Botha an armistice on May 21, 1915. A conversation between Botha, Franke and Seitz took place at the poison dome south of Omaruru . At the beginning, an agreement appeared. Until the end of the war in Europe, the Germans were to be given the northern part of South West Africa, while South Africa only wanted to occupy the south. British intervention thwarted this agreement. On July 9, 1915, Governor Seitz and Lieutenant Colonel Franke signed a declaration to hand over the entire protected area to the South African Union. 3,497 NCOs and men and 204 officers were taken prisoner. Guns and ammunition were handed over (allegedly the German grenades were later used in German East Africa against the protection force there). Percival Scott Beves has been named Military Governor of South West Africa. On September 11, 1915, a border agreement was reached between the Portuguese West Africa and the South African Union.
The terms of surrender were generally mild. The soldiers were initially left with their handguns (without ammunition). Farm owners were allowed to go home on their word of honor. Officers were allowed to keep their edged weapons and service horses and were largely free to choose their whereabouts in South West Africa. Most of the active part of the protection force, around 1,400 men, were interned in a camp near Aus. The reservists were able to return to Germany. During a flu - Epidemic many German and some of their South African guards died. The South African military took over the administration of the colony with the support of the previous German administrative forces. During the military collapse of the German Empire in November 1918, the South African administrator, Sir Edmond Gorges , expressed his condolences to the German Reich Commissioner in Windhoek. About half of the German population in South West Africa had been expelled to Germany by July 1919. But soon the first expelled Germans came back and received citizenship of South Africa on request.
After the end of German colonial rule, survivors of the Herero and Nama uprisings also returned to their homeland, including the sons of Hendrik Witbooi .
The end of German South West Africa was sealed with the Versailles Peace Treaty on June 28, 1919. According to Article 119 of the Versailles Treaty, Germany renounced "[...] in favor of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers of all its rights and claims with regard to its overseas possessions". The “Protected Area Deutsch-Südwest” became the Mandate Area South West Africa under South African administration . South West Africa was still under martial law until the beginning of 1921 . The Caprivi Strip remained a part of the British Protectorate Bechuanaland until 1929 .
The German revanchism between the world wars aimed, among other things, at the reconquest of South West Africa through the continued propagation of Germany's colonial political claims. This position was represented by the German Colonial Society , which Theodor Seitz - the last governor of “Deutsch-Südwest” - was President from 1920 to 1930 and then Honorary President as well as the German Colonial Warriors Association with propaganda such as “Colonies let food smoke” (1931) .
The South African pre-war plans for the final integration of the former German colony into the heartland of the Union did not work. Nevertheless, the administration by South Africa shaped the political situation for decades. The racism known as apartheid after World War II persisted. Only the establishment of the state of Namibia in 1990 brought state independence. As an exclave of South Africa, Walvis Bay only came to Namibia in 1994.
Other locations outside of Europe
see First World War outside Europe , especially at colonial theaters, see
literature
- Gordon McGregor, Mannfred Goldbeck: No chance. The First World War in Namibia August 1914 - July 1915. Gondwana History , Windhoek 2014, ISBN 978-99916-896-5-4
- Historicus Africanus: The 1st World War in German South West Africa 1914/15, Volume 1: A chronicle of the events since June 30, 1914 , Glanz & Gloria Verlag, Windhoek 2nd edition 2012, ISBN 978-99916-872-1-6 .
- Historicus Africanus: The First World War in German South West Africa 1914/15, Volume 2: Naulila , Glanz & Gloria Verlag, Windhoek 2012, ISBN 978-99916-872-3-0 .
- Historicus Africanus: "The 1st World War in German South West Africa 1914/15", Volume 3: Fights in the South, Glanz & Gloria Verlag, Windhoek 2014, ISBN 978-99916-872-8-5
- Walter Nuhn : In a losing position. German South West Africa in the First World War. Gondwana History, Windhoek 2014, ISBN 978-99916-896-6-1 .
- James Stejskal: "The Horns of the Beast: The Swakop River Campaign and World War I in South-West Africa 1914-15." Helion & Company, ISBN 1909982784 .
- Hans Georg Steltzer: The Germans and their colonial empire. Societäts-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1984, ISBN 3-7973-0416-1 , pp. 304-310.
- Otto von Weber: History of the protected area German South West Africa . Namibia Scientific Society, Windhoek 2010, ISBN 3-936858-38-1 (Germany), ISBN 99916-40-08-8 (Namibia).
- Apologetic works
- Richard Hennig : German Southwest in the World War. Süsseroth publishing house, Berlin 1920.
- Karl Waldeck: Good and Blood for our Emperor: Experiences of a Hessian NCO in World War I and in the prisoner of war camp Aus in South West Africa. Verlag Klein Windhoek, Windhoek 2010, ISBN 978-99945-71-55-0 .
Web links
- German Colonial Atlas with Yearbook 1918: The War in German South West Africa
- Deutsches Historisches Museum: The War in German South West Africa 1914/15
- Namibia's history - German Southwest in World War I ( page no longer available )
- List of names of the German fallen in South West Africa 1914–1918 (memorial book for the colonial memorial in Bremen)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Oliver Janz: 14 - The great war. Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2013, ISBN 978-3-593-39589-0 , pp. 158f.
- ↑ Christian Stachelbeck: Germany's Army and Navy in the First World War . Oldenbourg Verlag Munich 2013, p. 93.
- ^ Hans-Otto Meissner: Dreamland Southwest. European book u. Phonoklub, Stuttgart 1969, p. 295.
-
^ A b German Historical Museum: The War in German South West Africa 1914/15 .
Gerhard Hirschfeld (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia First World War. Schöningh, Paderborn 2003, ISBN 3-506-73913-1 , p. 439.
Oliver Janz: 14 - The great war. Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2013, ISBN 978-3-593-39589-0 , pp. 158f. - ↑ Golf Dornseif: Pioneering Years of Colonial Telegraphy Connections (pdf; 2.2 MB) ( Memento of the original from October 15, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Dreamland Southwest . P. 299
- ↑ Martin Eberhardt: South African annexation efforts and the League of Nations mandate, in: ders .: Between National Socialism and Apartheid. The German population group of South West Africa 1915-1965 . Berlin: Lit, 2007, pp. 45-55. ISBN 3825802256 ( preview in Google book search)
- ↑ Namibia's History - German Southwest in the First World War ( Memento of the original from August 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ O. Hintrager: South West Africa in German times . 1955, p. 190.
- ↑ From the “sandbox” to the communication network The history of the development of the post and telegraph system in the colony of German South West Africa (1884 - 1915). Dissertation, Uni Halle, December 2004. p. 249
- ↑ Reinhard Klein-Arendt: “Kamina calls Nauen!” - The radio stations in the German colonies 1904-1918 . Cologne: Wilhelm Herbst Verlag, 1995, p. 277 ISBN 3-923925-58-1
- ↑ Helmuth Stoecker (Ed.): Drang nach Afrika - The German colonial expansion policy and rule in Africa from the beginning to the loss of the colonies . Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1991, p. 242 ISBN 3-05-000825-3 .
- ↑ Otto von Weber: History of the Protected Area German Southwest Africa . Namibia Scientific Society, Windhoek 2010, ISBN 3-936858-38-1 (Germany), ISBN 99916-40-08-8 (Namibia), p. 208.
- ↑ Otto von Weber: History of the Protected Area German Southwest Africa . Namibia Scientific Society, Windhoek 2010, ISBN 3-936858-38-1 (Germany), ISBN 99916-40-08-8 (Namibia), p. 211.
- ↑ Dreamland Southwest . P. 295
- ↑ a b First World War in German South West Africa ( Memento of the original from April 25, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (from: Chronicle of German South West Africa by HE Lenssen, Windhoek 1966)
- ↑ Golf Dornseif: The Boer Rebellion ( Memento of the original from October 6, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.1 MB)
- ↑ Hans Georg Steltzer: The Germans and their colonial empire, page 306-307
- ↑ Otto von Weber: History of the Protected Area German Southwest Africa . Namibia Scientific Society, Windhoek 2010, ISBN 3-936858-38-1 (Germany), ISBN 99916-40-08-8 (Namibia), p. 211 ff.
- ↑ Jürgen Zimmerer: German South West Africa, in: Gerhard Hirschfeld, Gerd Krumeich, Irina Renz (eds.): Encyclopedia First World War. Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2009, ISBN 978-3-506-76578-9 , p. 439.
- ↑ "Kamina calls Nauen!" , P. 285 ff.
- ^ Golf Dornseif: Enigmatic adventure Caprivi Zipfel. (PDF) ( Memento of the original from September 24, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Thomas Morlang: Askari and Fitafita: “Colored” mercenaries in the German colonies . Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag, 2008, p. 69 ff. ISBN 978-3-86153-476-1 ( online in the Google book search)
- ^ German Leader Killed , article from The New York Times, January 28, 1915
- ↑ "Kamina calls Nauen!" , P. 276
- ↑ Photo of a British auxiliary cruiser off Swakopmund, September 1914 , Colonial Image Archive, University Library Frankfurt am Main
- ^ Andreas Leipold: The German naval warfare in the Pacific in the years 1914 and 1915. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-447-06602-0 , p. 389f.
- ^ Karl-Dieter Seifert: German aviators over the colonies . Zweibrücken: VDM Heinz Nickel, 2007. ISBN 978-3-86619-019-1
- ^ German pilots over the colonies , p. 98 ff.
- ↑ Golf Dornseif: Background on the Portuguese bloodbath Naulila (pdf; 1.5 MB) ( Memento of the original from October 6, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Thomas Morlang: No sparing. The Naulila incident and the German punitive expeditions against the neutral Portuguese Angola. In: Military History . No. 8/1998, pp. 43-48.
- ↑ a b Chronology of Namibian History: 1914
- ↑ a b c d Chronology of Namibian History: 1915
- ↑ Veit Didczuneit: Sun flashes in the desert - The light telegraphy in German South West Africa 1899-1915. In: The archive - magazine for communication history. Issue 2, 2017, p. 27.
- ↑ Cancellation of the friendship contract between Baster and Germans (pdf, English; 14 kB)
- ^ Website of the Rehoboth Baster: In memory of Sam-Khubis
- ↑ a b Traumland Südwest , p. 298
- ↑ Kamina calls Nauen! , P. 287 ff.
- ^ Hans-Otto Meissner: Dreamland Southwest . Stuttgart: European book u. Phonoklub, 1969, p. 297 f.
- ^ Ali Hoffmann: German East Africa in the World Wars . In: Battle for Colonies. 3rd edition, Berlin 1939, p. 31
- ↑ Peace Treaty of Versailles: German rights and interests outside Germany (Articles 118 to 158)
- ^ Institute for Contemporary History Munich-Berlin : bibliographical evidence
- ↑ Die Zeit: German South West Africa becomes Namibia . Article of March 19, 2010
