Women's movement in Germany

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The women's movement in Germany was constituted in the second half of the 19th century as a result of revolutionary and civil rights movements . From then to now, it has been characterized by diverse political interests, which means that there is no consistent women's movement , but rather many different arenas of political activity, some of which knew little or nothing about each other.

First German women's movement

After women's rights had already been proclaimed in France and Great Britain as a result of the declaration of civil and freedom rights by the French Revolution , revolutionary movements also emerged in Germany in 1848. "I recruit women for the realm of freedom," writes Louise Otto-Peters in the first German women's newspaper , which she founded in 1849. The right to vote is already discussed here as a main requirement. Louise Otto-Peters is therefore considered to be the founder of the German women's movement. The most important goal of this first generation of the women's movement, to which Auguste Schmidt and Henriette Goldschmid also belonged, was the right of women to work and education. The education and work of women should not only serve the women themselves, but the whole of society. In addition, education and work should enable women to live financially independent from men. Up until then there were hardly any opportunities for bourgeois women to work.

General German Women's Association (ADF)

The Gazebo (1894) b257

In 1865 a women's conference took place in Germany for the first time, at which the General German Women's Association was founded. The aim of this ADF was "the increased education of the female sex and the liberation of female work from all obstacles" . Louise Otto-Peters became the first chairman, Auguste Schmidt second. Officially, this is the mark for the first German women's movement, which is also known as the bourgeois women's movement. The demand for women's suffrage is initially no longer raised.

Hedwig Dohm , born in Berlin in 1831 , has been active as a women's rights activist, pacifist, essayist and author in many areas of political discussion throughout her life. She played a key role in shaping this first German women's movement, in which the primary goals were the right to education and work: " There is no freedom for men unless there is freedom for women. ” Her essay The Nature and Law of Women was widely read and had a great impact through her argument. The phrase “human rights have no gender” stuck in the minds of many and is still evident today.

Resistance to this women's movement came both from the ranks of the men and from the women themselves. One problem of the women's movement was the prohibition in Prussia on women to be politically active. While women were able to be politically active in other German states, Prussian women were forbidden until 1908 to organize themselves politically or to attend political meetings - even if they often undermined this. The main objective of the ADF remained the education of women and the right to work.

Eligible members of the association could only be women, men were only admitted as advisors, which brought them the accusation of hostility towards men. Local associations were founded all over Germany, so that in 1870 the number of members was 10,000.

More and more associations were founded, which had made the right of women to education and employment on their flag. In 1866, for example, the Association for the Promotion of Employment of Women in Berlin was founded. It became a Lette Association after its founder Dr. Adolf Lette called, who campaigned for the employment of women, but still vehemently spoke out against the political equality of women. In 1887 Helene Lange sent a petition to the Prussian Minister of Education and the Prussian House of Representatives . In it she called for the academic training of teachers for higher girls' schools and the increasing occupation of teaching positions with women. This yellow pamphlet caused a sensation, although it was still completely attached to the traditional image of women. The young girls should be prepared for their role as mothers, either as mothers of their own children or as teachers at girls' schools, where they could bring their “spiritual motherhood” to bear. In 1889 Helene Lange founded the General German Teachers' Association in Berlin. The aim of this association was to allow women to graduate from high school and to study. The political participation of women was only discussed as a long-term goal.

Federation of German Women's Associations (BDF)

In 1894, many of the women's associations formed the " Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine ". The first chairwoman was the head of the “General German Women's Association” Auguste Schmidt. Women’s associations from the most varied of parties and ideologies should be included. In return, the goals were kept very general. Nevertheless, the associations of the proletarian women's movement were excluded with the argument that these socialist workers' associations were political.

Proletarian women's movement

The bourgeois women's movement had only sporadically campaigned for the interests of the workers. The proletarian women's movement was embedded in the socialist labor movement, which assumed that the liberation of women was only possible through a change in the existing form of society. Clara Zetkin and Emma Ihr were important representatives of the proletarian women's movement . August Bebel's book Die Frau und der Sozialismus , published in 1879, marked a milestone in the proletarian women's movement. Gradually calls for equal wages for equal work, for the protection of women workers, but also for women's suffrage , equal educational opportunities for women, became loud within the workers' organizations . The women's magazine Die Equality, edited by Clara Zetkin, has been published since 1891 .

There were hardly any points of contact between the bourgeois and proletarian women's movements; only in the discussion about a new version of the civil code, both currents argued against the provisions that discriminated against women.

Women's suffrage

At the turn of the century, many new civil women's associations were founded that joined the Federation of German Women's Associations. In 1914, 250,000 women were members of the BDF through one of the numerous women's associations. The newly founded associations included the German Protestant Women's Association (1899), the Catholic Women's Association of Germany (1903) and the Jewish Women's Association (1904). In addition, the first women's professional associations were founded during this time. When women were able to become members of political organizations from 1908 onwards, women's groups emerged within the parties. Feminists have been in favor of women's suffrage since the 1870s, according to Hedwig Dohm in 1876 and Helene Lange in 1896 in her programmatic work "Frauenwahlrecht", which she was able to publish in the renowned Cosmopolis magazine. In 1902 Anita Augspurg , Lida Gustava Heymann , Minna Cauer and Helene Stöcker founded the German Association for Women's Suffrage . The proletarian women's movement within the left parties and the trade unions also advocated women's suffrage since the 1890s. As in many other countries, women were given the right to vote after the end of the First World War .

Women for peace

Bertha founded Suttner as early as 1892 , a convinced pacifist and author of the anti-war novel Die Waffen Down! the Austrian and the German Peace Society . In 1914, convinced that a blitzkrieg could maintain the power of the nation, the Federation of German Women's Associations let themselves be harnessed to the cart of the Patriotic War: during the war, the struggles for women's rights were to be stopped. However, some stuck to their convictions and called for a women's peace congress . Lida Gustava Heymann (1868–1943) and Anita Augspurg (1857–1943), initiators of the Association for Women's Suffrage in 1902, are considered to be the initiators of the 1915 women's congress on peace in The Hague. They were supported by the staunch pacifists Minna Cauer (1841–1922), editor of the magazine Frauenbewegung , Hedwig Dohm (1831–1919), Helene Stöcker (1869–1943), Rosa Mayreder (1858–1938) and Clara Zetkin (1857–1933 ). At the women's congress, the women of Europe were called on to protest against the war, denounce violence against women during the war, stand up for political equality, for international conferences with women participation, for disarmament and much more. The International Women's League for Peace and Freedom was founded, and the 20-point catalog of the women's congress is said to have influenced the formulation of President Woodrow Wilson's peace plan.

Women's organizations at the time of National Socialism

The Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine dissolved in 1933 in order to avoid being brought into line by the National Socialists . This meant the end of an independent women's movement in Germany. Some women's associations such as the "German Evangelical Women's Association", the "House and Country Women's Associations " and the "Women's Association of the German Colonial Society " joined the National Socialist " German Women's Work ". Together with the Nazi women’s association, this formed the co -ordinated organization of women during the Nazi era. They were less concerned with fighting women's rights than with integrating women into the goals of National Socialism. In 1933 women lost their right to vote and were expelled from parliaments. Her role as mother and housewife was emphasized. Shortly before and during the Second World War, however, the importance of female gainful employment was recognized again. The women had to fill the jobs of the men at war.

After the Second World War

In 1949 the Basic Law came into force in West Germany . In Article 3, the equal rights guaranteed by husband and wife. The mothers of the Basic Law Elisabeth Selbert , Helene Wessel , Helene Weber and Friederike Nadig fought for this article .

In 1949 the German Women's Council was founded as an umbrella organization for a wide variety of West German women's associations, but it was considered an association of more conservative women's organizations.

Federal Archives Image 183-78024-0007, Berlin, VII. DFD Federal Congress

New German women's movement

In 1968, again under the influence of politically revolutionary processes of upheaval, the “New German Women's Movement” emerged. At first, it was characterized by a great deal of ignorance, not only with regard to the demands and goals of the first German women's movement, but also with regard to all the activities that have taken place since the end of the Second World War had been started by various women's initiatives (e.g. in 1950 the Democratic Women's Federation of Germany , which advocated the safeguarding of peace and the restoration of Germany's unity, and also for equal rights for women; the West German women's peace movement , the women's conferences of the German Trade Union Federation from 1952, the German Association of Women Lawyers, etc.). In 1968 there was still no historical awareness of the continuity of the issues and activities of the women's groups. Schools and the media were not the place to pass on this information, women's history was not part of historical knowledge, so this knowledge was suppressed for a long time.

The Socialist German Student Union and the Extra-Parliamentary Opposition emerged from the student movement . As a demarcation movement on the part of women, in order to pursue their own political goals, the children's shop movement initially emerged with the aim of being able to release more energy for political work when childcare is organized collectively. Pedagogical and socio-political discussions quickly followed. Helke Sander , co-founder of the Action Council for the Liberation of Women , made a demand in her speech at the 23rd SDS delegate conference in September 1968 in Frankfurt: “We want to try to develop models of a utopian society within the existing society. But our own needs must finally find a place in this opposing society. ”The non-reaction to this speech led to the“ tomato throw ”, which marked the beginning of the“ New German Women's Movement ”. Political discussions began again from here: the abortion law, the childcare issue, equal pay for equal work, family law, violence against women, women and peace, and utopian lifestyles that analyzed and questioned traditional attitudes and institutionalized structures.

The editor Alice Schwarzer judges:

"But it is well known that the women's movement in particular emerged in the West in the early 1970s, not least out of protest against the left."

- Alice Schwarzer, 2010

Important legal, social and cultural stations of emancipation in Germany

In Germany, too, significant steps towards equal rights for women did not take place until the 20th century.

education

  • 4th century and before: In Germany, Jewish children receive their lessons in accordance with the religious rules at home: boys first from their father, later from the rabbi. Girls are taught by their mother.
  • In 1524, the reformer Martin Luther, in his writing To the wheel (s) lords of all cities in Germany, demands that they set up Christian schools and that the establishment of city schools for boys and girls should echo . According to Luther's claim, the children should “not hear the languages ​​and histories alone, but also sing and learn Musica with all of Mathematica.” So that the children can continue to assist their parents in the household or in their business, school attendance should be two times a day Limit the hours for the boys to one hour a day for the girls.
  • In 1529 Magdalena von Staupitz built one of the first elementary schools for girls in Grimma . Subjects include handicrafts, making music, math, history and religion. Von Staupitz fled the monastery with Martin Luther's later wife Katharina von Bora in 1523 . The former nun, later married Geuder, ran the school until her death in 1548. The institute itself existed into the 19th century.
  • 16th / 17th century: New Catholic orders of women , such as the Ursulines (1535 in Italy / 1639 in Germany), the Katharinerinnen (1571) and the English Misses (1609 in England / 1620 temporarily, since 1627 permanently in Germany), commit themselves of girls' education. In addition to reading and writing, they learn handicrafts and other household skills.
  • 1592 The Lutheran reformed Duchy of Pfalz-Zweibrücken is the first country in the world to introduce compulsory schooling for girls and boys.
  • 1754 Dorothea Erxleben is the first woman to receive a doctorate - in medicine - at the University of Halle due to a special permit from the Prussian King Frederick the Great .
  • 1802 The first “ urban secondary school for girls ” is founded in Hanover . Further institutions, some privately and some city-run, will follow throughout Germany. The higher daughter schools teach girls initially up to the age of 14, later also up to the age of 16. The maximum attainable educational qualification corresponds roughly to the secondary school leaving certificate up to the year 1890 .
  • 1893 Opening of the first German girls' high school by the “Frauenbildungs-Reform” association in Karlsruhe .
  • In 1896 six young women passed the Abitur at the Luisengymnasium Berlin - and thus for the first time in Prussia .
  • 1896 First admission of women as guest students at Prussian universities (in preparation for the senior teacher examination). Not all lectures are open to guest students, nor can they take exams or acquire degrees.
  • In 1899 women were allowed to study medicine or pharmaceuticals at Prussian universities.
  • 1900 Unrestricted studies for women in the Grand Duchy of Baden - the first German state.
  • 1908 Final equality between girls and boys in Prussia. The so-called girls 'school reform integrates the girls' higher education into the higher education system. This guarantees equivalent teaching and admission to high school and university studies. The previous "girls' diploma" did not automatically entitle them to attend university.
  • From the late 1950s onwards, co-education was gradually introduced (since 1945 in the German Democratic Republic).
  • 1986 First chair for historical women's studies, in Bonn.

Politics and public opinion formation

  • 1791 Declaration of the rights of women and citizens by the French woman Olympe de Gouges . The contemporary broad impact of the text is historically controversial; it was rediscovered in 1972 by Hannelore Schröder and probably first published in German in 1977.
  • 1848 The March Revolution gives women the right of association and assembly (which was soon repealed by the reaction).
  • 1849 Foundation of the women's newspaper ( gradually banned between 1850 and 1853) in Großenhain ( Kingdom of Saxony ).
  • 1850 In Saxony, the Lex Otto , with a view to the Frauen-Zeitung , forbids women to publish newspapers and even to collaborate as an editor.
  • 1850 The Prussian Law on Associations prohibits women from joining political associations and parties. They are also forbidden from attending political gatherings and meetings.
  • In 1853, Prussia also forbade women to publish newspapers (see Frauen-Zeitung).
  • 1865 Founding of the General German Women's Association (ADF; from 1928 German Citizens' Association ). The aim is initially to open up (unmarried) women from middle-class classes to a wider range of gainful employment; According to the association's founder, Louise Otto-Peters , “proletarians” were forced to work out of poverty anyway. What is new is that for the first time a women's association is being organized without men and run solely by women. The magazine Neue Bahnen (Louise Otto-Peters, Auguste Schmidt ) established itself as the mouthpiece of the ADF; it was replaced in 1920 by the monthly magazine Die Frau in der Gemeinde .
  • 1866 In Berlin, Wilhelm Adolf Lette founds the association for the promotion of employability of women (short: Lette-Verein ). The occupational policy goals are similar to those of the ADF, but without wanting to work towards the political and social emancipation of women: gainful employment should not impair the “natural profession of mother and housewife” (see also section “Profession”).
  • 1866 Foundation of the Fatherland Women's Association by the Prussian Queen Augusta . Originating from the military care for the wounded, the national and conservative oriented association propagates the role of women as mother and healer. Provided with a female chairperson (Louise Gabriele Marie von Itzenplitz (1866/67); Charlotte Clementine von Itzenplitz , (1867–1916)), the entire board is made up of equal numbers of women and men. The association soon has more than half a million female members.
  • 1891 On the initiative of Clara Zetkins , the SPD demands general women's suffrage in the Erfurt basic program .
  • 1894 Formation of the Federation of German Women's Associations (BDF) in Berlin, as a politically “moderate”, bourgeois umbrella organization of women's associations.
  • 1897 The social democrat August Bebel publishes his book "Die Frau und der Sozialismus". The central thesis of the widely published work is that a complete emancipation of women cannot be achieved under the conditions of capitalism.
  • 1908 The Reich Association Act enables women to join explicitly political associations and parties. With Luise Zietz , a woman can move into the board of the SPD for the first time.
  • 1915 Foundation of the International Women's League for Peace and Freedom (IFFF). The co-founders Anita Augspurg and Lida Gustava Heymann criticize militarism and war from a specifically feminist perspective and declare them to be the results of male rule. Women are being misused as "birthing machines".
  • 1918 General women's suffrage (the first Reichstag election with women's suffrage takes place in 1919).
  • 1918 Minna Faßhauer becomes the first German minister in the Socialist Republic of Braunschweig , as People's Commissar for Popular Education.
  • 1933 - 1945 In the era of National Socialism , women as well as men were recorded and indoctrinated in various forms in the NS organizations: Faith and beauty , NS women , German women’s work , working women in the German Labor Front (DAF). In 1941 around 6 million women were organized accordingly, i.e. every fifth woman over the age of 18. For girls between 14 and 18 years of age, membership in the BDM has been mandatory since 1936 .
  • 1949 Equal rights for women and men enshrined in the Basic Law and the Constitution of the German Democratic Republic .
  • 1953 In the GDR , Hilde Benjamin takes over the justice department as minister.
  • 1961 In the Federal Republic of Germany, Elisabeth Schwarzhaupt (CDU) becomes a woman federal minister for the first time (department: health care).
  • 1972 Annemarie Renger (SPD) becomes the first president of the German Bundestag .
  • 1993 Heide Simonis (SPD) becomes the first female minister-president of a federal state (Schleswig-Holstein).
  • 1999 Introduction of the "Gender Mainstreaming Strategy" by the federal government ( Cabinet Schröder I ) to promote equality between men and women.
  • 2005 Angela Merkel (CDU) is the first woman to take over the office of German Chancellor .
  • 2006 Anti-Discrimination Act

job

  • 1865/66 Foundation of the ADF and the Lette Association . In 1872, classes began in the schools of the Lette Association. In addition to "classic" women's jobs, such as handicraft embroiderers, technically oriented professional fields are offered, including a. Telegraphist, bookbinder and secretary (at that time the secretarial profession was still a male domain) (see also section “Politics”).
  • 1903 When Henriette Arendt entered the police force, she managed to break into a classic “man's job”. Arendt becomes the first uniformed German female police officer (police assistant or police officer) in Stuttgart . Your area of ​​responsibility is limited to dealing with female prostitutes and helping children. In the 1920s, Baden and Saxony each founded a uniformed female police force (WP). Hamburg (lead: Josephine Erkens ) and Prussia (lead: Friedrike Wieking ) organize a female criminal police (WKP ). The uniformed but unarmed WP units were disbanded during the Nazi era, while the WKP was introduced and reorganized throughout the Reich in 1937.
  • 1912 The Technical University of Berlin graduates with Elisa Leonida Zamfirescu, the first female chemical engineer in Europe.
  • 1914-1918 During the First World War, women are enlisted en masse for the first time to support the military (sanitary service) and the war economy (agricultural work, armament work). In addition to the DRK , the Order of St. John, the Order of Malta and the Order of St. George provide voluntary nurses. At the beginning of the war, the organizations together counted around 11,000 nurses. The "imperial commissioner of voluntary nursing" was also able to dispose of around 40,000 religious sisters and deaconesses. There are also nurses, of whom the DRK alone trained 20,000 in crash courses in the first year of the war. Of the estimated 213,000 volunteer nurses of both sexes who were doing military service in the care of the wounded until 1918, almost half are women. The foundation stone for the integration of the (female and male) voluntary nursing into the military apparatus was laid by the War Sanitary Ordinance of 1878: It stipulated that in the event of war, voluntary nursing should be subordinate to military orders and thus be organized centrally. The modalities were regulated by the field service and stage order of 1887.
In terms of numbers, the proportion of women working in the war economy is far greater: at the beginning of 1918 the Prussian War Ministry had 4 million women entrusted with war-related work, including 750,000 women in the armaments industry. There was no general compulsory service until the end of the war, although in August 1916 the 3rd OHL under Hindenburg and Ludendorff tried to enforce a corresponding demand for all women between 15 and 60 years of age. Since 1916, however, the women's labor center , within the newly established War Office of the Prussian War Ministry, has been helping with the systematic integration of women into the war economy. To head is Marie-Elisabeth Lueders appointed.
Since the beginning of 1918, numerous workers have also been on strike for an early peace and an improvement in the poor supply situation. The "women's strike" of around 1,700 women workers at the German arms and ammunition factory in Berlin Wittenau, from 17.-22. August 1918.
  • 1933-1945 Although the Nazi regime defines the role of women as that of the wife and mother, it cannot do without female labor. In May 1939, out of 31 million women between the ages of 14 and 65, 14.6 million women were employed full or part-time. The number remained largely constant even during the war, with a low in May 1941 (14.1 million) and a high in September 1944 (14.9 million), of which almost 8 million worked in the armaments industry. For comparison: Great Britain achieved a significantly higher degree of mobilization in the first half of the year, 10 million of 17.2 million women are employed (61%), in Germany it is only 14.3 million (46%). In addition, around 1.5 million foreign women had to do forced labor in Germany in 1944 (in addition to 6.1 million male forced laborers).
  • 1935 After the re-introduction of compulsory military service by the National Socialist state (Defense Act of March 16, 1935), the Defense Act of May 21, 1935 stipulates that women are compulsory in the event of war. With the establishment of the Reich Labor Service (RAD) since June 1935, all "Germans of both sexes" have been obliged to work. Now "Arbeitsmaiden" can also be drafted for half a year.
  • 1939-1945 During the Second World War, around 500,000 female air raid guards, about the same number of women in the DRK medical service and 500,000 to 600,000 Wehrmacht and SS helpers supported the military. The latter perform service, for example: as office workers and assistants in rear staff and in the Reich air defense , but are also deployed as auxiliary gunners in the flak or as SS guards in concentration and extermination camps. With the impending defeat in World War II, a secret order from the OKW (February 28, 1945) softened the ban on weapons for women. Martin Bormann , head of the NSDAP Reich Chancellery, wrote a circular (March 5, 1945) authorizing the NSDAP Gauleiter to train women to use handguns to "protect themselves". In February 1945, Adolf Hitler even approved the provisional formation of a women's battalion, which, however, was no longer possible due to the imminent German surrender.
  • 1946 In Schleswig-Holstein, the British occupying forces organized a female uniformed police force that was disbanded in 1952 despite its success. The policewomen are usually entrusted with traffic, sexual or family matters and still do not carry a firearm. It was not until the late 1960s that women were admitted to the general criminal service and the upper-level career ( commissioner ). For the first time you will receive shooting lessons and will be armed accordingly. The renewed deployment of female police officers, now armed, happened in West Berlin in 1980 (training began in 1978), and the West German federal states followed by the end of the decade.
  • 1952 The Maternity Protection Act improves the legal status of pregnant women and mothers in the workplace. Special regulations will be issued later for civil servants.
  • 1954 The employment ban for married women in the public service is lifted.
  • 1958 Abolition of celibacy among teachers .
  • 1958 The Equal Rights Act abolishes the husband's right to terminate his wife's employment at any time without notice.
  • In 1975 the first women join the armed forces and conquer another "male domain" with the military. Initially, only doctors, dentists, veterinarians and pharmacists who are already qualified will be accepted as medical officers. It was not until 1989 that female medical officer candidates were recruited, and in 1991 female crews and non-commissioned officers in medical and music services. Since 2001, all careers have been open to women without restriction; H. also in combat units. In the National People's Army of the GDR, women were able to volunteer in the medical and back-office services from the start , and since 1984 also as officers.
  • 1992 The Federal Constitutional Court lifts the ban on night work for factory workers.
  • 1994 Jutta Limbach becomes the first woman president of the Federal Constitutional Court .
  • 2001 The Federal Equal Opportunities Act comes into force.
  • 2004 Karin Dorrepaal from the Netherlands is the first woman to be promoted to the board of a DAX company.

Marriage, family and individual self-determination

  • 1900 Single women are granted full legal capacity
  • 1958 The Equal Rights Act (see above) abolishes the husband's sole right of determination over wife and children. The man no longer determines the place of residence of his wife and children alone. Women are now allowed to manage the assets brought into the marriage themselves. The community of gains becomes a statutory property regime, which means a better position in terms of property law for the mostly incomeless housewives and wives. Women are now allowed to acquire a driver's license without the permission of their father or husband.
  • 1958 for a Federal Constitutional judgment the Ehegattensplitting introduced instead of the total tax assessment.
  • 1959 The Federal Constitutional Court declares those provisions of the obedience paragraph adopted in the Equal Rights Act (1958 no longer applicable, previously: § 1354 BGB) to be null and void, which gave the father the final decision (casting vote) in matters of upbringing of the child and left the father with the sole legal representation of the child.
  • 1962 Women are allowed to open their own bank account
  • 1968 Mutterschutzgesetz ("Law for the Protection of Working Mothers")
  • 1969 Married women are considered legally competent
  • 1976 The spouses can choose the name of the woman instead of the name of the man as a family name .
  • 1977 In the case of divorces, the principle of breakdown takes the place of the principle of guilt. This also changes the maintenance law; until then, the “guilty” divorced spouse was not entitled to maintenance from the ex-partner.
  • 1977 Abolition of "housewife marriage": women no longer have to run the household.
  • 1978 First women's refuge (Baden-Württemberg)
  • 1986 Introduction of childcare allowance and childcare leave
  • In 1991 the Federal Constitutional Court rejected the principle that the man's last name becomes a married name if the couple cannot agree on a last name.

Sexual self-determination

  • 1961 The approval of the birth control pill in the Federal Republic of Germany enables women to use contraception independent of the involvement of men. Initially, they are only given to married mothers on a doctor's prescription. In 1965, the GDR followed suit with the dream child pill .
  • 1973 Reform of the Kuppeleiparagraphs in the Federal Republic of Germany (§§ 180 and 181 StGB; abolished in the GDR in 1968), which made the "provision of opportunities for fornication " as pimping a criminal offense. So far, this has also been the case when the sexual acts were carried out by unmarried or unmarried adults. Until then, this applied u. a. The rental of hotel rooms to adults who are not married to each other, but also to parents who have allowed the adult friend of their adult child to stay overnight (together) in their parents' apartment. The reform of the Kuppeleiparagraphs (which, modified, continue to apply to minors) represents an important step towards the sexual self-determination of men and women.
  • 1974 to 1976 the amendment of Paragraph 218 in the Federal Republic of Germany facilitates abortion. The initially resolved time limit solution (abortion as in the regulation in force since 1972 in the GDR during the first 12 weeks, but with an obligation to advise in the Federal Republic of Germany) is declared unconstitutional by the Federal Constitutional Court and is therefore replaced by the indications model (abortion only when life is at risk or the mother's health, procreation through certain sexual crimes such as rape, impending disability of the child or social emergency).
  • In 1992 (two years after reunification), a deadline solution with an obligation to provide advice is decided again for termination of pregnancy. In 1993 the Federal Constitutional Court again declared the termination of pregnancy without an indication to be unconstitutional, but this time it was not required that it should also be punished.
  • 1997 In marriage, too, forced sexual acts are punishable as sexual coercion or rape (previously only punishable as simple coercion ).
  • 1998 Loss of § 1300 BGB, which provided for compensation payments from the husband (" wreath money ") in the case of non-marriage after sexual intercourse. Unmarried women who have lost their virginity as a result of mutual cohabitation are therefore no longer legally considered to be “damaged”.
  • 2016 new sexual criminal law ("No means No")

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. Olympe de Gouges had published the "Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizens" in Paris in 1791.
  2. Hervé, Florence (ed.): History of the German women's movement. Pahl-Rugenstein, Cologne 1988
  3. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 15.
  4. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 17
  5. Dohm, Hedwig: The scientific emancipation of women. Wedekind and Schwieger, Berlin 1874
  6. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 20.
  7. Gisela Bock shows in her essay that the story of the German special path with the particular backwardness of the women's movement cannot be sustained, Bock: The political thinking of suffragism: Germany around 1900 in international comparison, in: dies .: Gender stories of the modern age. Ideas, politics, practice. Göttingen 2014, 168–203.
  8. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 22.
  9. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 22.
  10. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 24.
  11. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 30.
  12. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 30ff.
  13. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 38f.
  14. Gisela Bock: The political thinking of suffragism: Germany around 1900 in an international comparison, in: dies .: Gender stories of the modern age. Ideas, politics, practice. Göttingen 2014, 168–203, here 177–180.
  15. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 44f.
  16. Rosemarie Nave-Herz: The history of the women's movement in Germany, Bonn 1993, p. 52ff.
  17. Elefanten Press Verlag: Heiss und Kalt - The years 1945-69. Elefanten Press, Berlin 1993
  18. ^ Editor Emma , on her website , March 8, 2010: Get rid of March 8 !
  19. Landesarchiv Berlin, foreword to the finding aid for the General German Women's Association ( memento of the original from April 23, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.landesarchiv-berlin.de