Lothal

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Coordinates: 22 ° 31 ′ 17 "  N , 72 ° 14 ′ 58"  E

Extension and most important sites of the Indus culture
Plan of the Lothal excavation

Lothal [ / ˈloːtʰəl / ] ( Gujarati લોથલ ‚Hill of the Dead ') was an important city of the ancient Indus culture . Located in today's state of Gujarat and dating from the 24th century BC. The city, which dates back to 7 BC, is India's most important archaeological site from this era.

Lothal is located near the city of Saragwala in the Taluk (an administrative unit) Dholka of the Ahmedabad district , six kilometers southeast of the Lothal-Bhurkhi station on the Ahmedabad– Bhavnagar railway line , and is also on the all-weather roads to Ahmedabad (85 km), Bhavnagar, Rajkot and Dholka connected. The closest cities are Dholka and Bagodara.

The quay of Lothal - the oldest known quay in the world - connected the city with an ancient course of the Sabarmati on the trade route between Harappa in Sindh and the Saurashtra peninsula when the surrounding Kachchh desert was still part of the Arabian Sea . In ancient times it was a lively and prosperous trading center, from where pearls, precious stones and valuable pieces of jewelry were traded as far as the Middle East .

After the discovery in 1954, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) directed the excavation from February 13, 1955 to May 19, 1960. The settlement and the port area were brought to light. After the excavations resumed, archaeologists dug search trenches on the northern, eastern and western flanks of the hill and discovered the canals and nullah ( canyons or gullies) that connected the port to the river. The finds included a hill, a settlement, a market square and the harbor. Near the excavation site is the Archaeological Museum, which exhibits one of the most famous collections of objects from the Indus culture in modern India.

Lothal was added to the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage in 2014.

archeology

The meaning of the name Lothal, which is composed of the Gujarati words Loth and (s) thal and translated as "hill of the dead", is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindhi means the same thing. The people in the later neighboring villages of Lothal knew of the presence of an ancient city and human remains. Boats could still sail up to the hill in 1850, and in 1942 wood was brought by ship from Bharuch to Saragwala. A silted up river arm between today's Bholad and Lothal and Saragwala shows the old course of a river.

After the partition of India in 1947, most of the cities of the Indus culture, including Mohenjodaro and Harappa , fell on Pakistani territory. The Archaeological Survey of India therefore started a new research project and discovered several places around Gujarat. Between 1954 and 1958, more than 50 sites were excavated on the Kutch and Saurashtra peninsulas, showing that the Indus civilization extended 500 km further east to the Kim River, where Bhagatrav borders the Narmada and Tapti river valleys . Lothal is 270 km from Mohenjodaro in Sindh .

Given the relatively small dimensions of the city center, there has been speculation that Lothal as a whole was not a large settlement and that the alleged port was perhaps an irrigation reservoir. However, the ASI and other archaeologists assure that the city was part of a river system on the ancient trade route from Sindh to Saurashtra in Gujarat.

Finds in cemeteries suggest that the inhabitants were likely to have Dravidian , proto-Australoid or Mediterranean physiognomy . Lothal offers the largest Indian collection of prehistoric archaeological finds. The finds are essentially attributable to the Indus culture. There was also an indigenous mica- red pottery, which presumably predates the Indus culture. A distinction is made between two sub-periods of the Indus culture; the main period (2400–1900 BC) is identical to the actual culture of Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

To the northwest of Lothal is the Kutch Peninsula, which until recently was part of the Arabian Sea. Because of this, and because of its proximity to the Gulf of Cambay , the Lothal River provided direct access to sea routes.

In Lothal, the Indus culture was still flourishing when it had already fallen into disrepair in Mohenjodaro and Harappa. But tropical storms and floods caused immense destruction that destabilized the culture and eventually brought it to an end. Topographical analysis indicates that at the time of the sinking, the region suffered from drought and lower rainfall during the monsoons . The reasons for the abandonment of the city can therefore be seen in both climate changes and natural disasters, as magnetic recordings of the environment suggest.

Lothal is located on a hill that was inundated by the tide as a salt marsh . Remote sensing and topographical studies published in 2004 by Indian scientists in the Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union reveal an ancient, winding river near Lothal (30 km long, according to satellite imagery), which is an ancient extension of the northern bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo represents. The small width (10–300 m) compared to the lower reaches (1.2–1.6 km) suggest that the flood reached the city or even further. The upper parts of the river were a useful source of fresh water for local residents.

history

Before the arrival of the Harappa culture (around 2400 BC), Lothal was a small place near a river that provided access to the mainland from the Gulf of Khambhat . The residents maintained a flourishing economy, as evidenced by the discovery of copper objects, pearls and semi-precious stones. There was ceramics made of fine, smooth clay with a red mica surface. They improved the technique for firing pottery under partially oxidizing and reducing conditions. The inhabitants were called Meluḫḫiter in Sumerian .

The Harrappa people were primarily interested in the sheltered harbor, the rich cotton and rice fields and the pearl industry. In the west there was presumably a great demand for Lothal pearls and gemstones. The new settlers apparently lived peacefully with their predecessors, who adopted their lifestyles, which is reflected in the flourishing trade and changed work techniques. The Harrappa people began to produce the ceramic goods in the style of the indigenous people.

urban planning

A flood destroyed around 2350 BC. The foundations of the city and the settlements. The Harrappa people from the area around Lothal and Sindh took the opportunity to expand their settlement and to carry out urban planning based on the model of larger cities in the Indus valley. Lothal's planners wanted to protect the area from floods. They divided the city into blocks with one to two meter high platforms made of sun-dried bricks, on which 20-30 houses were built from thick mud and bricks.

The city consisted of a citadel or acropolis and a lower district. The rulers lived in the Acropolis, which featured tiled baths, underground and above-ground drainage made of roasted bricks, and a drinking water fountain. The lower part of the city consisted of two sectors. The main street running in north-south direction between the residential areas served as a trading center; on the side of the road were shops of rich and simple merchants and craftsmen. During the heyday, the lower town was regularly enlarged.

For the engineers, the construction of the port and warehouse was a top priority in order to meet the requirements of the sea trade. While the majority of archaeologists identify this structure as a port, there are voices that speak of an irrigation basin and canal. The port built in the east of the city is considered a technical achievement. It is located away from the central course of the river in order to avoid silting up, but also provides access for ships at high tide. The warehouse is located on a 3.5 m high mud brick dais near the Acropolis so that the rulers could oversee activities in the port and warehouse. A 220 m long berth on the west side of the port, which was connected to the warehouse via a ramp, facilitated the transport of goods.

There was an important public building opposite the warehouse, the superstructure of which has completely disappeared. During its history, the city has been exposed to floods and storms many times. The port and the city walls were preserved. The busy rebuilding of the city increased trade. With the increasing prosperity, however, the care for the structural structures decreased, possibly as a result of too much trust in their systems. A medium-sized flood revealed in 2050 BC. Some weaknesses, but the problems were not properly addressed.

Economy and urban culture

An old well and the city's drainage canals

The uniform organization of the city and its institutions show the discipline of the Harappa people. Trade and administration corresponded to the standards that are known from the Indus valley. The city administration was very strict - the width of most of the streets remained the same for a long time and no structures were built on them. The homeowners had septic tanks or septic tanks to collect the garbage so it wouldn't clog the sewers. Drains, manholes and septic tanks kept the city clean and channeled the garbage into the river, which was washed out by the flood.

A provincial style developed in art; this included portraits of living things in their natural environment as well as depictions of stories and folklore. Fire altars were erected in public places. Metal goods, gold, jewelry and tastefully decorated ornaments show the culture and prosperity of the Lothal people. Their equipment - metal tools, weights, measures, seals, earthenware and ornaments - corresponded to the standard and quality of the Indus culture.

Lothal was an important trading center that imported en masse raw materials such as copper, silica and semi-precious stones from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa and sold them to towns and villages. Large quantities of bronze tools, fish hooks, gouges , spears and ornaments were also produced here. Lothal exported pearls, precious stones, ivory and seashells. The stone industry was based on domestic needs and fine silica was imported from the Sukkur Valley or from Bijapur in what is now Karnataka . Bhagatrav provided semi-precious stones, while shells came from Dholavira and Bet Dwarka. The trade network, which gave the inhabitants great prosperity, extended across the borders to Bahrain and Sumer .

Years of decay

The structure with bathroom and toilet in the houses of Lothal

While the debate about the end of the Indus civilization continues, the ASI's archaeological evidence suggests that Lothal perished from natural disasters such as floods and storms. Around 2000–1900 BC A mighty flood inundated the city and destroyed most of the houses, with the walls and platforms being badly damaged. The acropolis and the residence were razed to the ground and then populated by ordinary traders and makeshift new houses. The most serious consequence was the changed course of the river, which prevented access to the ships and the port.

Although the ruler left the city, the population built a shallow entrance to the river to allow small ships to enter. New houses were built without removing the debris from the flood, which reduced the quality of life and made damage more likely later. The public sewer systems were replaced by drainage vessels. The citizens rebuilt the public baths and kept fire worship. With a poorly organized government and no outside influence or central government, it was not possible to properly repair or maintain public facilities. The warehouse was never properly repaired and the supplies were stored in wooden tents where they were threatened by floods and fires.

The city's economy was changing. The volume of trade fell considerably, but not catastrophically, and the resources were less extensive. Independent businesses collapsed, resulting in a dealer-centered system of factories where hundreds of artisans worked for the same supplier and financier. The pearl factory had ten living rooms and a large work yard. The coppersmith had five ovens and tiled basins that several artists could work on.

The city's declining prosperity, lack of resources and poor governance added to the worries of the flood and storm-plagued residents. The increasing salinization of the soil made the land barren, as can also be seen in the neighboring cities of Rangpur, Rojdi, Rupar and Harrapa in Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro and Chanhudaro in Sindh. 1900 BC BC a flood destroyed the ailing city in one fell swoop. The archaeological analysis shows that the basin and port were clogged with silt and debris and the buildings were destroyed to the ground. The flood affected the entire region of Saurashtra, Sindh and southern Gujarat as well as the upper reaches of the Indus and Satluj , where many towns and villages were washed away. The population fled inland.

Later Indus culture

Lothal archaeological site

According to archaeological evidence, the area was still inhabited, albeit by a smaller population with no urban way of life. The few people who returned to Lothal were unable to rebuild and repair their city. Nevertheless, they stayed and stuck to their religious traditions, living in simple houses and reed huts. The analysis of their remains in the cemetery shows that they were Harrappa people. While the city's trade and resources had almost completely disappeared, the people retained various idiosyncrasies of writing, pottery, and other products.

Around this time, the ASI archaeologists recorded a mass exodus from Punjab and Sindh to Saurashtra and the Sarasvati Valley (1900–1700 BC). Hundreds of poorly equipped settlements have been attributed to these people, known as the late Harappa people , a completely deurbanized culture characterized by rising illiteracy , monotonous economies, inadequate administration and poverty. Although the Indus seals were no longer used, the system of weights with a unit of 8.573 grams was retained.

Between 1700 and 1600 BC The trade was revived. In Lothal there was a mass production of ceramics such as bowls, plates and jugs. Traders used indigenous materials such as chalcedony instead of silica for stone blades. Ground sandstone weights replaced the previous hexagonal weights. The sophisticated Indus script was simplified by removing pictograms and reducing the painterly elements to wavy lines, loops and fronds.

civilization

The Lothal people made significant and often unique contributions to human civilization in the Indus era in the fields of town planning, art, architecture, science, engineering, and religion. Her work in metallurgy, seal and pearl production, and jewelry making was the basis for her prosperity.

Science, math and engineering

Stone block in the drainage channel with four holes, on which the net for filtering the coarse dirt was installed

A thick, ring-shaped object made of seashells with four slots on two edges served as a compass to measure angles on flat surfaces or on the horizon in sections from 40 degrees up to 360 degrees. Such instruments were probably invented to measure eight to twelve parts of the horizon and the sky, which explains the slits on the lower and upper edges. Archaeologists see this as proof that the experts from Lothal had already managed to navigate by means of a division of the sky and a device for measuring angles and determining star positions 2000 years before the Greeks.

Lothal provided one of three measuring scales that are integrated and linear (others can be found in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro). An ivory ruler has the smallest decimal divisions of the Indus civilization. It is 6 mm thick, 15 mm wide and 128 mm long, but only 27 graduation lines are visible over a length of 46 mm at a distance of 1.7 mm. In view of its small size, the device was probably used for filigree work. Ten units according to Lothal's standard roughly correspond to the angula in Arthashastra . Lothal dealers took care to make the stone weights permanent and accurate by blunting corners before polishing.

For their famous drainage system, Lothal engineers created collar roofs and a canopy made of oven-fired bricks over the platform where the sewage flowed into the septic tank. Wooden protective devices in the joints of the side drainage walls held back the solid dirt. The well is made of radial bricks (2.4 m in diameter and 6.7 m deep). There was an impeccable network of underground channels, mud chambers and septic tanks, as well as chambers for the solid waste. The canal system provided archaeologists with valuable information on the course of the streets and the organization of houses and baths. On average, the sewer system is 20–46 cm deep, the external dimensions are 86 × 68 × 33 cm.

The brick producers proceeded logically in the production process and paid special attention to the thickness of the structures. The bricks were used as head and runner stones in the same or different layers. Archaeologists assume that the bricks had a size ratio of 1: 0.5: 0.25 and were therefore in dimensions that were integral multiples of the Lothal unit of measurement of 25 mm.

Religion and worship of the dead

The Lothal people worshiped a fire god who might correspond to the horned deity named Atha ( Athar ) or Arka , who is depicted on seals. This is also supported by the presence of private and public fire altars, where animals and cattle were sacrificed. Archaeologists have found golden pendants, charred ashes from terracotta plates and pottery, remains of cattle, pearls and other indications of the practice of a Gavamayana sacrifice, which is associated with the ancient Veda religion.

There is also evidence of animal worship, but not the worship of a mother goddess as found in other Harappan cities - experts see this as evidence of the diversity of religious traditions. However, it is believed that the people worshiped a sea god who may have been related to the mother goddess of the Indus era. Today the residents worship a sea god named Vanuvati Sikotarimata , which indicates a connection to the traditions of the ancient port and the past with the bond with the sea.

At least one case of a joint burial of a husband and wife is known in Lothal. Indian archaeologists believed the oldest known practice of widow burning ( sati ) to be possible. But the archaeologists found that this practice dates back to around 2000 BC. Was abandoned (determined by the time difference between the burials of the remains, determined with the radiocarbon dating ) and was only used occasionally.

Given the small number of graves discovered (only 17 out of an estimated population of 15,000), it is believed that the inhabitants also carried out cremations . Burials after the cremation are known from other Indus locations such as Harappa, Mehi or Damb-Bhuti. The mummified remains of an Assyrian and an Egyptian were also found on the hill .

Pearls and seals

The discovery of etched carnelian and unetched barrel pearls in Kish and Ur ( Iraq ), Jalalabad ( Afghanistan ) and Susa ( Iran ) proves the popularity of the Lothal-centered pearl industry throughout Western Asia. The lapidaries show a fine taste in the selection of stones in various colors, from which pearls of various shapes and sizes are created.

The methods of the Lothal pearl makers were so advanced that they could not be improved upon for 4,000 years. Modern producers in the Cambay area use the same technique. Double-eyed beads made of agate , snapped or gold-covered beads made of jasper as well as carnelian beads are considered specialties of Lothal. Famous also the micro-cylindrical beads were talc .

213 seals were found in Lothal. It ranks third in terms of importance in the Indus culture. The seals are considered masterpieces of stone engraving and calligraphy . The engravings mainly showed bulls with short horns, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals such as the elephant bull. Almost every seal contains a brief inscription of an intaglio .

Stamp seals with inserted copper rings were used to seal goods and contained impressions of packaging materials such as mats, folded cloth or ropes; that only existed in Lothal. Quantitative descriptions, seals of rulers and owners were applied to goods. A unique seal comes from Bahrain : a circular motif with a dragon surrounded by gazelles .

Metallurgy and jewelry

A carved stone tool, perhaps the head of a chisel

Lothal's copper is exceptionally pure, devoid of the arsenic that was commonly used by coppersmiths in the rest of the Indus Valley. The city imported ingots from the Arabian Peninsula . Workers mixed tin with copper to make axes, arrowheads, fish hooks, chisels, bracelets, drills and spearheads, although arms production was secondary. They also used advanced metallurgy, e.g. B. the cire - perdue casting technique and used more than one-piece molds to cast birds and animals. They also invented new tools such as curved saws and spiral drills that were unknown to other civilizations at the time.

Lothal was a major shell processing center that benefited from the large quantities of high quality shellfish found in the Gulf of Kachchh and on the Kathiawar coast . Pearls, ointment vessels, ladles, inlays and much more were produced for export and local needs. Components of stringed instruments such as the plectrum or the bridge were also made from shells. An ivory factory operated under strict official supervision and elephant domestication was considered. An ivory seal and sawn pieces for boxes, combs, sticks, inlays and earrings were found during excavations.

Lothal produced numerous gold jewelry; the most beautiful pieces are small gold pearls in five strands in necklaces that were less than 0.25 mm in diameter. Cylindrical, spherical, and jasper gold beads with right-angled corners are similar to the modern counterparts that women in Gujarat wear in their hair. A large disc with holes found on a sacrificial altar is similar to the rukma worn by Vedic priests. Stud earrings, gears, and heart-shaped ornaments made from faience and talc were popular in Lothal. A ring made of thin copper wire twisted in double spirals is similar to the gold wire rings that modern Hindus use at weddings.

art

Vessels made of red clay

Lothal offers two new types of pottery not found in other Indus cultures: a convex bowl with or without a bolt handle and a small jar with a conspicuous rim, both from the mica Red Ware period. The Lothal artists presented a new form of painting that is similar to modern realism . The drawings show living beings in their natural environment. On a large vessel, an artist shows birds sitting in a tree with fish in their beak, while a fox-like animal stands underneath. This scene is reminiscent of the story of the crow and the sly fox in Panchatantra .

The artistic imagination is also shown in careful portraits; several birds with their legs in the air indicate flight, while half-opened wings suggest an imminent flight. The story of the thirsty crow and the deer is found on a miniature vessel (the deer cannot drink from the narrow vessel, while the crow succeeds by throwing stones into the vessel). The characteristics of the animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are illustrated by the arrangement of limbs or facial features - on a 15 × 5 cm vessel.

A complete set of terracotta figures (comparable to modern chess pieces ) was found in Lothal - animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects that resemble the chess set of the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut . The realistic depictions of humans and animals indicate careful study of the anatomical and natural features.

A male bust with slit-shaped eyes, a pointy nose and a square beard is reminiscent of Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari . Muscular and physical features are emphasized in images of men and women. In the terracotta models, there are also differences between dogs and bulls. Animal figures with wheels and moving heads were used as toys.

The excavated Lothal

Lothal harbor

According to the plan, Lothal had an extension of 285 m in north-south direction and 228 m in east-west direction. However, at the height of the population, the city covered a larger area, as evidence shows 300 m south of the hill. Due to the fragile nature of unfired bricks and regular flooding, the superstructure of all buildings was removed. Stunted walls, platforms, fountains, canals, baths and tiled floors are visible. Thanks to the clay deposited by the flood , the harbor walls were preserved after the great flood (1900 BC).

The erosion and the robbery of bricks made high walls disappear. The old river valley, the influence channel and the river bed were covered in a similar way. The mud brick surrounding wall damaged by the flood can be seen near the warehouse. The remains of the sewer system are burned bricks in the septic tank. In addition, cubic blocks of the warehouse can be seen on a high platform.

The ASI has covered the surrounding walls, the mooring and many of the early phase houses with earth to protect them from natural influences. Nevertheless, the necessary measures to preserve the archaeological site are of great concern. Increasing salinization and the influence of rain and sun gradually destroy the remains. There are no barricades to prevent visitors from walking on the fragile structure of brick and mud, and stray dogs run unhindered on the hill. The constant rain has caused moss to form on the walls. Silting up reduced the depth of the port by three to four meters and salt deposits caused the bricks to deteriorate. The capillarity of the salts weakens the structures and complicates the work of the restorers .

Port and warehouse

The port with a lock that allows a stable level

The port was away from the central current to avoid deposits. According to modern oceanographers , the Harappans had to have a thorough knowledge of the tides to build such a port on the changeable course of the Sabarmati , as well as skills in hydrography and maritime engineering. The port of Lothal was the first in the world to be equipped for passenger and transport ships.

It is believed that Lothal engineers studied the tides and their effects on structures as the walls were made of fired bricks. Based on this knowledge, they chose Lothal as the location because the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest amplitude and ships can be channeled through the estuary. The engineers built a trapezoidal structure with a length of 21 m (north-south) or 37 m (east-west). Other researchers believe the basin is an irrigation tank, as the original dimensions by modern standards were insufficient to accommodate ships and carry a lot of traffic.

The original height of the embankment was 4.26 m (today 3.35 m). The central influence was 12.8 m wide, another is on the opposite side. To withstand the water pressure, there were recesses on the outer walls. When the river in 2000 BC BC changed its course, a narrower influence (7 m wide) was built on the longer arm, which was connected to the river by a 2 km long canal. With a water level of 2.1–2.4 m, the ships could enter the port at high tide. Excess water was able to escape through a drainage channel (96.5 m wide and 1.7 m high) in the southern arm. A wooden closure ensured that there was enough water in the basin even when the water level was low.

The warehouse, which is important for the city's economy, originally stood on 64 cubic blocks with a side length of 3.6 m and 1.2 m wide passages that rested on a 3.5 m high podium made of mud bricks. The platform was very high to ensure maximum protection from floods. Passages between the blocks served as air holes and a ramp to the port made loading easier. The warehouse was located near the Acropolis to allow strict guarding by the ruling authorities. Despite careful precautions, only twelve blocks survived the devastating flood; this resulted in a temporary warehouse.

Acropolis and Lower City

The Acropolis, measuring 127.4 m (east-west) by 60.9 m (north-south), was Lothal's city center, its political and commercial heart. This is where the rulers lived. There were three streets and two alleys in an east-west direction and two streets in a north-south direction. The four sides of the rectangular platform on which houses were built consisted of 12.2–24.4 m thick and 2.1–3.6 m high structures made of mud bricks.

The baths (mostly houses with two rooms and an open courtyard) were mainly in the Acropolis. The bricks with which the bathrooms were tiled were polished to protect them from seepage. The sidewalks were paved with lime and the corners were paneled with thin walls. The ruler's residence has a floor area of ​​43.92 m² and a bathroom (1.8 m²) with an outlet and an inlet. The remains of this house indicate an intelligent drainage system.

The market square of the lower town was on the six to eight meter wide main street in a north-south direction. Houses and workshops were built in straight rows on either side of the street, although the canals and houses from the early period have disappeared. Even after the flood damage, the road retained its uniform width. There are several two-room shops and workrooms for coppersmiths and farriers.

Pearl factory and sanctuary

The main well

The pearl workshop, which played an important economic role, has a central courtyard and eleven rooms (living rooms, storage and guard). There is an ash pit and a two-part round stove with openings for the fuel. Four chimneys are connected to each other, to the upper chamber and the stoke opening. The plasters on the floor and walls are glazed from the heat while you work. The remains of raw materials such as reed , cow dung, sawdust and agate provide archaeologists with clues as to how the furnace works.

Opposite the factory is a large building, the importance of which is evident from its plan: four large rooms and a hall with a total area of ​​17.1 × 12.8 m. The hall has a large entrance and there is a fire altar on an elevation in the southern corner of the building. A square terracotta stump in the center is connected to the place of worship in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), making it a center of worship for the people of Lothal.

literature

  • Robert Bradnock: Rajasthan and Gujarat Handbook. The Travel Guide . Footprint Handbooks, Bath 2001, ISBN 1-900949-92-X .
  • Swarajia P. Gupta (Ed.): The Lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilization . Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur 1995.
  • Jonathan Mark Kenoyer: Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization . Oxford University Press, Karachi 1998, ISBN 0-19-577940-1 .
  • AS Khadkikar, N. Basaviah, TK Gundurao, C. Rajshekhar: Paleoenvironments around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India (PDF; 271 kB) . In: Journal of the Indian Geophysical Union . Hyderabad 2004, ISSN  0257-7968 .
  • Lawrence S. Leshnik: The Harappan "Port" at Lothal. Another view . In: American Anthropologist . New Series, Vol. 70, No. 5, 1968, pp. 911-922, ISSN  0002-7294 .
  • Sir John H. Marshall: Mohenjo-daro and Indus Civilization . Vols. I – III, Arthur Probsthain, London 1931.
  • Paul Yule : Lothal. City of the Harappa culture in northwest India . Edited by Hermann Müller-Karpe . Materials on general and comparative archeology. Vol. 9. CH Beck, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-406-09058-3 .
  • SR Rao : Lothal . Director General. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi 1985.
  • SR Rao: Lothal and the Indus Civilization . Asia Publishing House, London 1973, ISBN 0-210-22278-6 .
  • SR Rao: Lothal. A Harappan Port Town (1955-1952) . 2 vol., New Delhi 1979–1985 (Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India 78.2).
  • SR Rao: Shipping and Maritime Trade of the Indus People . Expedition Magazine 7.3 (1965). Penn Museum, 1965 Online
  • Samuel Noah Kramer: The Indus Civilization and Dilmun, the Sumerian Paradise Land. Expedition Magazine 6.3 (1964). Penn Museum, 1964 Online
  • S. Kalyanaraman: Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization ( Memento from January 1, 2007 in the Internet Archive )

Web links

Commons : Lothal  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal
  2. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 2f.
  3. Robert Bradnock, Rajasthan and Gujarat Handbook. The Travel Guide , p. 276.
  4. ^ A b c Lawrence S. Leshnik, The Harappan “Port” at Lothal - Another View , in: American Anthropologist NS 70, 1968, 5, pp. 911-922.
  5. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 30f.
  6. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 52.
  7. AS Khadkikar, N. Basaviah, TK Gundurao and C. Rajshekhar, Paleoenvironments around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India , in: Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union , 2004.
  8. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 5.
  9. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 6.
  10. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 7f.
  11. a b S. R. Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 11.
  12. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 8.
  13. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 12.
  14. a b S. R. Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 13.
  15. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 13-15.
  16. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 39-41.
  17. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 41.
  18. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 43-45.
  19. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 2.
  20. See SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 44 and the article on the subject in the Encyclopædia Britannica .
  21. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 45.
  22. See Seemyindia .
  23. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 31-34.
  24. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 35f.
  25. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 41f.
  26. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 42.
  27. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 33f.
  28. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 45-47.
  29. a b S. R. Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 46.
  30. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 47f.
  31. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 16f.
  32. See Indian Express .
  33. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 27-29.
  34. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 28f.
  35. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 17f.
  36. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, pp. 19-21.
  37. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 23f.
  38. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 23.
  39. ^ SR Rao, Lothal , ASI 1985, p. 22.