Post-factual politics

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As post facto policy a political thought and action is sloganized referred, in which facts are not the focus. The truth of a statement takes a back seat to the emotional effect of the statement, especially on one's own interest group.

According to the philosopher and sociologist Habermas, the ideal of communication in the Enlightenment calls for arguments for a discourse that satisfies objective and ethical standards , including above all verifiable facts: the ability to validate as part of discursiveness . In a so-called post-factual opinion dispute, however, facts are denied, distracted from them or their content is watered down without this having any decisive relevance for the target audience. The decisive factor for the target group addressed by post-factual politics is whether the explanatory models offered are close to their emotional world.

Critics point out that this political catchphrase is also wrongly used and can even be used "post-factually" for emotionalizing. The phenomenon mentioned is also not new or typical of the present. Political opinions based on world views and different interests are never based on pure facts, but always and inevitably perspective perceptions of facts that are classified and evaluated according to one's own value system. The polemical catchphrase post-factual is based on a naive realism .

Concept history

German-speaking area

In German, the formulation post-factual has become commonplace for the English terms post-truth and post-fact (ual) . The term was used particularly frequently during the 2016 Brexit referendum in Great Britain and the 2016 US presidential campaign .

United States

The United States has a lineage of social psychology research on lying . Important pioneering work comes from Bella DePaolo , who has been dealing with this topic since the late 1970s. In 1990, Noelie Rodriguez and Alan Ryave published their study Telling lies in everyday life , in which they showed that all people are constantly dizzy in everyday situations without feeling uncomfortable. In line with the growing public interest in the topic of lies, nonfiction followed . In 2001 Jeremy Campbell published a cultural history of lying: The liar's tale: a history of falsehood .

One of the first authors to use the term post-factual ("post-factual") was Carl Bybee, a communications scientist at the University of Oregon . Bybee published an article in 1999, Can Democracy Survive in the Post-Factual Age? , which was about the Lippmann - Dewey debate. From 1922 onwards, the debate focused on the role journalism has in a democracy, and thus also the question of how much political responsibility should be placed on an electorate that, due to a lack of education, is more than susceptible to the suggestions of its political leaders.

In January 2004, The Cheating Culture appeared , author David Callahan adopted a culturally pessimistic tones, claiming that insincerity and deceit, even among average people, have increased dramatically over the past two decades under growing economic pressure, which goes back to neoliberalism . Callahan was then accused of grossly simplifying complex issues from the libertarian side. In September of the same year, The Post-Truth Era ("The Age After Truth") by Ralph Keyes followed , who - without listing any evidence - also claimed that lying had increased in all areas of life, while social control , lying earlier have effectively contained, more and more failures. The idiomatic phrase "Post-Truth" took a steep ascent from here. The editors of the Oxford English Dictionary chose the phrase 2016 as their “ Word of the Year ”.

The television satirist Stephen Colbert introduced his word " truthiness" into the social discourse around lying in October 2005 . The expression plays with the means of the English language and can therefore not be translated into German. Colbert used it to ironically describe the essence of a statement that strongly appeals to preconceived convictions and therefore “feels” so true that one likes to forego testing its actual truth content. The American Dialect Society chose truthiness as their " Word of the Year " that same year .

In September 2016, Angela Merkel used the adjective post-factual in a speech . In October 2016, she referred to the success of the AfD in the Berlin House of Representatives. In the subsequent reception of the word by the media, the general public became aware of the word, which was previously little known in Germany.

Classifications and explanations

Since around 2012, many authors have tried to explain what politicians such as B. Donald Trump moves easily transparent untruths to utter publicly in large numbers.

Politics as a "product"

In 2013, the German journalist Thomas Assheuer identified elements of so-called post-politics (depoliticized form of politics) in the election campaign statements of political parties in an article in Die Zeit . Controversies about ideas and social plans would no longer take place, politics would only be advertised as a “product”. He translated “post-truth politics” with “postal politics” and “ post-democracy ”. In September 2016, the Zeit author Alard von Kittlitz sees a shift in German politics towards post-truth. He describes the original political debate as an argument in which alternative courses of action are fought on the basis of facts, but not the indubitable facts themselves, and proposes a return to a strict separation of indubitable facts and political argumentation.

Not a lie, but bullshit

In 2015, Jeet Heer wrote in The New Republic magazine that Trump was not a liar at all, but rather a bullshit artist . The philosopher Harry Frankfurt ( Princeton University ) first published a much-acclaimed little work On Bullshit in 1986 and again in 2005 , in which he described bullshit as a kind of empty talk characterized by complete indifference to the truth and which was exclusively aimed at to give prestige to its author. Trump has occasionally argued that on certain points where he is telling the truth, no evidence can be obtained. In one case, for example, he rejected the assessments of historians because they were hardly present in person at the controversial historical event. Heer sees Trump as having a fundamental disinterest in fact-checking as well as in truth: "That brings us into a post-truth world where Trump's statements cannot be checked and where we simply have to accept the rule of his self-proclaimed" greatest memory in the world " . Indeed, Trump wants to lead us to a country where subjectivity is everything , where reality is simply what he says. "

Frankfurt itself also made another statement in this regard in 2016 with direct reference to Trump. Jason Stanley then criticized this interpretation as a gross trivialization.

Emotionalization of the political discourse

The Economist wrote in September 2016 that the targeted political lie was not the central point of post-truth politics. The use of a political lie implies the fact that there is a truth and that the liar knows it. Evidence, consistency, and science are a political force in normal political discourse. In the meantime, however, these categories would no longer be of interest to an increasing number of people in public discourse. There is a shift towards an understanding of politics in which feelings trump facts. If the distance between what feels true and what is true becomes too great, this distance is often bridged with a conspiracy theory for the sake of simplicity . In some cases, the confrontation with the facts paradoxically leads to the fact that the adherence to the incorrect statement is even reinforced (see also confirmation errors ). The British journalist Matthew d'Ancona argues similarly: What is new is not the fact that politicians are publicly telling the untruth, but rather the reaction of broad sections of the public to it: “Outrage turns into indifference and ultimately complicity. We no longer expect our representatives to tell the truth ”. Much more important in today's politics is the emotional connection between politics and the electorate. Voters are ready to consciously support untruths if they can at least temporarily feel better. For example, the American filmmaker Michael Moore declared before the US presidential election in 2016 that he considered a victory for Trump to be likely, because Trump created precisely this emotional connection with those voters who wanted to "turn the finger on" the political establishment. Most of these people are aware that Trump is often untruthful and will not improve their economic situation, but “it will feel good. For a day or a week. Maybe even a month ”.

Effect of the changed media landscape

Many commentators attest a perceived loss of credibility in media coverage and at the same time note that many people are now increasingly picking up one-sided and incorrect information from social media . The cause of the one-sidedness are partly so-called filter bubbles , which can be explained by the algorithms of Google, Facebook and Twitter. It is also noticeable that people only surround themselves with like-minded people in social networks and are thus repeatedly reinforced in their perception of the world by an echo chamber effect . In addition, false reports could spread very quickly on the Internet, contribute to the formation of opinions and often remain unexplained. Some companies have specialized in spreading hoaxes for commercial reasons. False reports are mixed with advertising and high sales are achieved through the massive access. The established media, which felt obliged to certain journalistic quality standards, had up to now had a certain gatekeeping function as to which information and opinions were disseminated en masse and which were not. Thanks to the internet and social media, all recipients can now also be producers of media content at the same time. This was initially welcomed as a democratization of the media market, but it was also accompanied by a significant increase in rumors , false reports and conspiracy theories. Their mostly low complexity and high emotionality are advantageous in the media market, in which attention is a scarce commodity, and motivate to act: to share, like or retweet, i.e. to disseminate the media content.

Targeted manipulation by interest groups

In an article for the magazine Yale Environment 360, the author Christian Schwägerl describes the attacks on science as a global, contagious disease emanating from the actors of post-factual politics:

"There are [...] examples in both Europe and the US of how a wave of 'post-fact' politics is endangering science-driven progress."

"There are [...] examples in Europe and the USA of how a wave of post-factual politics endangers scientifically based progress."

- Christian Schwägerl : Yale Environment 360

As examples, he cites the denial of man-made global warming and the refusal of an evidence-based common fisheries policy in the EU by British politicians. Evidence-based means that decisions are made through the conscientious, explicit, and prudent use of the currently best-founded scientific knowledge. If the movement of post-factual thinking wins, then the world will face a purely ideologically determined future, said Schwägerl.

This explanation is also supported by scientific research. Lewandowsky et al. Argue that post-factual misinformation is "constructed as a fog and used to divert attention from strategic political measures and challenges". Post-factual politics can thus be identified, analogous to the denial of climate change, “as a rational strategy that is used to pursue political goals”. From this it follows in turn that post-factual politics can come to an end when its effectiveness is no longer given.

Attack on democratic principles

The constitutional lawyer Gerhard Casper refers to Hannah Arendt and speaks of a fundamental attack on democracy in the context of developments under Donald Trump's presidency. The foundation of democratic politics is based on the argument about what the facts are and what their consequences are. In 1971, Hannah Arendt described in her essay “Lying in Politics: Reflections on The Pentagon Papers” the “defactualization” that u. a. made the Vietnam War possible. According to Casper, Trump's version seems to be: "If I say something is a fact, then it is so." And since Trump is known to lie and has been convicted often enough, which does not deter him, he attacks the foundation with the lies democratic politics. This defactualization, the refusal to discuss facts and what they mean, is what Casper considers to be the most dangerous development (in democracy) at the moment.

According to the Danish philosophers Vincent F. Hendricks and Mads Vestergaard, a distinction between facts and valuations is indispensable for a democracy, since without it deliberation (in the sense of Joseph M. Bessette's deliberative democracy ) could not take place: factual information that also relies on in the case of controversial values ​​everyone could agree, is "the indispensable criterion of the rational discourse". Even if one wanted to reduce democracy to a fair process of electing the people's representatives, one would still have to rely on this distinction, since without a minimum of reliable and valid factual information it cannot be determined whether a government is efficient or not. If facts were politicized and thus left to the respective opinion, democracy would be undermined - not much different than if, conversely, the technical issues were absolutized in a technocratic way and their different possibilities for evaluation were ignored.

Incapacitation of the public

As early as 2012, Spiegel columnist Sascha Lobo described the concept of post-truth politics as a policy independent of truth , in which opinions and facts are blurred and in which the achievements of the Enlightenment fell by the wayside. He commented on the phenomenon: "Everyone has the right to their own opinion, but nobody has the right to their own facts."

In 2017, Marina Weisband pushed this idea forward in the weekly newspaper Die Zeit . Without even using the term “post-factual”, she argued that lies like Trump's were not about the usual deceptions that every government spreads by embellishing the truth: “The special quality of this lie à la Trump consists in the fact that it can be seen through by anyone without any prior training, only with the power of one's own perception. It is, so to speak, their purpose to contradict the perception. ”The purpose of lying is not to convince the public. Rather, the intention is to bother the public with obvious false statements until they can no longer stand the cognitive dissonance and give in exhausted: “Constant dripping wears away the skull. The goal of blatant lies is to prove the impotence of truth; the shift in the discourse so that everything is suddenly called into question. ”The attack is thus aimed directly against the self-determined use of perception: the most important instrument that the Enlightenment brought to people. Such a system of lying is nothing new, but has been practiced in a very similar way, for example in the former Soviet Union .

Case studies

Climate debate

While 97% of climate scientists are convinced of man-made climate change, surveys on the attitudes of the population show that the proportion of climate skeptics in the population is increasing. In a US survey of 1,500 respondents, when asked, "Is there solid evidence the earth is warming?" in April 2008 still 21% with "no", in October 2009 already 33% with "no".

Disinformation campaigns aim to deny climate change. Republican Party's strategy advisor Frank Luntz pointed out in 2002 that the global warming debate can be influenced by denying scientific consensus:

“The scientific debate is closing [against those who deny the reality of climate change] but not yet closed. There is still a window of opportunity to challenge the science. [...] Voters believe that there is no consensus about global warming within the scientific community. Should the public come to believe that the scientific issues are settled, their views about global warming will change accordingly. "

“The scientific debate is closing [on those who deny the reality of climate change] but it is not yet closed. There is still a chance to question science. [...] Voters believe that there is no consensus within the scientific community on global warming. Should the public feel that the scientific questions have been resolved, their views on global warming will change accordingly. "

- Frank Luntz, 2002

Luntz therefore recommended pointing out uncertainties in scientific research and an alleged scientific controversy, making the alleged lack of scientific certainty the central aspect of the political debate and, above all, emphasizing the fact that action should only be taken when all the facts are available lay on the table. The core motive of this argumentation model is that only guaranteed scientific knowledge could be of relevance for politics. Such an assumption is diametrically opposed to the actual way scientific research works.

US presidential campaign 2016

Former New York City Mayor and Donald Trump supporter , Rudy Giuliani , said in a speech on August 15, 2016 that there had been no "successful Islamist attacks in the US" in the eight years before President Obama took office. During this period, however, the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 took place. Die Zeit commented on Giuliani's behavior as follows: “Everyone can easily see through his lie. Even the people who applaud him know when in doubt that it was a lie. But they don't care. ”The facts are apparently irrelevant to Giuliani and his audience. For his audience, however, it is apparently " felt true that everything has gotten worse since Obama, including the terror."

The author Catherine Rampell asks in the Washington Post: “ When the facts don't matter, how can democracy survive? “(If facts don't count, how can democracy exist?) And describes the extent to which the different groups of voters in the US presidential election in 2016 do not recognize official data as facts.

The Independent writes that the truth, which was once the gold standard of political debate, has been devalued to the point of being a worthless currency. The newspaper quotes an example: At an election rally, Barack Obama defended a supporter of Donald Trump who was hostile to the public. However, at an event later that day, Trump said, “You have to look at what happened. Obama spent so much time yelling at a protester, in all honesty it was a shame. ”Many Americans would have actively chosen to follow Trump's idiotic invention as it fits perfectly into the“ Obama the Tyrant ”narrative that the alternative reality of the Breitbart News Network .

After Trump's victory in the 2016 presidential election in the United States , Adrian Daub, Associate Professor of German Studies at Stanford University, sees Trump's feelings of anger, belonging and hostility through his post-factual political style. “Cheap entertainment, a staggering sense of togetherness and an almost Mephistophelian lust for destruction” drove his followers on. Core elements of the Enlightenment such as the pursuit of truth and universal values, however, have lost their importance. The philosopher Slavoj Žižek also sees anger as the driving force behind Trump's success. However, he points out that Trump, as an anti-establishment candidate, also addressed supporters of Bernie Sanders - and consequently cheap entertainment is not the only driving force. Trump at least holds out the prospect of change, even if he promises a shift to the right and embodies a decline in public morality. The left was also not authentic and had to offer authentic, radical social change.

While some commentators proclaim a post-factual age through Trump's election campaign, among other things, others see Trump's approach not as post-factual, but rather as authoritarian or totalitarian propaganda, such as Jason Stanley . The declared aim of totalitarian propaganda is to offer an explanatory model that is consistent and easy to understand, as well as to distort reality - sometimes solely as a show of power. This power to obviously distort reality is both its greatest strength and its greatest weakness. It is still important today to understand and name these mechanisms of action precisely.

State elections 2016

Speculative communication as a component of post-factual politics was also visible in the state elections in 2016, because it took place at the time when more than 800,000 refugees came to Germany. In “Lies Press - How the AfD understood how to use speculative communication” Eveline Lemke also describes the level of self-reflection of the media during the election campaign in Rhineland-Palatinate and nationwide during this time. The speculative communication blossomed, among other things, when 12 millionaires called for the election of the AfD in a nationwide poster campaign with the slogan "More security for our women and daughters" and thus helped the AfD to enter the state parliament.

A statement by Georg Pazderski , state chairman of the AfD Berlin , was cited by the Hessischer Rundfunk as an example of post-factual politics. When asked why his party never mentioned that 98 percent of migrants in Germany live peacefully, Pazderski replied: “It's not just about statistics, it's about how the citizens feel. That means: what you feel is also reality. "The Süddeutsche Zeitung comments:" Pazderski does not deny the number, but it does not interest him either. "

Brexit

Resentment against the EU was fueled by the Brexit campaign with wrong numbers.

The term post-factual politics was often used in reference to Brexit supporters during the Brexit controversy, for example referring to the incorrect quantification of the cost of leaving. Faisal Islam , commentator for Sky News , named Michael Gove a post-factual politician who imported these methods of Donald Trump's election campaign. He particularly emphasized Gove's comment: “I think people in this country have had enough of experts” (I think people are fed up with experts). Arron Banks, founder of the Leave.EU campaign, quoted “facts don't work […] You've got to connect with people emotionally. It's the Trump success. ”(Facts don't work…. You have to create an emotional connection with people. It's the Trump success.) Andrea Leadsom , also a Brexit supporter, has been labeled a post-truth politician, especially after being untruthful had claimed that Theresa May had not blamed her childlessness (despite records showing that she had just done so).

criticism

Political framing

The cognitive scientist Elisabeth Wehling shows in her research that in communication terms are always embedded in a certain network of interpretations. Ashot Manucharyan summarizes in a review:

When it comes to understanding words or ideas, the brain activates an interpretation framework, so-called frames. (...) In political debates, it is not the facts that are decisive, but the connections between ideas that certain concepts trigger in the brain. (...) The problem here is that these frames are always ideologically selective, that is, they emphasize certain facts while others are not taken into account. Whenever politicians, the media or advertising succeed in activating certain frames in our heads, "they guide our thinking and actions without us noticing."

In an interview about the rhetoric of right-wing populists, about alternative facts and about the language of politics, Wehling makes it clear that facts are central, but have no meaning per se in political disputes. The facts acquired their political significance through moral interpretation. Citizens can only make responsible decisions if they not only know the facts but also the ideological differences between the parties that want to represent them. She considers “post-factual” to be misleading, as it limited the matter to “fact-blind” citizens. The problem, however, would be where “pre-factual” political worldviews are no longer communicated as the legitimation of one's own classification of facts. There would be no such thing as “alternative facts”, but Trump and his team would deliberately label lies in order to use them as smoke bombs and smoke candles. In doing so, they diverted attention from the real politics that they were doing in the background.

"Facticity used to be more valid"

As Bernhard Pörksen, among others, pointed out, the talk of the “post-factual” is based on the assumption “that whatever concept of facticity could have been accepted as a natural regulative of social coexistence at any point in human history” . However, if you take a closer look at the public discourse of the past, such an assertion cannot be maintained. Both in the past and in the present, the established social actors have always tried to set the desired limits of public discussions with the help of linguistic naming power.

"Whoever lies once, always lies"

Bernhard Pörksen has also criticized the fact that the term is not used to gain knowledge, but to devalue people who are claimed not only to be wrong in a specific case, "but unfortunately basically exist in the private universe of a reality governed by irrationalisms" . Karl-Heinz Ott also pointed out the swear word character of the expression .

Facts and their interpretation

Various authors have pointed out that political and ideological discourses are usually not so much about pure facts, but rather about their interpretation . Karl-Heinz Ott wrote that two people can definitely agree on a fact (e.g. on the proportion of immigrants in a country), but interpret and assess this fact very differently: “After all, you can use the same facts with completely different names name what is shown in the fact that some celebrate as multicultural, what others rate as foreign infiltration. ” Joachim Güntner therefore warns against a“ naive realism ”that “ only incompletely grasps the facts of the political and social world. Interpretations actually rule there. "

Servan Grüninger and Michaela Egli from the NZZ said that the “post factories” are right on one point: “Naked facts are politically worthless. Data needs interpretation, empiricism needs theory, and fact-based politics needs goals and values ​​so that factual knowledge becomes a useful tool. ” According to this, not only Trump but also Merkel is post-factual . "Here the science-skeptical showman who shook up the establishment in the USA, since the sometimes cool and technocratic physicist with a certain mistrust in grassroots democratic decisions."

Inherent problems of the term "factual"

Karl-Heinz Ott analyzed the limits of a meaningful use of the new vocabulary, which he separates from the English term post-truth , since truth means more than facts. Already in the Enlightenment, Diderot called “fact” for one of those terms that are the most difficult to define, since some consider to be true what others perceive to be a lie.

Ott also points out the interest-relatedness of the knowledge that it is always about more than just facts, even if one apparently speaks only of facts, on the difficulty of actually always deriving all views from facts, if one is not exactly an expert and on the character of the political, in which facts did not play the only and also not the decisive role over interests and values. An ideal is always decisive for truth, a goal, a meaning that transcends naked reality.

... even people who believe that they only believe in facts believe in far more than just facts. They believe in science, in technological progress, in statistics or in the fact that there is no God or something higher. And so they don't just believe in facts, but above all in their own view of the world.

And Joachim Güntner:

The talk of “post-factual politics” is first and foremost polemical. She accuses political action of being guided by feelings. It can be turned against the hyper morality of the politically correct as well as the hate speech of the new populism. It invokes a belief in facts by lamenting the lack of realism among those who are supposedly post-factual. She ignores the fact that the facts, which are so fond of being "tough", are themselves products of interpretation.

"Unstoppable decline"

Bernhard Pörksen further criticized the fact that speaking of post-truth takes place in the form of a “resigned-apocalyptic diagnosis of the time”, a “verbal radical celebration of one's own powerlessness” and ignores what could actually be done.

Reactions

International and German word of the year 2016

The editors of the Oxford English Dictionary , the most comprehensive dictionary of the English language , voted “post-truth” as the international word of the year 2016 in November 2016 . "Driven by the rise of social media as a news source and a growing mistrust of facts that are offered by the establishment," the concept has spread, said the head of the publishing house Casper Grathwohl.

In Germany, in December 2016, the Society for the German Language (GfdS) unanimously voted “post-factual” as word of the year . For the decision it was not the frequency but rather the “significance, popularity and linguistic quality” that played the decisive role.

The GfdS explained, "post-factual" refers to "that in political and social discussions today it is increasingly about emotions instead of facts". It is a global and profound political change. Ever larger sections of the population are "in their aversion to those up there 'ready to ignore facts and even accept obvious lies". Donald Trump is cited as an example of post-factual politics , who claimed that Barack Obama founded the terrorist organization "Islamic State". Florian Klenk quotes the psychiatrist Patrick Frottier in the Falter , who therefore considers the term counterfactual to be more accurate and “post-factual” to be misleading in this context .

March for Science

The international March for Science demonstration in April 2017 promoted the value of research and science, against the use and dissemination of “ alternative facts ” ( -> e.g. “ fake news ” ) and against the establishment of a “post-factual era”. According to a non-representative survey by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), the protest against “post-factual thinking” was one of the main motives of many demonstrators in Germany.

See also

literature

  • Ralph Keyes: The Post-Truth Era . St. Martin's Press, New York 2004.
  • Bruce McComiskey: Post-Truth Rhetoric and Composition . University Press of Colorado, 2017, ISBN 978-1-60732-745-5 .
  • Michael A. Peters, Sharon Rider, Mats Hyvönen, Tina Besley: Post-Truth, Fake News: Viral Modernity & Higher Education . Springer, 2018, ISBN 978-981-10-8013-5 .
  • Nina Ort, Patrick Thor, Anna-Maria Babin: "Nobody Knows Exactly What's Going On". Three theses and one conclusion on the phenomenon of the ›post-factual‹  online . In: Munich Semiotics Journal of the Research Colloquium at LMU (2017)
  • Vincent F. Hendricks and Mads Vestergaard: Reality Lost? On the threshold of post-factual democracy . In: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 67, Heft 13 (2017), pp. 4–10 online
  • Lars Distelhorst: Critique of the post-factual . Capitalism and its after-effects . Paderborn, 2019

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Structural change of the public . Investigations into a category of civil society.  Luchterhand, Neuwied am Rhein 1962 to 1987 (17th edition), ISBN 3-472-61025-5 ; 1st to 5th edition of Neuaflge, Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1991 to 1995, ISBN 3-518-28491-6 . (=  Suhrkamp-Taschenbuch Wissenschaft , Volume 891, also  habilitation thesis Philipps University Marburg  1961). Theory of Communicative Action ,  Volume 1:  Action Rationality and Social Rationalization ; Volume 2:  On the Critique of Functionalist Reason , Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1981, ISBN 3-518-28775-3 .
  2. ^ A b Alard von Kittlitz: The earth is a disc , Die Zeit, September 28, 2016
  3. ^ A b Karl-Heinz Ott: «Post factual»: The explanation of a swear word . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . ( nzz.ch [accessed on February 8, 2017]).
  4. ↑ a b Post-factual Age - On it a Bommerlunder. In: www.telepolis.de. Retrieved December 13, 2016 .
  5. ↑ Joachim Güntner: catchphrase «post-factual»: the evocation of the facts . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . November 16, 2016, ISSN  0376-6829 ( nzz.ch [accessed February 8, 2017]).
  6. ↑ «Post factual» is the international word of the year . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . November 16, 2016, ISSN  0376-6829 ( nzz.ch [accessed February 8, 2017]).
  7. ↑ Bella DePaulo - Publications. Retrieved February 25, 2017 .
  8. ↑ Noelie Rodriguez, Alan Ryave: Telling lies in everyday life: Motivational and organizational Consequences of sequential preferences . In: Qualitative Sociology . tape 13 , 1990, pp. 195 , doi : 10.1007 / BF00989593 .
  9. ↑ Jeremy Campbell: The liar's tale: a history of falsehood . Norton, New York ( review ).
  10. ^ Carl Bybee: Can Democracy Survive in the Post-Factual Age? A Return to the Lippmann-Dewey Debate about the Politics of News . In: Journalism & Communication Monographs . 1999, p. 27-66 ( online ).
  11. ↑ David Callahan: The cheating culture: why more Americans are doing wrong to get ahead . Harcourt, Orlando, Florida 2004 ( review ).
  12. ^ Julian Sanchez: Cheating Heart. In: reason.com. July 2004, accessed February 26, 2017 .
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  15. ↑ Truthiness Voted 2005 Word of the Year by American Dialect Society (PDF; 224 kB)
  16. ↑ Thank you, Merkel, for the word "post-factual"! In: www.welt.de. Retrieved December 13, 2016 .
  17. ↑ Hannah Bethke: After "Refugees": "Post factual" is the word of the year 2016 . In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . December 9, 2016, ISSN  0174-4909 ( faz.net [accessed February 8, 2017]).
  18. ↑ Thomas Assheuer: The main thing is that the customer grabs it , Die Zeit, August 22, 2013
  19. ↑ a b Jeet Heer: Donald Trump Is Not a Liar. In: New Republic. December 1, 2015, accessed March 9, 2017 .
  20. ↑ Trump Blames "Ancient" Technology for Mysterious Absence of 9/11 Tailgate Videos. Retrieved March 9, 2017 .
  21. ↑ Rebecca Shabad: Report: plaque at Donald Trump golf course is historically inaccurate. In: CBS News. November 24, 2025, accessed March 9, 2017 .
  22. ↑ Harry G. Frankfurt: Donald Trump Is BS, Says Expert in BS TIME, May 12, 2016
  23. ^ A b Jason Stanley: Beyond Lying: Donald Trump's Authoritarian Reality , New York Times, November 4, 2016
  24. ↑ The post-truth world - Yes, I'd lie to you , The Economist, September 10, 2016
  25. ^ Matthew d'Ancona: Post Truth. The new War on Truth and how to fight back . Ebury Press, London 2017 ISBN 978-1-78503-687-3 p. 26.
  26. ↑ Michael Moore warned a Donald Trump victory would be the biggest 'f *** you in human history'. He was right The Independent , November 9, 2016
  27. ^ At the end of the Age of Enlightenment , Neue Zürcher Zeitung, October 1, 2016.
  28. ↑ How populists grow up through Facebook , Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, November 11, 2016.
  29. ↑ heise, Fake sites for the US election: Macedonians allegedly spread Trump propaganda , November 7, 2016
  30. ↑ tagesschau.de, Profiteers of Fake News , November 26, 2016
  31. ↑ Vincent F. Hendricks and Mads Vestergaard: Lost Reality? On the threshold of post-factual democracy . In: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 67, Heft 13 (2017), p. 6 ff. ( Online , accessed April 12, 2017).
  32. ↑ How the Attack on Science Is Becoming a Global Contagion , e360.yale.edu, October 3, 2016, accessed October 7, 2016
  33. ^ Stephan Lewandowsky et al .: Beyond Misinformation: Understanding and Coping with the “Post-Truth” Era . In: Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition . tape 6 , 2017, p. 353-369 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jarmac.2017.07.008 .
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