Technology in antiquity

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The technology in antiquity made great advances primarily through the use of iron as a material for weapons, armor and tools. The Greco-Roman antiquity is therefore part of the Iron Age , which, however, lasted at least until the Industrial Revolution . However, bronze , which has been known since the Bronze Age , was only gradually displaced.

Agriculture and ranching

The Greek and Roman agriculture of the Mediterranean area was based on the cultivation of grain , wine and olive trees . In Greek cattle breeding , sheep and goats were predominant because of the mountainous country . Cattle were needed as draft animals. There is also evidence of cattle breeding north of the Alps. An early source on agriculture are the Erga by Hesiod and Oikonomikos by Xenophon .

Replica of a Roman hand mill

Essentially the same equipment and tools were used for growing grain as in the Neolithic . With the plow , which was usually pulled by a team of oxen , the upper layer of the earth could be scratched and cleared of weeds , the grain was harvested with sickles . However, the ploughshare and the blade of the sickle were often made of iron and no longer made of wood or stone. Slave labor was widespread in agriculture - even larger estates were managed by slaves. The wasteland was plowed in winter or spring. In autumn, shortly before the start of the rainy season, the seeds were sown and harvested in spring. Barley was first grown in Greece, where it was mainly used to make an unleavened kneading cake, the so-called maza . In the Roman Empire was used during the time of the Republic in the first place far , one with the Emmer identified Spelzweizenart that has been processed to a pulp. Hexaploid common wheat , initially an import product that could only be acclimatized and made suitable for cultivation in Greece, only gradually gained acceptance. In the 4th century BC Nearly ten times more barley than wheat was grown. After wheat became available in large quantities, barley, which had previously also been used as feed grain, was considered “chicken feed”; In the Roman army , barley was used as a punishment. Half of the fields have been cleared and used as fallow land, known as Doubt of the Economy . The grinding of grains with a flour mill was already known in ancient Egypt . These mills consisted of a lower flat stone and an upper one that was moved back and forth. In ancient Greek times, the so-called Olynthian mill , which is named after the important place of discovery, Olynthos . Here the grain was placed in a funnel, from which it fell into a gap between the millstones. Work therefore no longer had to be interrupted so often. There was also a long lever attached so that it was easier to move.

Numerous olive trees have been planted for the production of olive oil. It was already known that a tree could grow from a planted branch, which made cultivation easier. For the production of olive oil were oil mills used the crushed olives without destroying the core. The resulting pulp was then pressed on mechanical presses .

Mining

In the mines of the Bronze Age, copper , which was needed for bronze , was mainly dug . The shafts reached only a few meters below the water table , as the seeping water prevented further mining. In ancient times, people dug for precious metals , especially silver . Important silver mines from ancient Greece were, for example, in the Attic Laurion , while the silver mines in southern Spain, which had been used since the Phoenicians , played a prominent role, especially in Roman times. Water wheels or Archimedean screws , which were operated day and night by slaves , were used to pump the pit water . Vertical shafts were built for ventilation, which was needed for the numerous slaves and for underground fires. Doors were built to direct and drive the air flow and fires were set, which attracted air due to the negative pressure. By pumping water and aeration, depths of several hundred meters were reached. The tools were made of iron and no longer of stone or bronze. Practically all pre-industrial tools were used: picks , chisels , hammers , wedges , picks and rakes . Most of them were made of heat-treated iron, the properties of which are close to modern steel . To mine the stone, it was first heated with fire, then quenched with water or vinegar and finally broken out with a pick or chisel (" setting fire "). Afterwards it was carried out of the mine by slaves, chopped up and washed. The metal was then melted out of the ore in melting furnaces .

Metal extraction and processing

At the beginning of antiquity, bronze - an alloy of copper and 5–10% tin - was used for weapons, armor and tools. However, as the era progressed, it was increasingly supplanted by iron , which is harder and stronger . Nevertheless, bronze was still used in many areas for a long time.

The copper ores were melted in furnaces at around 1100 ° C. After adding tin, bronze was created, which was processed by forging , hammering , driving or casting . For weapons, armor and tools, bronze was mainly cold forged or hammered, as the material solidified ( cold hardening ), which was desirable here. Bronze has a lower melting point of around 900 ° C and is excellent for casting, which was mainly used for statues and statuettes . The oldest were still relatively small and cast from solid material, later the workpieces were cast in a hollow manner, which saved material. The lost wax technique was often used for this. Larger bronze sculptures were cast in several parts and then soldered together .

In contrast to copper, iron does not occur naturally in a solid (metallic) form, but only as ore. The iron ores were placed in furnaces similar to the copper ores. However, the melting temperature of iron was only reached in the Middle Ages. In the ancient furnaces, the ore was transformed into solid iron and liquid slag that oozed out of the furnace. These ovens are therefore called racing ovens . Leaving a porous sponge iron, billet , called the densified by forging and was freed from slag.

Land transport and shipping

Mosaic of a Roman trireme

Ships were mainly used for transport over long distances, but wagons and carts in the countryside . Military ships were mostly rowed. The Greek galleys had a mast and a sail , but they were only used in peacetime when the wind was unreliable. Rowers were used for military maneuvers. This also included ramming enemy ships with a ram on the bow. Early galleys had a single row of rowers on each side, later two or three. The military ships were mainly long and slim in order to reach higher speeds. Merchant ships, on the other hand, were built more rounded in order to increase the hold. In addition, they were not rowed, but sailed.

Cars were known with two and four wheels. The strut wheel with a rod on the diameter and up to two struts attached at right angles to each side of the axis was the most common. But wheels made from solid material and spoked wheels were also known. In mountainous regions with poorly developed roads, oxen , donkeys and mules were also used as pack animals .

Construction technology and infrastructure

Buildings were initially made of wood and dried clay , later stone construction became more and more popular. Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder wrote multi-volume books on architecture and construction . In Greek times, hewn stones were placed on top of each other without mortar . Typical is the construction of the temple with the columns as decorative and supporting elements. In Roman times people began to build round arches that could better conduct the weight of the walls into the foundations. The principle of the vault worked similarly and thus enabled large roofed rooms without columns as a supporting element. In addition, the Roman structures were often built from fired bricks that were held together with mortar. Most of the development of the ancient infrastructure goes back to the Romans . They built numerous cobbled streets and stone bridges to facilitate troop movement and trade. Aqueducts and canals secured the water supply for cities.

Military technology

Corinthian bronze helmet from the 5th century BC BC, typical Greek protective helmet in the phalanx

In Greek times the army consisted of hoplites , heavily armed foot soldiers who fought in several ranks. They were protected by bronze helmets, breastplates, arm and greaves and large wooden round shields . The main weapon was the spear . The soldiers were also armed with iron short swords . They were lined up in several rows. Neighboring soldiers could partially protect each other with the large shields. This battle formation was known as the phalanx .

Cities were protected by walls and towers. Around the 5th century BC The siege towers, known in Mesopotamia since the Bronze Age, and the new catapults were increasingly used. Previously, cities were relatively well protected by their walls and could withstand sieges for a long time. With the new siege engines, they could now also be taken by storm, which Alexander the Great often did.

In Roman times, armor was increasingly made of iron. Ring armor (chain mail) and buckle armor were in use . The shields were now rectangular. A throwing spear ( pilum ), which was thrown at the enemy at the beginning of the fighting, as well as a short sword, the gladius and later a broad sword, the spathe , were used as weapons .

Technical mechanics

The Mechanics was established in Greek times.

Ktesibios built a water organ , an air pump and a water meter and is therefore considered to be the founder of hydraulics . Philo of Byzantium wrote a partially preserved work on these subjects. Heron of Alexandria built the aeolipile , a ball could rotate by steam power. However, like most machines, it was viewed more as a toy; the energy was not used to do work. He also wrote a work on mechanics in which he describes the simple machines: lever , winch , wedge , pulley and screw . Two applications are specified for the latter: In connection with a pin that slides back and forth in the thread, or together with a gear. A screw nut is not mentioned.

The most important mechanic, who was sometimes way ahead of his time, is Archimedes . He is said to have invented the lever balance, the winch with reduction and the Archimedean screw , inventions that were actually used. He first correctly formulated the law of leverage and also established hydrostatics , according to legend, when he checked whether a crown was made of pure gold by determining its water displacement.

The ancient mechanics had successfully laid the foundations of a new science that was only surpassed in modern times. Little was new, however: levers and roles, for example, had been known for a long time, but had not been scientifically analyzed and mathematically described. The great achievement of antiquity lies in the fact that it was able to trace complex machines back to a few and above all simple machines and thereby explain them.

See also

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Helmuth Schneider: The gifts of Prometheus. In: Wolfgang König (ed.): Propylaea history of technology. Volume 1, Propylaen, Berlin 1997, pp. 82-95.
  2. ^ Evi Margaritis, Martin K. Jones: Greek and Roman Agriculture. In: John Peter Oleson (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2008, pp. 158–171.
  3. ↑ Helmuth Schneider: The gifts of Prometheus. In: Wolfgang König (ed.): Propylaea history of technology. Volume 1, Propylaen, Berlin 1997, pp. 110-116.
  4. ^ Paul T. Craddock: Mining and Metallurgy. In: John Peter Oleson (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the classical World. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2008, pp. 94 f., 96-99.
  5. ↑ Helmuth Schneider: The gifts of Prometheus. In: Wolfgang König (ed.): Propylaea history of technology. Volume 1, Propylaeen, Berlin 1997, pp. 98-119.
  6. ^ Paul T. Craddock: Mining and Metallurgy. In: John Peter Oleson (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the classical World. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2008, pp. 102-109.
  7. ↑ Helmuth Schneider: The gifts of Prometheus. In: Wolfgang König (ed.): Propylaea history of technology. Volume 1, Propylaen, Berlin 1997, pp. 131-140.
  8. ↑ Helmuth Schneider: The gifts of Prometheus. In: Wolfgang König (ed.): Propylaea history of technology. Volume 1, Propylaen, Berlin 1997, pp. 141-156, 261-280.
  9. ↑ Lorenzo Quilici: Land Transport, Part 1: Roads and Bridges. In: John Peter Oleson (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the classical World. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2008, pp. 551-576.
  10. ↑ Helmuth Schneider: The gifts of Prometheus. In: Wolfgang König (ed.): Propylaea history of technology. Volume 1, Propylaeen, Berlin 1997, pp. 187-193.
  11. ^ Gwyn Davies: Roman Warfare and Fortification. In: John Peter Oleson (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the classical World. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2008, pp. 695–704.
  12. ^ Fritz Kraft: Technology and Natural Sciences in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. In: Armin Herrmann, Charlotte Schönbeck (Hrsg.): Technology and science. VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1991, pp. 382-385.
  13. ^ Fritz Kraft: Technology and Natural Sciences in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. In: Armin Herrmann, Charlotte Schönbeck (Hrsg.): Technology and science. VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1991, pp. 387-389.
  14. ^ Karl H. Metz: Origins of technology. Schöningh, Paderborn 2006, p. 36.