History of technology
The history of technology is as old as humanity. Fire and the hand ax are among the earliest achievements . After the people at the end of the Stone Age hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal husbandry went over, also began technique of rapid development. Tools and weapons were soon made of bronze , large cities were built from stone buildings , and the wheel facilitated transportation as a cartwheel and the manufacture of ceramics as a potter's wheel .
In Greco-Roman antiquity, iron was used to do this. In addition, one began to investigate the technology and thus found the lever law and developed the pulley block . The late antique water wheels form the transition to the Middle Ages, where they were then supplemented by the windmill to do work. Here agriculture more progress with the wheels made plow , the horseshoe and the horse collar , which increased the usable tensile strength of horses. In the military field, armored knights also used horses and had castles built or fired at by tribocks during sieges .
During the Renaissance, the latter were replaced by cannons and fortresses . This period also falls printing , the discovery of porcelain production, the construction of clocks , microscopes and telescopes and connected to the flourishing of science. In the industrial revolution, spinning and weaving machines emerged that were powered by steam engines, which were heated by hard coal and also enabled railways and steamships .
In the 19th and 20th centuries, sewing machines, film and photography, electricity , plastics, television, computers and aerospace were created.
The article Chronology of Technology contains a table of important milestones in the development and history of technology.
Periodizations in the History of Technology
A look at technical progress leads to specific epochs that are only partially in line with those of political and cultural history . In addition to the Neolithic Revolution and the Industrial Revolution , which - albeit not without controversy - are also seen as turning points in other areas of historical science , the history of technology constitutes further central moments of technical progress. The structure of the history of technology according to forms of energy conversion plays a special role , which was already well received by Conrad Matschoss , one of the founding fathers of the discipline. Nevertheless, the history of technology remained for a long time stuck to the classic epochal division and it required the influence of related subjects such as the sociology of technology and the philosophy of technology to come to its own periodizations .
Lewis Henry Morgan , Leslie White and Gerhard Lenski , who saw technical progress as the most important pacemaker for the development of civilization, were particularly influential . Morgan's concept of three successive stages of social evolution (savages, barbarians, and civilization) correlate with specific technological milestones: fire, bow, and pottery for the savage era, domestication of domestic animals, agriculture, and metalworking in the era of barbarism and alphabet and skill to write for the time of civilization.
For Lesley White, “harnessing and controlling energy ” is the “primary function of culture”. White differentiates between five stages of human development: the first determined by the use of human muscle energy , the second by the use of the energy of domesticated animals, the third by the use of vegetable energy ( Neolithic revolution ). The fourth stage is the use of natural resources such as oil, gas and coal, the fifth is the use of nuclear energy . White introduces the formula P = E * T for this, where E stands for the energy consumed and T for the efficiency of the technology for utilizing the energy. Cultural development is made possible either by increasing the available energy or by increasing efficiency. An extension of the Whiteschen model is the Kardaschow scale developed by Nikolai Kardaschow, which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations .
Lenski's model, on the other hand, focuses on the concept of information : a society is all the more advanced the more information or knowledge (especially about the design of its natural environment) it has. Based on the advances in communication technology , it defines four stages of human development: In the first, information is only passed on via genes , in the second, through the development of consciousness, humans are able to learn through experience and to pass on information. In the third stage people begin to use signs and develop logic , in the fourth stage they develop symbols and thus language and writing . The advances in communication technology have an impact on the economic and political system , the distribution of goods, social differentiation and other spheres of society. The importance of (technical) communication systems for the delimitation of historical and current epochs also plays a central role in the debate about globalization ; For Manuel Castells , the networking and ubiquitous availability of information characterize the information age .
In addition, there are various other technical-historical histories, which show technical progress, especially in techniques of material conversion such as process engineering and the like. a. ( Paulinyi ; Krug ) or the environmental impact ( Radkau ) moor.
The history of technology is increasingly shaped by computer science, which penetrates almost all areas of life. Digitization is causing a fundamental upheaval.
Stone age
The use of simple tools such as stones or sticks has also been proven in some animals. In contrast to animals, however, early ape-men made tools themselves in the Stone Age . Various stone tools are among the earliest - the best known is the hand ax , which was an early universal tool . The fire was the first energy source that was not based on muscle power. In the working processes of the Neolithic people refined their tools: There were saws and axes of stone for working wood, spears , arrow and bow for hunting and needles of bone for sewing leather clothing . As people settled down, they moved from hunting and gathering to farming and ranching in what is known as the Neolithic Revolution . In this way, humans became independent of the natural environment when it came to procuring food. Now they began wool yarns for weaving and textiles to weave and houses to build from dried clay bricks. It was also possible to burn ceramics from clay and thus produce a material artificially for the first time. It was mainly used for containers for storing food.
Bronze age
In the Bronze Age , weapons and tools were forged or cast from the newly discovered bronze . They were clearly superior to those made of stone and thus helped with the emergence of the early advanced civilizations . To do this, the copper ore that came from mining was melted using bellows and furnaces. By adding tin as an alloy, bronze was finally created.
The invention of the wheel is seen as a technological milestone . As a wagon wheel, it facilitated transport and, as a potter's wheel, it facilitated the manufacture of ceramic vessels. Large and heavy objects could only be transported with sailing ships on rivers or across the sea, but also over great distances. This established a brisk trade; in the case of metals, even over greater distances. Labor productivity improved significantly: in agriculture, thanks to the plow pulled by animals, and in textile manufacture, thanks to the loom . The surpluses generated in this way helped to create larger settlements with a social class that no longer had to work physically. These include priests, nobles and administrators.
The early settlements in Mesopotamia became the first cities with representative buildings such as temples and palaces made of hewn natural stone. To protect it from enemies, it was surrounded with city walls. The buildings were built with simple cranes or by pulling large stones up a ramp, which is an application of the inclined plane . There were channels and aqueducts built to provide enough drinking water in the cities and the fields irrigate . An important cultural technique was writing , which made it possible to record knowledge.
Iron age
When it was possible to extract metallic iron from iron ore , it was soon used for weapons and tools, as it has significantly better properties. In the Iron Age , the Greeks and Romans began to deal theoretically with the technology that was already available and thus found the law of levers and developed the pulley block and winch , which simplified the lifting of loads. The first foundations of technical mechanics , pneumatics and hydrostatics were laid. First machines emerged, including the catapult and the Archimedean screw , which for drainage of mines was used. The Greeks built large temples, the roof structures of which were supported by numerous columns . The Romans, on the other hand, were able to use the round arch and the vault to build significantly more stable and therefore larger buildings. They also built numerous roads and bridges that made trade and troop movements easier. Towards the end of antiquity, water wheels were created to irrigate fields and grind grain.
middle Ages
While technology developed rather slowly in antiquity because slave labor was usually cheaper than building machines, technology began to spread and develop faster in the European Middle Ages. The watermills were complemented by the windmill , both of which expanded rapidly. Labor productivity in agriculture improved through the three-field economy , the wheel plow , the horseshoe and the collar that replaced the yoke . This meant that the horse's windpipe was no longer squeezed, which increased the usable tractive force many times over. Thanks to the food surpluses, numerous cities emerged in Europe in the High Middle Ages. Thanks to the stirrup , armored warriors, the knights , were now able to fight on horseback. They also had numerous castles built. The ancient catapult developed into a tribock and the bow was used to create the crossbow . In construction technology, pointed arches , buttresses and ribbed vaults made larger and slimmer buildings possible, as were common in the Gothic period .
Renaissance
One of the most important developments of the Renaissance was the printing of movable type by Johannes Gutenberg . He now allowed books to be produced cheaply and in large quantities, which promoted the spread of knowledge. During the Enlightenment , it was possible to disseminate numerous texts, which also benefited the sciences. Improved measuring instruments such as clocks , microscopes , telescopes , barometers and thermometers were used in the natural sciences , which in turn also used their new knowledge to improve these instruments. In military technology, this enabled gunpowder , rifles and cannons , which made the castles militarily worthless. Instead, forts were built.
Industrial revolution
During the industrial revolution , there was a change to the increasing use of hard coal , for heating residential buildings, as well as for steam boilers and blast furnaces to produce steel . With the steam engine one could now drive machines anywhere and was no longer dependent on natural energy sources such as wind and water. They were used to drive spinning , weaving and machine tools . They could be used in the new factories to produce textiles and machines much faster, more evenly and more precisely. The railroad and steamers significantly improved travel and transport options. Well-known chemicals were now also produced industrially, including sulfuric acid and bleaching powder , which were needed for textile production.
19th century
Electricity began to be used in the 19th century . It all began with telegraphy , which for the first time allowed information to be sent faster than people could travel, as well as the electric motor and generator , which enabled high power to be transmitted quickly over long distances. Therefore, instead of the central steam engines, power plants were built that could supply entire regions with energy, which was used for the electric tram. Photography , film and cinema are used for entertainment and documentation . Public street lights were created; initially with coal gas , but soon electric. In addition, new machines and vehicles were created: the sewing machine , the bicycle , the combustion engine and the first cars . Concrete and plastics were developed as new materials .
20th century
In the first half of the century, the already known petroleum became more important. It was needed to drive various engines and was also used in petrochemicals . Chemical high-pressure syntheses enabled the large-scale industrial production of ammonia , an important chemical raw material . Aluminum and some other metals could now be produced on an industrial scale thanks to electrochemistry . The car became an everyday item thanks to mass production . The energy suppliers expanded their networks, which soon enabled an almost complete supply of electricity and gas. Aircraft were used for passenger transport and military purposes. The phone was developed and now also made it possible to talk to people who were in two distant places. Radio like radio and television allowed mass communication . Music could be recorded on records and tapes , which made sound film possible. In the world wars, tanks , machine guns , fighter planes , bombers , submarines , poison gas and the atomic bomb were used.
The peaceful use of nuclear energy began in the second half of the century . Crude oil and gas became the most important energy sources because they have a significantly higher energy density and thus lower transport costs. In microelectronics , transistors , relays and diodes emerged and made cell phones and computers possible . The latter was also used in industry, for example for CNC machines . The laser found numerous uses: as a measuring device, in CD players or for welding and cutting. The aerospace engineering made great progress. It emerged jet aircraft , missiles , satellites and space stations .
literature
- Armin Hermann, Wilhelm Dettmering (Hrsg.): Technology and culture. Düsseldorf, VDI-Verlag, 1989–1993. (10 volumes)
- Wolfgang König (Hrsg.): Propylaea history of technology. Propylaea, Berlin, 1997. (5 volumes)
- Karl H. Metz: Origins of Technology - The History of Technology in Western Civilization. Schöningh, Paderborn, 2006.
Individual evidence
- ↑ König (Hrsg.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume I, p. 36.
- ↑ König (Ed.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume I, pp. 37–41.
- ↑ Metz: Origins of Technology , 2006, pp. 27–34.
- ↑ König (Hrsg.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume I, pp. 83, 141, 181, 266f.
- ↑ König (Hrsg.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume I, p. 317, 346, 380, 392, 397, Volume II, p. 130, 191.
- ↑ König (Hrsg.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume II, p. 549, 573 Volume III p. 181, 199, 207.
- ↑ Metz: Origins of Technology , 2006, pp. 121, 132, 143, 156, 166.
- ↑ König (Hrsg.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume I, pp. 299, 319, 359, 389, 412, 420 Volume IV, pp. 59, 171.
- ↑ Metz: Origins of Technology , 2006, pp. 230, 234, 242, 247, 347.
- ↑ König (Ed.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume IV, pp. 214, 223, 290, 314, 329, 340, 363, 415, 442,
- ^ Metz: Origins of Technology , 2006, pp. 319, 323, 329, 332, 367.
- ↑ König (Hrsg.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume IV, pp. 387, 427, 449, 492 Volume V pp. 30, 43, 78, 103, 150, 152, 159, 165, 168, 164, 340,
- ^ Metz: Origins of Technology , 2006, pp. 339, 353.
- ↑ König (Ed.): Propylaen Technikgeschichte , 1997. Volume V, pp. 375, 410, 441, 455, 470.