Vertical farming

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Design examples for farm scrapers

Vertical farming (Engl. Vertical farming ) is a concept of future technology that a viable agriculture and mass production plant and animal products in the metropolitan area of cities in multi-story buildings (called Farmscrapers will allow). It is therefore a special form of urban agriculture . Based on circular economy and hydroponics under greenhouse conditions , fruits, vegetables, edible mushrooms and algae are to be produced all year round in building complexes on several superimposed levels. The proponents of vertical agriculture argue that traditional agricultural production should be returned to its natural state of origin, thereby reducing energy costs for transport from producers to consumers . In addition, the circular economy minimizes the greenhouse effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Critics note, however, that additional costs are incurred for artificial lighting and other operational work in vertical agriculture, which levels out the benefits due to the spatial proximity of production and consumption.

background

Dickson Despommier , professor of environmental health and microbiology at Columbia University in New York City, developed the first thoughts on vertical agriculture with his students in 1999. The original idea was to supply 50,000 Manhattan residents with 13 acres (the equivalent of 5.26 hectares ) of crops on roof gardens. His group of students calculated that only about 2% of the 50,000 residents could have been fed with this available space. Unsatisfied with these results, Despommier suggested growing the crops in a vertical arrangement to save space. From this stage the project gained momentum and attracted public interest. In 2001 the first sketch plans of this project were already fully developed and today scientists around the world are working on an interdisciplinary development of this project. In an interview with Miller-McCune.com, Despommier described the main functions of vertical farming as follows:

Basic structure of the flavones

“Each floor will have its own irrigation and nutrient monitoring system. Sensors then measure the nutrient uptake of each individual plant. There will also be systems to monitor the outbreak of plant diseases . DNA chips are designed to measure the presence of phytopathogens by randomly analyzing the ambient air and comparing it with samples from bacterial and viral infections.

In addition, a gas chromatograph provides information about the state of maturity of a plant by measuring the flavonoids and determines the time of harvest . The flavonoid concentrations in tomatoes and peppers also provide information about the flavor composition of the fruit. These are standard technologies that are already available. The possibility of constructing a vertical farm is already there and no major innovations in existing technologies are required. "

The architectural designs come from Chris Jacobs (United Future). Mass media attention was caught by an article by Lisa Chamberlain in New York Magazine and The New York Times , Time Magazine , US News & World Report , Popular Science , Scientific American and Maxim Magazine , among others .

So far, vertical agriculture has only been implemented on a small scale, and there have only been some practical concepts for vertical crop production since 2009, mainly hydroponics.

historical development

Vertical agriculture in the GDR: The " pig tower " near Maasdorf was a socialist prestige object and an attempt to breed pigs efficiently on a small area. (Still in operation today.)

Traditional floor cultivation

The indigenous Amazonian operated before the European colonization floor mounting in the tropical rain forest, wherein up to 30 meters high useful trees (eg. B. Brazil nuts) the top layer formed, shrubs and bushes, the middle and lower level vegetables and root crops such as cassava , sweet potatoes and Yams (see floor extension ).

First tower greenhouses in the 1960s

The pioneer of modern vertical agriculture was the Viennese inventor and mechanical engineer Othmar Ruthner, whose tower greenhouses were built in 1964 for the Vienna International Garden Show ( WIG 64 ) and in 1965 in the research garden of the Bayer plants in Leverkusen.

Further development

Tilapia cichlids in the greenhouse of the US company Growing Power
The VertiCrop system

In 1978 the physicist and systems analyst Cesare Marchetti published the article " 10 12 - A check on the carrying capacity of Earth " and cited the planning of self-sufficient garden cities as an alternative to the food crisis.

Forms of urban agriculture have been operated by the US organization Growing Power since 1993. A special form is "aquaponics" as a symbiotic circulatory system between plants and fish such as tilapia - cichlids . Ammonia in the fish excrement is broken down into bacteria on a bed of gravel under the fish tank into nitrate and other nitrogen compounds. Duckweed plants provide additional biological cleaning. The treated water is used to water lettuce and tomatoes, and the excess water is returned to the fish tank.

In 2000 the Dutch architects MVRDV designed a concept for pig breeding on several levels called Pig City .

In 2003 the Deltapark project in Rotterdam should be implemented. The basic idea for this was the import of feed from overseas, which should be introduced into a circular economy for animal and plant production directly near the port. The project was to be accommodated in a 1000 × 400 meter multi-storey building complex with a wind turbine for energy generation on the roof. The 5th to 7th floors were intended as greenhouses and their waste products for animal production and fattening . On the 4th floor, mushrooms should be grown in the absence of sunlight , on the 1st to 3rd floors pig fattening and intensive chicken rearing . The ground floor was intended for the slaughterhouses and loading stations, here the imported feed should also be transported from the silos to the fattening stables. Fish basins for aquaculture should be created in the basement , with slaughterhouse waste being used as fodder. Pig manure and chicken manure should be processed into organic plant fertilizer and the carbon dioxide exhaled by the animals should be used to enrich the ambient air in the greenhouses. The waste heat from the animals and the biogas obtained from the pig manure should supply the building complex with thermal energy. The realization of the project failed due to the resistance of the population against this form of industrialized agriculture.

At the time of the food crisis in 2007 and 2008, these concepts were revived, as the sharp rise in food prices led to social tensions, especially in developing countries. VertiCrop High Density Vertical Growth Systems is a usage system from Valcent and was successfully introduced in the UK in 2009; There, vegetables are grown on several levels in a system rotating around an axis to save lighting costs and improve ventilation. Vertical hydroponics is offered by Verti-Gro. The city of Masdar in the United Arab Emirates promotes these sustainable concepts and has signed a letter of intent with Dickson Despommiers and his company Vertical Farm Technologies to build a four-story vertical farm.

advantages

Some advantages are cited by Despommier. Many of these advantages come from scaling up the growing conditions in hydroponics or aerocultures. Others refer to vertical agriculture expanding the use of renewable energies (e.g. wind or solar energy) or recycling of waste or optimized water treatment.

Feeding the growing world population

According to estimates, 80% of the world population (approx. 7 billion people) will live in urban agglomerations by 2050. To meet the needs of an additional 3 billion people, the traditional land use procedures would have to be extended to newly developed land. In order to create resources to feed the world population, an additional agricultural area of ​​10 billion hectares is necessary, which would roughly correspond to the size of Brazil . According to various scientists, such an increase is not feasible and would lead to massive environmental damage. Vertical agriculture could remedy this through resource-saving use and circular economy.

Increase in crop production

Inside view of the greenhouse

In contrast to conventional farming methods, vertical farming enables year-round harvests. Plant production independent of the season increases productivity by a factor of 4 to 6, depending on the crop species. In the case of strawberries, this would even be a factor of 30. In addition, the same infrastructure for production is used for consumption at the same time. Long transports or cooling are not required. This results in far less spoilage or losses due to crop failures. Research has shown that up to 30% of the harvested fruit can no longer be used due to spoilage. Despommier suggests the use of dwarf varieties (e.g. dwarf wheat developed by NASA , smaller in size but more nutritious in terms of nutritional composition), year-round crops and “stacker” plants. For a 30-storey building complex on a usable area of ​​2 hectares, similar yields could be achieved as on 970 hectares of outdoor cultivation in traditional arable farming.

Protection against weather-related crop failures

Field crops in outdoor cultivation are often exposed to strong abiogenic factors of a geological and meteorological nature such as drought, frost, heavy precipitation (e.g. monsoons ), earthquakes, hailstorms, tornadoes, forest fires, etc. The protection of crops is becoming more important in the face of global climate change. “Three major floods in the US (1993, 2007 and 2008) resulted in billions in costs of complete crop failures and the loss of fertile topsoil. Serious changes in rainfall patterns and the increase in average temperatures could reduce agricultural production in India by 30% by the end of the century . " Vertical agriculture creates a controlled environment for plant growth and makes production independent of external environmental influences.

Resource conservation

Every hectare of usable area of ​​a vertical farm could enable 10 to 20 hectares to be returned to natural wasteland. Vertical agriculture reduces the need to develop new farmland and conserves natural resources that are threatened by deforestation , desertification , salinisation, nutrient depletion, overexploitation and environmental pollution.

Growing close to the consumer also reduces the consumption of fossil fuels and other energy sources, since activities such as tillage, sowing and harvesting with combine harvesters are no longer necessary. Thus, an essential component for reducing global CO 2 emissions could also be made. Vertical agriculture enables the use of the most locally efficient energy use such as geothermal energy in Iceland , Italy and New Zealand , photovoltaics in the Near and Middle East or wind and water energy in coastal zones. Another advantage would be the treatment of service water and polluted air. Oxygen released by photosynthesis would enhance the environment near a vertical farm.

Low-residue cultivation

Controlled environmental conditions significantly reduce the use of biocides and fertilizers . In plant protection, it is thus possible to work optimally according to the damage threshold concept (regulation of the pathogen / pest population only after a defined limit threshold has been exceeded) and nutrient uptake and release can be controlled very precisely in plant nutrition . Since organic or ecological agriculture is based on a natural, self-regulating approach, soilless cultivation systems, regardless of the measurable residue load, are not compatible with organic or ecological agriculture. If a pest infestation occurs despite the building being closed, it is usually much stronger than in outdoor vegetables, as the harmful organisms also benefit from the idealized environmental conditions and the absence of natural enemies. In these cases, pesticides are used on a not inconsiderable scale in greenhouses.

Closed water cycle

Glasshouse

The water consumption in a closed system is significantly reduced. In New York City , 5.3 billion liters (1.4 billion US gallons ) of treated water is discharged unused into the surrounding rivers every day . Vertical farming would enable the conversion of polluted “black and gray water” into drinking water by capturing the water given off by evapotranspiration . In the cycle of the food chain in a large city, wastewater would be treated and organic waste would be composted. A city's wastewater could be treated by a slurry carb machine by separating hydrocarbons and water. The remaining liquid sludge can be burned in steam power turbines, like coal , and used to generate electrical energy. Another part of the sludge is treated with biocidal chemicals to kill pathogenic bacteria and converted into fertile humus through heat and drying. The wastewater is biologically cleaned by bio-remediation in a first step with reeds , cutting (Cladium) / sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) and zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) and can thus be returned for irrigation. As a result of further treatments, it can also produce drinking water.

Today over 70% of the fresh water is used for plant production and is heavily contaminated by fertilizers and pesticides. By using process water for irrigation, vertical agriculture can help prevent further " algal blooms " and eutrophication processes in natural waters through the removal of nitrogen fertilizers.

Conservation of wild stocks

Withdrawal of human activity could halt the global extinction of species. Agriculture in natural areas has mostly led to a sharp decline in wildlife populations. In cultivated landscapes, too, intensive agriculture leads to a decline in species. Studies show that wood mouse populations drop from 25 individuals per hectare after tillage, fertilization, crop protection and harvesting processes to 10 individuals per hectare. Vertical farming would have little impact on natural wildlife.

Human health

Traditional agriculture poses some health risks for employees, such as B. Infectious diseases, malaria and schistosomiasis ( couple leeches ) or contact with toxic plant protection substances . Also encounters with dangerous wild animals such as poisonous snakes or injuries from accidents with agricultural machinery. In the traditional slash and burn economy, farm workers are exposed to all of these hazards, but not in controlled environments.

Urban growth

Vertical agriculture could promote the expansion of urban agglomerations in an environmentally friendly way, which would thus become largely self-sufficient in their food production. Deforestation in urban areas would thus be eliminated. Other factors are a higher employment rate through the use of agricultural workers in the vertical farms. Conventional agriculture would continue as not all crops are suitable for vertical farming.

Power generation

Proponents argue that vertical farms can generate energy. Methane - biogas plants can be operated from the composting. Biogas, which consists of 65% methane. The biogas obtained in this way can then be converted directly into electricity.

technology

NASA aeroponic culture
Row of tomatoes in hydroponics
Hydroponic tomatoes

Vertical farming requires a variety of technologies to operate effectively and efficiently. The sensible combination and integration of these technologies can realize vertical agriculture. Some of these technologies are still in the development stage. The ones that can already be used are:

Project and Feasibility

Dickson Despommier claims that the technology of running a vertical farm already exists and can be managed profitably and effectively. Developers and local authorities in the following locations have already shown increased interest in vertical farms:

The Illinois Institute of Technology is currently developing plans for Chicago . It was suggested to first develop prototypes and involve larger universities in order to avoid failures such as the Biosphere 2 project in Oracle, Arizona .

Economic Review

The analysis of the economic feasibility of vertical farming has not yet been made. A detailed cost analysis regarding operating processes and procedures, transport , fertilization , plant protection , soil treatment, maintenance, renewable raw materials , recycling , renewable energies and employment factors is necessary in order to compare the various management systems with one another. Additional effort and costs due to lighting, heat generation and energy supply could possibly reduce the advantages of the reduced transport costs. As a result of the multi-storey building, significantly less sunlight can be used than through cultivation. The lighting and energy requirements for year-round production on a vertical farm could be significant. Critics argue that artificial lighting could even become a critical factor if the crops' growth zones are not exposed to natural sunlight. Bruce Bugbee, a plant physiologist from Utah State University, believes that the extremely high energy input of vertical agriculture is too high and uncompetitive when compared to the field of agriculture.

The economic and ecological advantage of vertical agriculture lies clearly in the minimization of transport costs from the producer to the consumer. A more recent study shows that transport only has a minor impact on the socio-economic cost structure of food supply for the urban population. Pierre Desrochers, the author of this study and professor at the University of Toronto, mentions that "food miles" are at best a marketing ploy. At this stage there is too little data to evaluate the theory of the competitiveness of a vertical farm versus traditional arable and horticultural farming.

In contrast, Despommier sticks to his statement that vertical farming is feasible. According to his estimates, using currently feasible technologies, a 30-story vertical farm the size of a block could feed 10,000 people.

Case studies

Delta Park, Rotterdam

The Delta Park should follow ideas of the Dutch Agriculture Minister Laurens Jan Brinkhorst and agricultural technicians January Broeze from the University of Wageningen , a city close to energy-efficient and resource-saving production of vegetables , fruit , meat and fish in an " agricultural factory allow". Meat, fish, eggs (250,000 laying hens, 1,000,000 chicks), vegetables (lightless rooms for chicory and mushrooms ) and fruit should be produced continuously, semi-automatically and regardless of the season . The carbon dioxide given off by the animals' breathing air should enable the biomass growth of crops via ventilation systems. On the mezzanine floors, plans were made to breed locusts and other insects as high-quality protein feed for fattening pigs (300,000 fattening pigs). In order to enable animal-friendly husbandry, open-air terraces were provided for the pigs. The spreading of liquid manure and the associated nitrogen input is still one of the major environmental problems of Dutch intensive agriculture.The liquid manure from the Delta Park should be processed through fermentation processes and either used in its own system in the form of methane as biogas or other energy generation or exported as solid fertilizer . The planners assumed a generation of 600,000 gigajoules. While intensive agriculture should increasingly concentrate in urban areas, large areas could be freed up for renaturation in return. A project was implemented in Oostvaardersplassen , in which red deer, wild horses and wild cattle were released into the wild on a Dutch steppe landscape.

Ernst Ribbe from the Euronatur environmental foundation criticized the fact that cost leadership at Deltapark Rotterdam could only be achieved through factory farming and an increase in concentration. The system is also dependent on feed imports from overseas for animal production, in the other direction there would be a return transport of organically produced manure. In his opinion, the focus should not be on industrializing urban agriculture, but on rural development. Deltapark as an industrialized " agro -production park " with various coordinated production clusters under controlled environmental conditions should be run by managers, not farmers. Thomas Cierpka of the Ifoam (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement) argued that farmers who practice organic farming do their own Production does not want to control nature as a whole. Dutch farmers in particular are under great cost pressure in the EU with a progressive intensification of their production processes and in fierce competition with farmers from Eastern Europe. Ruud Poppe from the Dutch Socialist Party warns that animal production is being used It cannot be compared to the production of a car, but is part of human culture. Thus, the Deltapark project stood in the field of tension between ecology and technology. The Deltapark Rotterdam should be completed in 2010 but was rejected by the public.

The “Greenport” project in Shanghai , which is overseen by landscape ecologist Peter Smeets, is considered the successor to the Delta Park. Wheat, rice and maize are not suitable for urban production and will continue to be produced using field management methods.

Casablanca

Another case study in Casablanca , Morocco , was examined in 2007 by a working group from the University of Hohenheim . Special attention was paid to the resulting synergies between urban and rural agriculture. Due to its special climatic conditions, such as highly variable, continuously decreasing rainfall and rising air temperatures, Casablanca was chosen as a fast growing urban agglomeration with 3.5 million inhabitants. The main topics include energy efficiency and climate-optimized agricultural use of small-scale horticulture of tomatoes , strawberries and aubergines . The water supply from the Atlas Mountains is limited and a large part of the water is lost as heavily polluted sewage. Local cycles should use the water as efficiently as possible for irrigation of fruit and vegetables.

New developments

John Hantz, an investor in the Hantz Group, plans to convert brownfield sites into agricultural land in 2010, with broad approval from local government in Detroit after the economic crisis. This would create a number of new jobs in all sectors and enable the production of cheap and healthy vegetables. Large US food manufacturers such as Coca-Cola , Kraft Foods and McDonald’s, but also European companies such as Unilever , Groupe Danone and Nestlé have joined forces to form the Platform SAI (Sustainable Agricultural Initiative) to develop case studies for the implementation of urban farming.

In the Swedish city of Linköping , the Plantagon company is planning to build a 50 m high greenhouse with the local energy supplier Tekniska Verken and the municipality. The waste heat from a waste incineration plant and a biogas plant from Tekniska Verken is to be used and, conversely, the waste from the vegetable cultivation is used in the biogas plant. The groundbreaking should take place in March 2012, completion was scheduled for 2014. In 2017, however, the project did not get beyond the project description on the Internet.

As of January 2020, a joint project between the Migros Basel cooperative and Growcer is under construction in Basel .

Articles and publications

  • Design examples of vertical farms have for example been developed by the Graduate School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , the Zabeel Park Vertical Farm, the Harvest Green Project, the Pyramid Farm and a few others.
  • Ideas and innovations for the Third Green Revolution by Dickson Despommier
  • Interview with Dickson Despommier
  • Interview with Dickson Despommier from 2009 about the development of modern large cities
  • Large scale urban agriculture
  • Animation of how a vertical farm works
  • Article by designer Chris Jacobs of United Future about vertical farm designs
  • CNN Money article on vertical farming
  • Columbia Daily Tribune article on vertical farming
  • Eco Tower "Tour Vivante"
  • BBC article on urban agriculture in New York City
  • another article on vertical farming in New York City
  • Article about the SkyFarm project in Toronto
  • Numerous graphical article about vertical farms from 2004
  • Article about vertical farm technologies as one of the 50 best innovations of 2009
  • Cityfarmer's Canadian office website
  • DataBridge Canadian office website

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Nelson, B. (2008). Could vertical farming be the future? MSNBC.
  2. ↑ Arnie Cooper: Going up? Farming in High Rises Raises Hopes. In: miller-mccune.com. May 19, 2009, archived from the original on May 22, 2009 ; accessed on January 27, 2015 .
  3. ^ Bina Venkataraman: Country, the City Version: Farms in the Sky Gain New Interest , New York Times. July 15, 2008. 
  4. ^ Bryan Walsh: Vertical Farming. In: time.com. December 11, 2008, accessed January 27, 2015 .
  5. ^ Nancy Shute: Farm of the Future? Someday food may grow in skyscrapers , US News & World Report . May 20, 2007. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008 Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Retrieved August 12, 2008. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / health.usnews.com 
  6. ^ Amy Feldman: Skyscraper Farms , Popular Science . July 11, 2007. 
  7. ↑ a b c d e f Dickson Despommier : The Rise of Vertical Farms . In: Scientific American Inc. (Ed.): Scientific American . 301, No. 5, New York, November 2009, ISSN  0036-8733 , pp. 60-67.
  8. ↑ verticalfarm.com
  9. ↑ a b Gábor Paál . Internet version: Ulrike Barwanietz: Food also grows on the roof. swr.de, May 3, 2013, accessed on April 10, 2014 ( picture of the tower greenhouse near Bayer in Leverkusen ).
  10. ↑ Press release: WIG 64. The green post-war modernity. (PDF) Wien Museum , accessed on April 10, 2014 ( picture of the tower greenhouse on WIG 64 ).
  11. ↑ Primroses in the paternoster. In: Der Spiegel  26/1965. June 23, 1965, accessed April 10, 2014 .
  12. ^ C. Marchetti: Ten to the Twelfth. A check on the carrying capacity of Earth (PDF; 361 kB), 1979.
  13. ↑ growingpower.org
  14. ↑ page at MVRDV
  15. ↑ euronatur.org ( Memento of the original from January 4, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 3.4 MB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.euronatur.org
  16. ↑ valcent.net ( Memento of the original from January 16, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.valcent.net
  17. ^ Vertical crop system is piloted , BBC News , September 29, 2009.
  18. ↑ vertigro.com
  19. ↑ masdaruae.com
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  21. ^ The Farmer in the High-Rise, Plenty Magazine in Vertical farming: Food for the future - MNN - Mother Nature Network. In: mnn.com. Retrieved January 27, 2015 .
  22. ↑ D. Despommier: Vertical Farm Essay I . Vertical farm. 2008. Archived from the original on July 18, 2009. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved June 26, 2009. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.verticalfarm.com
  23. ^ Vertical Farm Video . Discovery Channel. 2009-23-23. Archived from the original on May 10, 2009. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved June 26, 2009. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / watch.discoverychannel.ca
  24. ↑ Dwarf Wheat grown aboard the International Space Station . NASA. February 9, 2003. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
  25. ↑ a b c D. Despommier: Vertical Farm I essay . Vertical farm. 2008. Archived from the original on July 1, 2009. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved June 26, 2009. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.verticalfarm.com
  26. ↑ Michael Pollan. September 9, 2009. “Big Food vs. Big Insurance. " nytimes.com
  27. ^ A Farm on Every Floor , The New York Times, Aug. 23, 2009.
  28. ↑ Ciel S Cantoria. June 17, 2009. "Vertical farming- Providing Alternative Resources for Food Production." brighthub.com
  29. ↑ enertech.com ( Memento of the original from June 18, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.enertech.com
  30. ↑ Ciel S Cantoria. June 17, 2009. "Vertical farming- Providing Alternative Resources for Food Production." brighthub.com
  31. ↑ SL Davis: The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet . In: Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics . 2001, pp. 449-450.
  32. ^ SL Davis (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet". Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp. 449-450.
  33. ^ H. Scott Matthews: Case Study - Landfill Power Generation. ( Memento of the original from December 3, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Green Design Initiative, Carnegie Mellon University. (PDF; 86 kB) Accessed February 7, 2009. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / gdi.ce.cmu.edu
  34. ↑ Dickson Despommier: Growing Skyscrapers: The Rise of Vertical Farms. In: scientificamerican.com from November 2009
  35. ↑ crop success rate cannot be translated 1: 1
  36. ↑ Nelson, B. (2008). Could vertical farming be the future? MSNBC.
  37. ↑ Roach, J. (June 30, 2009). High-Rise Farms: The Future of Food ?. National Geographic News .
  38. ↑ food miles
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  41. ↑ http://www.konsumwende.de/Dokumente/DGH-Tagung2002.pdf
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  50. ↑ saiplatform.org
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  68. ↑ Time Magazine Names Valcent's Vertical Farming Technology as one of the Top 50 Best Innovations of 2009 ( Memento from July 9, 2012 in the web archive archive.today )
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Web links