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==Geography and climate==
==Geography and climate==
{{main|Geography of Lebanon}}
{{main|Geography of Lebanon}}
[[Image:Satellite image of Lebanon in March 2001.jpg|thumb|Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the [[Lebanon Mountains|western]] and [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains|eastern]] mountain ranges]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Lebanon in March 2002.jpg|thumb|Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the [[Lebanon Mountains|western]] and [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains|eastern]] mountain ranges]]


Lebanon is located in the [[Middle East]]. It is bordered by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west along a 225&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] coastline, by [[Syria]] to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for {{km to mi|375|precision=0}} and the Lebanon-Israel border for {{km to mi|79|precision=0}}. The border with the Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]] in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called [[Shebaa Farms]], but the border has been demarcated by the [[United Nations]]<ref>Telegraph (2000). [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2000/06/19/wleb19.xml "Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement"]. Retrieved [[November 1]], [[2006]].</ref> (see [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|Blue Line]]).
Lebanon is located in the [[Middle East]]. It is bordered by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west along a 225&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] coastline, by [[Syria]] to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for {{km to mi|375|precision=0}} and the Lebanon-Israel border for {{km to mi|79|precision=0}}. The border with the Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]] in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called [[Shebaa Farms]], but the border has been demarcated by the [[United Nations]]<ref>Telegraph (2000). [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2000/06/19/wleb19.xml "Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement"]. Retrieved [[November 1]], [[2006]].</ref> (see [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|Blue Line]]).

Revision as of 07:29, 14 November 2007

الجمهورية اللبنانية
La République Libanaise
Al-Jumhūriyyah al-Lubnāniyyah
Lebanese Republic
Motto: Kūllūnā li-l-waṭan, li-l-'ula wa-l-'alam  (Arabic)
"Nous sommes tous pour le pays, la sublimation et le drapeau!"  (French)

"We are all for the Country, the Sublime and the Flag!"
Anthem: Kulluna lil-watan lil 'ula lil-'alam
Location of Lebanon
Capital
and largest city
 Beirut
Official languagesArabic, French
Demonym(s)Lebanese
GovernmentRepublic
• President
Émile Lahoud
Fouad Siniora
Independence from France
• Declared
November 26, 1941
• Recognized
November 22, 1943
Area
• Total
10,452 km2 (4,036 sq mi) (166th)
• Water (%)
1.6
Population
• July 2007 estimate
4,099,000 (128th)
• Density
358/km2 (927.2/sq mi) (26th)
GDP (PPP)2006 estimate
• Total
$21.45 billion (103rd)
• Per capita
$6,100 (90th)
HDI (2006)Increase 0.774
Error: Invalid HDI value (78th)
CurrencyLebanese lira (LL) (LBP)
Time zoneUTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (EEST)
Calling code961
ISO 3166 codeLB
Internet TLD.lb
For other uses, see Lebanon (disambiguation).

Lebanon (/ˈlɛbənɒn/) (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān) (French: Liban), officially the Lebanese Republic (الجمهورية اللبنانية) ( La République Libanaise), is a small, beautiful and largely mountainous country located in the Middle East, at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon follows a special political system, known as confessionalism, meant to distribute power as evenly as possible among different sects.[1]

The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This, and the very name of the country itself, are in reference to the verses of the Old Testament (mostly in Psalms) that speak of "Arzei HaL'vanon," or "Cedars of Lebanon."

Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy.[2] It is considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East"[3][4] due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists,[5] to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."[6]

Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[7] By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[8] and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts.[5] Meanwhile, Hezbollah, the Shiite Islamic paramilitary organization, had established a firm foothold in Southern Lebanon and was conducting attacks on Israel without the consent of the Beirut government. The 2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah brought mounting civilian and military casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement from July 12, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006.

Etymology

Faraya, Mount Lebanon. Taken by Youmna Medlej.

The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnan" or "Lebnèn" in local dialect) is derived from the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as white and milk.[9] This is regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.[10] Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 bc), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 bc), and the Bible.[10] The word Lebanon is also mentioned 71 times in the Old Testament.[11][12] The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r and l were interchangeable.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Lebanon
Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges

Lebanon is located in the Middle East. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for Template:Km to mi and the Lebanon-Israel border for Template:Km to mi. The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations[13] (see Blue Line).

Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain,[14] except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture.

Lebanon has moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below 0 °C (32 °F) during the winter with frequent (sometimes heavy) snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.[15] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.[16]

In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem.[17] However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.[17]

Governorates and districts

See also: Governorates of Lebanon and Districts of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[18] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Beirut Governorate

The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut.

Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts
Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts
Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts

Demographics and religion

Main article: Demographics of Lebanon

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance.[19] It is estimated that about 59% are Muslims (Sunni, Shia, Druze, and Alawites) and 39% are Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite Greek Catholics, Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic).[20] Lebanon has a population of Kurds (also known as Mhallami or Mardinli). The numbers per religion vary from time to time, but mostly the Shias are the majority among the Muslims and the Maronites among the Christians. According to statistics, the distribution of sects in Lebanon measures as follows: Christians (all sects) 37%, Shias 34%, Sunnis 20%, Druze 7%, others 2%.

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006.[20] There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, Brazil having the largest Lebanese community abroad.[21] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities.

A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (unrwa) since 1948.[22]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Lebanon

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[23] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[24] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arab countries.[25]

Agriculture

Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world.[26] Ironically though, Lebanon does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,[27] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Most of the plants that are grown include: apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[28]

Industry

Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[27] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[28]

Services and commerce

The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage Site

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)[27] have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[28]

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, since this renders the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

Historical development

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Southwest Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[20] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[29]

Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.[30] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon has already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.[30] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Beirut airport (Rafiq Hariri International Airport) re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged),[31] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[32] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[33]

Education

All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,[34] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are Mathematics, Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Arabic, and French, English or both. Other rotating teachers within the school teach Physical Education, Art, and at times library use. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between three "concentrations": Sciences, Humanities or economy, and 12th graders choice between four concentrations: Life Sciences (SV), General Sciences (SG), Sociology and Economics (SE), and Humanities and Literature (LH). The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

  • Elementary : Five years.
  • Intermediate: Four years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
  • Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade.

These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory.[35] Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Higher education

Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies.

While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad; You can find successful Lebanese engineers, doctors, businessmen, etc. practically all over the world.

Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.[36][37] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon respectively.[38][39] The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.[40]

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II.

There are several prestigious universities in Lebanon, including the Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, the Université Saint-Joseph, and the Lebanese American University. In addition, some students choose to study abroad. The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005.[41]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Lebanon

Lebanese nationals, particularly some Christians, tend to emphasize aspects of Lebanon's non-Arab history as a mark of respect to encompass all of Lebanon's historical makeup instead of only that which began during the Arab conquests. In this respect, it would be wrong to dismiss Lebanon's mosaic culture as only Arabic when it is clear that it is a blend of indigenous and invading or foreign cultures that have given it the title of the crossroads between east and west for centuries. Over the centuries, Maronites formed a bond with the Pope and in the French period Maronites eagerly took part in France's mission civilisatrice. There is also an old Maronite standard, dating from the early 19th century writings of Tannus al Shidyaq, that the Maronites are the direct descendants of the Phoenicians. In the 1920s Michel Chiha expanded this idea of Phoenicianness.

In a concession to Lebanon's Eastern and Western heritage, some Lebanese prefer to see Lebanon as part of "Mediterranean" or "Levantine" civilization, neither Arab nor European.

The non Arabness only applies to small segments of the culture. Everyone born and raised in Lebanon communicates using Arabic in a Lebanese dialect. This applies to its Islamic, Christian, Druze, and other religious practices. Some words in use are Turkish remnants of the Ottoman rule (until WWI). Some chanting in a few churches and on Easter and Christmas holidays is performed in Syriac , but this is a largely dying practice. Some minorities like Kurds and Armenians use their own languages in everyday speak and cultural interactions. These minorities are estimated at around 2-3%. Language, food, music, arts and various cultural facets are local Lebanese and performed practically all in Arabic. The youth today are quite westernized and "modernized" breaking away with traditions like most other larger cities in the world (dating, western music, food, etc.) Compared to other Arab cities, Lebanese cities (especially Beirut) are more westernized and tolerant, and overt towards men-women relations than most Arab cities, like Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad...

Food and music overlap greatly with those of Egypt, Greece, Syria, Palestine and Turkey (all were Ottoman provinces for 400 years.) While dress was historically similar to the Turks, today the Lebanese dress quite similarly to western countries.

Overview

Phoenicia and its colonies.
The Triumphal Arch in Tyre.

The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine - and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Middle East, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate.[42] Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as the European gateway to the Middle East as well as the Arab gateway to the Western World.[43]

Language

Lebanon's official languages are Arabic and French. Armenian, and English are also widely spoken and understood. Many Lebanese are at least trilingual. Many Lebanese speak a patois of some combination of these four languages—most commonly an Arabic-French mixture—which can be very difficult for other Arab speakers to understand.

The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic, differing greatly from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Turkish, and the Syriac dialect of Aramaic.

Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own.

Due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic. Many of Lebanon's best educational institutions offer primary instruction in French, or English depending on whether the school, university, or college follows the French or American education systems. These have strict rules that the students are taught in the language of the school's origin.

In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic. The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. In some places French still is preferred to Arabic, and English has been making significant headway in the past 15-20 years. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic in public is omnipresent, not merely commonplace.

Cuisine

Main article: Lebanese Cuisine

The Lebanese Cuisine is considered to be a Mediterranean basically Levantine Arabic delicacy consisting of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes, salads and stews all seasoned with a flavorsome combination of herbs and spices. One of the most world known Lebanese specialties is called the Maza, also written "Mezze", which is a selection of appetisers: olives, cheeses, Labanee, or small portions also known as muqabbilat (Arabic for starters).

As with most Mediterranean cuisines, Lebanese cuisine is considered to be a very balanced, healthy diet.

The cuisine of Lebanon is the epitome of the Mediterranean diet. It includes an abundance of starches, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and seafood; animal fats are consumed sparingly. Poultry is eaten more often than red meat, and when red meat is eaten it is usually lamb. It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil-nary a meal goes by in Lebanon that does not include these two ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked or sauted in olive oil; butter or cream is rarely used other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled as well as cooked. While the cuisine of Lebanon doesn't boast an entire repertoire of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices and the freshness of ingredients; the assortment of dishes and combinations are almost limitless. The meals are full of robust, earthy flavors and, like most Mediterranean countries, much of what the Lebanese eat is dictated by the seasons.

Creative Arts

Main article: Music of Lebanon

Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms. Perhaps the best-known and listened to Lebanese singer is Fairuz. Her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other artists are also well known and loved like Majida El Roumi, Marcel Khalife who is also a composer, oud player, and Julia Boutros.

Some Lebanese artists like Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'Jabali' (from the mountains), while many other artists incorporate western style into their songs. Lebanese artists are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world alongside Egyptian performers, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi.

The openness of the Lebanese, previously cited, allows a perfect tolerance for foreign or western music too . One could easily experience any kind of music in downtown Beirut or peripherals; for example: rock fans could visit "Nova" pub ; for blues and jazz fans , "the blue note" ; techno and trance fans , "basement" and " B.O. 18" .... Lebanese artist and Lebanese music is sometimes influenced by foreign music too ... For instance , "Lebanese rock" (Ghassan rahbani) or "Lebanese rap"(Aaks El seir")

Sports

Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In fact, in fall and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in both in one day, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon.

Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling.

In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country.

At the competitive level, basketball, football are among Lebanon's most popular sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic facilities, which in turn encourage local sporting activities. Lebanon sends athletes to both the winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special Olympics.

Lebanon has a national rugby league team that competed in the 2000 World Cup but was knocked out in the group stage. They are currently in the process of qualifying for the 2008 World Cup. They are due to meet Samoa in the repechage final with the winner to qualify. The national team also competes in the annual Mediterranean Cup where it has been quite successful. The Lebanese Rugby League has its headquarters in Biakout in Lebanon. They are associate members of the Rugby League European Federation and run a domestic competition comprising five clubs, who play in two seasons a year - spring and winter.

The most famous Lebanese rugby league player is Hazem El Masri who currently plays in Australia with the National Rugby League and holds the point scoring record in a season.

FSUL Lebanese Federation Of University Sport http://www.fsuliban.com.

The Lebanese national soccer team has progressed past the first round of qualifying for the FIFA World Cup 2010 by eliminating India, 6-3 on aggregate.

The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing.

Arts and literature

Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek.

In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.[44]

Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh.

In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut.

Among the best-known Lebanese musicians are the singer Fairuz and her son Ziad Rahbani, Majida El Roumi, Sabbah, Wadih El Safi, Nasre Shams El-Din, and oud player Marcel Khalife.

Festivals

Beiteddine Palace, the venue of Beiteddine Festival.

Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, and Byblos International Festival. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.

Politics

Politics of Lebanon

Arab League Member State of the Arab League

Constitution
Human rights
Executive
Legislature
Subdivisions
Elections
Foreign relations

flag Lebanon portal

Main article: Politics of Lebanon

Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.[45] This system, meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim.[46][47]

The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'Étoile

This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided proportionally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[46] According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right.

The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years.[48] This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.[49]

The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding).[50] Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.

The Grand Serail, the government headquarters in downtown Beirut

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.[51] These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".[52]

After Rafic Hariri's assasination on the 14th of February 2005, the country has seen turbulant politcal times, and it shaped the Cedar Revolution and the rise of the March 14 alliance which is made of : Lebanese Forces, Future Movement and the PSP.

History

Main article: History of Lebanon
History of the Levant
Prehistory
Ancient history
Classical antiquity
Middle Ages
Modern history
Sarcophagus of Ahiram, king of Byblos, now in the National Museum of Beirut
Inscription in Greek on one of the tombs found in the Roman-Byzantine necropolis in Tyre

Ancient history

Main article: History of ancient Lebanon

The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world,[53] remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[4]

Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[54] After two centuries of Persian rule, Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the leading Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Greco-Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.

French mandate and independence

Main article: French Mandate of Lebanon

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria,[55] until 1916 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria.[56] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.[57] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

The flag of Greater Lebanon (1920-1943)

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.

1948 Arab-Israeli war

Main article: 1948 Arab-Israeli war

Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and invaded Israel[58] during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State.[58] After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram,[59] Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel on the land of Palestine and the subsequent war.[60] The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.

Civil war and beyond

Main article: Lebanese civil war
See also: 1982 Lebanon war

In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed.[61] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[62]

During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982[63], the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence.[64] The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.[65]

Recent history

Cedar Revolution

Main article: Cedar Revolution

Assassinations

On February 14, 2005 former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.[66] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack,[67] due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Syria denied any involvement.[67] Others, namely the Forces of March 8 and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American CIA or the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.[68] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.

Investigation and proposed UN tribunal

The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.[69] The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report.[70] The report suggested the assassination was carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s movements.[71]

This investigation into the Hariri assassination is ongoing and has yet to be concluded. On January 17, 2006 the UN appointed Serge Brammertz to continue the investigation;[72] several reports of his investigation have been published albeit with no conclusive results.

The United Nations Security Council and the Lebanese cabinet have approved a Special Tribunal for Lebanon that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's death. Under UNSCR Resolution 1757, the tribunal is now in the process of being established.[73]

Demonstrations

On February 28, 2005, with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned.[74] In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of people,[75][76] which was staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.

On March 14, 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around 1 million people.[75][77] Protesters marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.

In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut.[78] Although the damage was mostly material, these acts threatened to drag Lebanon back into sectarian strife.

Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.[79] By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.[80] On April 27, 2005, anti-Syrian Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji and Lebanese Brig. Gen. Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1559.[81]

Elections

During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament.[82] The Free Patriotic Movement (FPM), though not allied with the Rafik Hariri Martyr List during the elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.[83]

The political alliances were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and in others with Amal. They did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Despite being staunchly anti-Syrian during his 15-year exile, upon his return Aoun aligned himself with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Their alliance dominated the north and the Matn District of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Jumblatt joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Beqaa, as well as the Baabda and Aley districts of Mount Lebanon. This alliance proved temporary. On February 6, 2006 Hezbollah signed an understanding of disarmament with Michel Aoun, the leader of the Free Patriotic Movement.

After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister.[84] His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament.

On July 18, 2005, Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, leader of the Christian Lebanese Forces,[85] who had spent most of the past eleven years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news.[86] The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Émile Lahoud the next day.[87]

2006 Lebanon War

Main article: 2006 Lebanon War

On July 12, 2006 Hezbollah attacked the Israeli patrol, killed 3 soldiers, and captured two. The goal of capturing the soldiers was to exchange them later for prisoners held by Israel. This operation sparked a military response against Hezbollah targets. The fighting quickly escalated into 33 days of "open war" and ultimately led to the death of 1,191 Lebanese civilians and 44 Israeli civilians . During this war, Israel destroyed much of Lebanon's infrastructure including bridges, Rafik Hariri Beirut International airport, factories, roads, Beirut Port and whole blocks in the Southern Suburbs of Beirut as well as whole villages in the South of Lebanon.[88][89][90] Over the course of the war 4,409 Lebanese were injured and nearly a million were displaced in southern Lebanon[89], while at least 300,000 were displaced in northern Israel.[89][91]

Fighting came to end on August 14, three days after UN Security Council Resolution 1701—which called for an immediate cessation of hostilities—was passed.[92] Israel, however, maintained a naval and aerial blockade on Lebanon in a measure meant to prevent Hezbollah from smuggling arms.[93] The blockade was lifted on September 8, and by early December, all Israeli troops had withdrawn from Lebanon.[94]

See also

Articles about recent events
Miscellaneous


Pictures

Pictures of Lebanon

Footnotes

  1. ^ Countries Quest. "Lebanon, Government". Retrieved December 14, 2006.
  2. ^ U.S. Department of State. "Background Note: Lebanon (History) August 2005" Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  3. ^ USPG. "Anglican Church in Jerusalem responds to the Middle East crisis". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  4. ^ Socialist Party (2005). "A new crisis in the Middle East?". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  5. ^ a b Anna Johnson (2006). "Lebanon: Tourism Depends on Stability". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  6. ^ TC Online (2002). "Paris of the Middle East". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  7. ^ Canadian International Development Agency. "Lebanon: Country Profile". Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  8. ^ Center for the Study of the Built Environment. "Deconstructing Beirut's Reconstruction: 1990-2000". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  9. ^ Joumana Medlej. "The Mountain". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  10. ^ a b Antoine Harb (2004). "Lebanon: A Name through 4000 Years". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  11. ^ Christian World News. "Lebanon Historically Linked to the Bible". Retrieved February 21, 2007.
  12. ^ Roger Yazbeck. "Lebanon was mentioned 71 times in the Holy Bible...". Retrieved February 21, 2007.
  13. ^ Telegraph (2000). "Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  14. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Lebanon". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  15. ^ (Bonechi et al.) (2004) Golden Book Lebanon, p. 3, Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 88-476-1489-9
  16. ^ Country Studies US. "Lebanon - Climate". Retrieved November 5, 2006.
  17. ^ a b Blue Planet Biomes. "Lebanon Cedar - Cedrus libani". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  18. ^ USAID Lebanon. "USAID Lebanon—Definitions of Terms used". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  19. ^ Country Studies. "Lebanon Population". Retrieved November 25, 2006.
  20. ^ a b c CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 7, 2006.
  21. ^ Marina Sarruf (2006). "Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon". Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  22. ^ UNRWA (December 31, 2003). "UNRWA: Palestinian Refugees". Retrieved November 25, 2006.
  23. ^ U.S. Department of State (1994) Header: People, 4th paragraph. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  24. ^ Background Note: Lebanon "www.washingtoninstitute.org" Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  25. ^ United Nations Population Fund."Lebanon - Overview". Retrieved November 9, 2006.
  26. ^ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, U.S.A. 1986-1988. [1]. Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  27. ^ a b c Jean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11, 110-114. Beirut: Dar Habib.
  28. ^ a b c US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  29. ^ CIA World Factbook 2001. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  30. ^ a b Bank Audi (2006). "Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd Quarter, 2006". Retrieved November 27, 2005.
  31. ^ Cyprus News (2006). "Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon's Reconstruction". Retrieved November 26, 2006.
  32. ^ Lebanon Under Siege (2006). "Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon". Retrieved November 26, 2006.
  33. ^ Ain-Al-Yaqeen (2006). "The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon...". Retrieved November 27, 2006.
  34. ^ Samidoun (2006). "Aid groups scramble to fix buildings, fill backpacks before school bell rings". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  35. ^ US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  36. ^ Infopro Management. "Lebanon Opportunities - Business Information". Retrieved January 30, 2007.
  37. ^ Template:Ar iconLebanese Directory of Higher Education. "Decrees". Retrieved January 30, 2007.
  38. ^ eIFL.net Regional Workshop (2005). "Country Report: Lebanon". Retrieved December 14, 2006.
  39. ^ Université Saint-Joseph. "125 years of history - A timeline". Retrieved December 8, 2006.
  40. ^ Yalla!. "Yalla! Students". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  41. ^ "Human development indicators" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
  42. ^ Lebanon CIA World Fact Book. [2]. December 18, 2006.
  43. ^ Lebanon Culture. [3]. December 18, 2006.
  44. ^ The Hindu (January 5, 2003). "Called by life";. Retrieved January 8, 2007.
  45. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2002). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002: Lebanon". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  46. ^ a b United States Institute of Peace (March 2006). "Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  47. ^ Marie-Joëlle Zahar. "CHAPTER 9 POWER SHARING IN LEBANON: FOREIGN PROTECTORS, DOMESTIC PEACE, AND DEMOCRATIC FAILURE1". (DOC) Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  48. ^ Middle East Intelligence Bulletin (2004). "The US and France Tip the Scale in Lebanon's Power Struggle". Retrieved January 6, 2007.
  49. ^ New Age International (November 6, 2006). "Lebanon leaders head for talks amid street protest threats". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  50. ^ Lebanon2000.com. "Factbook - Lebanon". Retrieved January 3, 2006.
  51. ^ US Department of State (2006). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005: Lebanon". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  52. ^ Amnesty International (2005). "A Human Rights Agenda for the Parliamentary Elections, Lebanon". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  53. ^ "Byblos". Retrieved July 31, 2007.
  54. ^ About.com (1987)."Lebanon in Ancient Times". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  55. ^ U.S. Library of Congress. "History: Present-Day Syria". Retrieved May 2, 2007.
  56. ^ Chorbishop Seely Beggiani (2005). "Aspects of Maronite History (Part Eleven) The twentieth century in the Middle East". Retrieved January 24, 2007.
  57. ^ Lebanese Global Information Center. "History of Lebanon". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  58. ^ a b Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763721, p. 27
  59. ^ Avi Shlaim. "Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  60. ^ Amnesty International. "Palestinian refugees in Lebanon". Retrieved November 14, 2006.
  61. ^ Time (1991). "After the War, the Mop-Up". Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  62. ^ Council on Foreign Relations (2006). "The Future of Lebanon". Retrieved December 18, 2006.
  63. ^ People's Daily (2000). "Lebanese Troops Patrol Near Fatma Gate Along Border With Israel". Retrieved December 18, 2006.
  64. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000)."Withdrawal from Lebanon: Press Briefing by Foreign Minister David Levy". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  65. ^ The key to Shebaa, Al-Jazeera online, Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  66. ^ Hariri.info (2005). "Rafik Hariri". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  67. ^ a b CBC News Indepth (2006). "Recent background on Syria's presence in Lebanon". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  68. ^ See this MEMRI bulletin, includes several statements and sources.
  69. ^ "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005)".
  70. ^ United Nations Security Council (2005). "Letter dated 20 October 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council". Retrieved November 2, 2006.
  71. ^ Al Bab (2005). "The Mehlis report, 2005: full text". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  72. ^ FPS Foreign Affairs (2006). "Serge Brammertz appointed head of the UN International Independent Investigation Commission". Retrieved December 11; 2006.
  73. ^ Middle East Desk (May 30, 2007). "UN passes resolution 1757 to establish Hariri tribunal". Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  74. ^ CNN (2005). "Lebanon's pro-Syrian PM resigns". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  75. ^ a b A great deal of controversy surrounds the exact numbers of the participants in the March 2005 demonstrations; reported numbers thus vary widely by source.
  76. ^ The Washington Post (2005). "Syria Supporters Rally in Lebanon". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  77. ^ FOX News (2005). "Up to One Million Lebanese Protesters Mark Hariri Killing". Retrieved November 2, 2006.
  78. ^ BBC News (2005). "Bomb hits Beirut's Christian area". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  79. ^ BBC News (2005). "Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  80. ^ CNN (2005). "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  81. ^ Guardian Unlimited (2005). "Ceremony marks departure of last Syrian troops". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  82. ^ The Jerusalem Post (2005). "Opposition sweeps Lebanon's elections". Retrieved December 12, 2006.
  83. ^ International Herald Tribune (2005). "Aoun scores upset win in Lebanese elections". Retrieved December 12, 2006.
  84. ^ BBC News (2005). "Profile: Fouad Siniora". Retrieved December 21, 2006.
  85. ^ BBC News. "Lebanese ex-warlord is released". Retrieved December 21, 2006.
  86. ^ MSNBC (July 26, 2005). "Lebanon ex-warlord freed after 11 years". Retrieved December 21, 2006.
  87. ^ Iran Daily (2005). "Geagea Free". Retrieved December 21, 2006.
  88. ^ "Israel, Hezbollah Vow Wider War". The Washington Post.
  89. ^ a b c Lebanon Under Siege. "Home Page". Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  90. ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2006). "The year that was in the Middle East". Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  91. ^ Paul Rogers (August 17, 2006). "A Phoenix from Lebanon's Ruins". Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  92. ^ CNN (2006). "Lebanon truce holds despite clashes". Retrieved December 7, 2006.
  93. ^ New York Times (September 9, 2006). "Israel Ends Its Blockade of Lebanon’s Coastline". Retrieved January 25, 2007.
  94. ^ Reuters (December 3, 2006). "Israel to quit Lebanon border village -officials". Retrieved December 3, 2006.

Book References

  • Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002.
  • Firzli, Nicola Y. Al-Baath wa-Lubnân [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973
  • Hitti Philip K. History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2 (2002) (ISBN 1-931956-61-8)
  • Holst, Sanford. Phoenicians: Lebanon's Epic Heritage. Los Angeles: Cambridge and Boston Press, 2005.
  • Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987.
  • Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

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